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49
POSITION OF WOMEN IN KERALA IN 1956
Throughout history, most societies have held women in an
inferior status compared to that of men. Women's status was often
justified as being the natural result of biological differences between
the sexes. In many societies, for example, people believed women to
be naturally more emotional and less decisive than men. Women
were also held to be less intelligent and less creative by nature.
However, research shows that women and men have the same range
of emotional, intellectual and creative characteristics. Many
sociologists and anthropologists maintain that various cultures have
taught girls to behave according to negative stereotypes (images) of
femininity, thus keeping alive the idea that women are naturally
inferior.
Archaeological sources from Europe and India has suggested
that the Palaeolithic civilizations worshipped goddess and were
organized as matriarchies. However, from the time of the earliest
written records, almost all the civilizations had been overtaken by
male-deity-worshipping, matriarchal culture began to switchover to
patriarchal cultures, by which men were political, religious, and
50
military leaders and women were kept in subordination1. In Europe,
during the Classical times and the early Christian era, women were
excluded from public life and were made subordinate to men. For
example, Aristotle, in Politics, argued that women were inferior to
men and must be ruled by men. St.Paul insisted the Christian
women to obey their husband and not to speak in the church.
Similarly, according to traditional Hindu custom, a virtuous woman
is considered to be one who worships her husband (pathivratha) and
derives great power from her virtue to protect her husband and
herself. Throughout most of the second millennium, in most
societies, women were deprived of property, education, and legal
status. They were made the responsibility of their husbands, if
married, or of their fathers or other male relatives if not2.
Scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal
status with men in all fields of life. However, some others hold
contrasting views. Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as
Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the
early Vedic period. Though the family was patriarchal in nature, the
position of women was much better during the Rig Vedic period than
any later times. Women were allowed to attend assemblies and offer
rituals and sacrifices along with men. Many women have been
mentioned as composers of hymns, among them
1 Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia.©1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation.
2 Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia.©1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation.
51
Ghosha, Gargi, Maitreyi, Lopamudra, Apala were prominent3. Rig-
Veda verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and
were probably free to select their husband. There is also evidence
about levirate (Niyoga) and widow remarriage during the Rig Vedic
period. Marriage was arranged with the consent of the bride. There
was no evidence to substantiate the social evils such as Sati or
widow burning in Rig Vedic period4.Marriage was arranged with the
consent of the bride. Swayamvara was also common. Women
enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic
period. However, during the later period, that is approximately 500
B.C., the status of women began to decline with the Smritis
especially Manusmriti.
During the Epic age, the position of women was fair at the
beginning, but there was a decline towards the end. There was no
instance of widow remarriage. Early marriage started towards the
end of the Epic age. Women were not allowed much freedom in the
matters of their marriages. However the system of Swayamvara for
the royal families existed. “It is pointed out that maidens were
exhibited for sale and given to the highest bidders”5. The above line
shows that women were sold as slaves and the condition of women
3 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), Indian History, Allied publishers private limited,
New Delhi, 1981, p.A -130.
4 Ibid, pp. A-130 – 132.
5 V.D.Mahajan, Ancient India, S.Chand & Co, New Delhi, 1968, p.125.
52
during the Epic age was pathetic. However, women maintained their
dignity; Seetha, Savitry and Anasuya become ideal for all women
hood. Sati was in practice, widow lived excluded life and usually
they covered their heads with white cloths. Ganikar or courtesans
enjoyed a good social standing. Prostitution was common during the
Epic age. Sati was one of the brutal practices that prevailed from the
ancient period in India. From the Epic age, it was practiced in North
West India. Madri burnt herself on the funeral pyre of her husband is
an example6.The people of pre-historic society believed that even
after the death, a man need more or less same amenities that he
enjoyed in life. Hence when an influenced person like a king or noble
man died, along with him, his wealth, his servants and wives were
also buried. In India, the Aryans introduced the custom of sacrificing
a widow along with her husband. Although reformatory movements
such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to the religious order,
by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restrictions.
The condition of nuns in Jainism and Buddhism was miserable.
They were under the jurisdiction of the monks and they were
considered as an inferior category7.
6 V .K Agnihotri, Indian History, Allied publishers private limited, New
Delhi, 2009, p.A-45.
7 Romila Thapar, Ancient Indian social history-Some interpretations,
Orient Blackswan private limited, New Delhi- 2, 1978, p. 76
53
Position of women during Mauryan period was fair. Women
were employed as personal bodyguard of the king, spies and other
diverse jobs. Divorce was permitted. There is frequent mention of
women of the commonalty moving about with freedom and engaging
themselves in gainful occupations. Offences against women of all
kinds were severely punished8.
The queens, princesses and other high class women of a
defeated country were forced to commit Sati in order to escape from
the hands of Muslim invaders9. In due course of time it became a
custom and women were forced to jump into the funeral pyre of his
husband. There were rare incidents of Sati in South India. Among
the Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas of South India, there existed rare
case of Sati until 900 A.D. The solitary case known is that of the
Perumkoppendir, the queen of Butappandiyan is one such case
during Sangam age10. However, the prevalence of Sati or
Saughamana in the Vijayanagar Empire is proved both from
inscriptions and foreign accounts of the period. The widows
committed Sati two or three months after the death of their
husbands11. Many folk also tells us about the rule of Aravalli,
Sooravalli, Pavalakkodi and others who were petty rulers in
8 Ibid, p.A-264.
9 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), op.cit, p.164.
10 N Jayapalan, Women Studies, Atlantic Publishers and Distributors,
New Delhi, 2000, p.8.
11 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), op.cit, p.164.
54
Tamilaham. Women have been glorified in Tamil literature as the
‘lamp of home’ women are always referred as ‘Mangala
Mahalir’,’Melliyal Mahilir’, ‘Seyelai Mahilir’ and ‘Manaiyal’ during the
Sangam period. There is no Yagna, no purohita and no typing of tali,
after Aryan influence in the later period the above things were
practiced12. The Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta
Mauryan, Megasthenese had mentioned in his book Indica about the
rule of a queen in the Pandya country. Silappadikaram says about a
Pandya queen who shares the throne equally with her husband.
Kalingattuparani, which deals with Kalinga war, says about some
privilege of Thigavalli, wife of Chola king Kulotunga I had. She
shared the throne with her husband and supported the king in the
day-to-day administration. Queen Magammal, Rani Meenakshi,
Muththiruvai Nachiyar of Ramnad, Velu Nachiyar of Sivaganga and
Lakshmidevi of Sreerangam were some of the important women who
ruled many parts of South India.
The position of the women began to decline rapidly as a result
of the advent of the Muslims. In the thirteenth century Qutab-ud-Din
Aibak(1206 – 1210) formed the Delhi sultanate in India. It was a
great threat to the Hindu society. Hindu society developed tactics to
protect the women from the Muslim invaders. Therefore like the
Muslim women upper class Hindu women also started to wear
12 N Jayapalan, op.cit, p.8.
55
purdah in order to escape from the men. Several social restrictions
were imposed on her. The birth of a female child was considered a
curse. Women continued to occupy this position for a long period up
to nineteenth century13. So many inhuman controls were imposed
upon women during this period.
Purdah system, Sati, child marriage, female infanticide,
prostitution and polygamy were the main social evils imposed on the
women during the medieval period. Child marriage was another
improper practice developed during the medieval period. It was
practiced in most of the parts of India by high class Hindus and
Muslims. The age at marriage for girls was five to seven. Before
completing her childhood she becomes mother. In addition to these
ordeals if her husband dies she become widow that is child widow.
Position of women in Kerala
During the Sangam period, the whole South India was under
the control of Chera,Chola and Pandya empire. Kerala was also a
part of this political system during the Sangam age. Chastity of
women was honoured during the Sangam age. According to a double
standard of morality, respectable women had to be chaste but
respectable men did not. Chastity of women was glorified on many
contemporary works like Tolkappiyam, Akananuru, Silapatikaram
etc. Kannaki was noted for her chastity. Love marriage was common
13 Agnihotri V .K.(ed.), op.cit, pp.164-165.
56
during Sangam period14. During 15th and 16th century there was so
many unworthy practices and customs in Kerala. Feudalism emerged
in all parts of Kerala and they become defacto rulers. Namboodri and
Nairs acted as feudal lords. Slavery, untouchability, dowry, Devadasi
system were the evil systems that pulled women into untold misery.
Slavery
Slavery had existed in India as elsewhere in the world from the
immemorial. Slavery prevailed during the Indus valley civilization. It
was also clear that during the heyday of Buddhism, slavery existed
as Romila Thapar stated that ‘Slaves and debtors were not allowed to
be recruited as monks since many of them would have treated the
monastery as a refugee from the inequality of the society’.15
References are there in old accounts and sources that in the early
years of the Christian era, there was some kind of trade in slave girls
between India and the old Roman Empire and even there existed
some trade markets. Periplus writing in 80 A.D observed that among
the commodities imported from the west, slaves were included and of
the slaves, most of them were women16. The Parayas, the Pulayas,
14 P K Gopalakrishnan, Keralattinte Samskarika charitram, Malayalam,
Thiruvananthapuram,1974, pp.172-177.
15 Romila Thaper, From lineage to state, OUP, Delhi, 1984, pp. 145-150.
16 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, Slavery in Kerala, KK Mittal, Delhi,
1986, p.11.
57
the Kuravas , the Vedas, The Ulladans and the Pallas who together
constituted one eighth of the total population, were soil slaves17.
During the medieval period, slavery was the most common
business in Travancore, Cochin and Malabar regions. Many
inscriptions including Kolezhethu records (Written in old Malayalam
Script) have mentioned the existence of slavery in Kerala. The earliest
inscription mentioning slavery was an inscription of Venad king
Ayyan Adikal Tiruvadikal granting certain privileges to the
congregation of the Tharisa Church at Kollam. It exempted Christian
from levying Adimakal kasu (Slave levy) from Christians. There are
also many inscriptions containing some slave sale deeds18. Durate
Barbosa in 1515 observed it was usual in India to sell children in the
time of drought. Slavery was the basis of agriculture in ancient and
medieval Kerala. There was no domestic slavery as the law of caste
pollution made that practice impossible. The Europeans took keen
interest in the trade of slaves. Even the East India Company officials
involved in this inhuman practice. Dr Francis Buchanan, who visited
Malabar at the end of 1800, had stated that before invasion of Hider
Ali, the Namboodiri proprietor cultivated their estates by means of
their slaves. He estimated that one fifth of the population around
17 Sadasivan S.N, A Social history of India, A.P.H. publishing corporation,
NewDelhi, 2000, p.397.
18 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, op.cit. p.13.
58
Palghat and adjacent areas were slaves19. Rev. Samuel Mateer,
Missionary of the London Society in his book ‘The Gospel in South
India’ had mentioned that ‘the lowest third of the population of
Travancore –the slave caste – were held in a condition of oppressive
slavery. They were prohibited even from the use of public roads; from
near approach to court of justice or respectable houses, lest they will
pollute the higher orders. They were sunk vastly lower than slaves in
other land by the caste notion of their essential and inherent
religious pollution…’ The adult male fit for work was valued at 250
fanams20, the female at 300 fanams, the male between twelve and
eighteen years of age at 60 fanams female of such age had 100
fanams and children below ten years with the mother between 25 to
35 fanams that was about the value of a bullock. There were slave
markets at Tirunakkara in Kottayam, Alappey, Kayamkulam, Kollam,
Attingal, Chirayinkil, Kaniyapuram, Pettah, Kovalam etc21. Slaves
were brought to the Portuguese fort at Cochin and kept tied at poles
in the scorching heat and torrential rain till they carried to
Portuguese colonies and Lisbon22.
Women and children were sold as slaves. Slavery was the major
income of the kingdom. Portuguese made many Hindus, Muslim
19 Ibid, p.17.
20 A coin used on those days.
21 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, op.cit, p.30.
22 Sadasivan S.N, op.cit, p.397.
59
women as slaves. Salves were deployed on agricultural fields.
Government had also owned slaves. Feudal lords were allowed to heir
slaves from the government. In the early stage owner had right to
even kill the slaves. Slavery in Travancore was hereditary as the
children of the slaves become slave to the same feudal lord. Mostly
they used leaves as clothes. According to the census report of 1835
there was 144,000 slaves in Malabar region and it rose to 159,000 in
1842. In the early 18th century, there were 98,974 slaves in
Travancore and 32,368 slaves in Cochin kingdom. This was above 10
to 15 percent of the total population of respective states. In 1853
slavery was abolished in Travancore and 1854 in Cochin State23.
In 1850, Rev.George Matthan wrote that slaves are bought and
sold like cattle and are often worse treated by their masters. The
price of an able slave was 6 to 8 rupees. The children of slaves do not
belong to the father’s master but are the property of mother’s owner.
When a property known as Munro Island was granted to The CMS by
Travancore government in 1819 a hundred slaves were given along
with it.24 In a court auction, an infant of barely ten months was sold
for approximately rupees 11/2 and for its mother, a separate price
was paid25. Women of slave classes worked as actively as the men for
23 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, pp.172-177.
24 T.K. Joseph(ed.), Kerala Society Papers, Government of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram,1997, pp.275-278.
25 Sadasivan S.N, op.cit, p.398.
60
their living. Most of the women engaged in fieldworks, gathered
leaves and cut twigs for manure, carried these to the fields,
transplanting etc. they were kept toiling throughout the day. At the
night, they returned to their huts hungry. Then they boiled their rice
and ate it with salt and pepper. During the month of scarcity (July,
August) they suffered much from sickness and from want of food. At
this period women of the Vedar tribes used to go to the forest and dig
up various kinds of wild yams and tubers with pointed sticks to boil
and eat these roots. These products were their chief means of
subsistence26. Thus, poverty and atrocity of the Brahmins were the
root cause for slavery. In a land of prosperity, where nature showered
her blessings as grain, fruits, roots, honey etc thousands of her
children lived without a single drop of food. The state produced some
of the finest woven cotton but lion share of her children remained
uncovered. Slavery was the brutal system prevailed in Kerala during
the medieval ages.
Devadasi system
Like slavery, devadasi system was another social evil. In India,
the practice originated and developed during early medieval period,
but in countries like Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece, the system
26 Rev.Samual Mateer, Land of Charity – a descriptive account of
travancore and its people, W.H.Allen and Co., London, 1871, pp.199-
201.
61
flourished several thousand years earlier27. It flourished during the
end of the first millennium in Kerala. Kulasekara, the Chera king is
said to have dedicate to his daughter as devadasi28. The meaning of
devadasi is the server of the god. It is also interpreted as
handmaiden of god, sacred slave girl, temple dancer, the temple
courtesan etc. She had a life of culture case and pleasure and
provided amusement and intellectual companionship to those who
afford29. The dedication of the girls to sacred service was universal
practice. This system was prevalent in continent of Asia, Africa and
America and in the temples of Sumeria, Babylon, Japan, India, Sri
Lanka, etc. The system of devadasi has a history of more than 1700
years. The term devadasi had its origin in Sanskrit and though it is
commonly used.
In Tamil Nadu they were called Devadasis or dasis, Busavis in
Andhrapradesh region, Toyatis in Karnataka, Bhavis or Bahavinis in
western India. In Travancore they were called as Kudidass or
Devadasikkal. The Chola kings like Raja Raja Chola, Rajendra Chola
showed special interest in the appointment of devadasis in temples.
It is probable that when the Cholas subjugated South Travancore,
they instituted the system of devadasis in the temples there also.
27 Simmi Jain, Encyclopaedia of Indian women through the ages, Kalpaz
publications, Delhi, 2003, p.119.
28 Ibid, p.120.
29 K A.Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas, University of Madras, Madras, 1955,
p.544.
62
From there the system is gradually spread to the other parts of
Kerala. The status of women was further lowered in Kerala by the
introduction of the devadasi system. Under this system the young
girls were presented by their parents to the temple in fulfilment of
vow or as atonement for a sin. These girls were formally married to
the idol before they entered their temple duties such as dancing and
singing. During the festivals the God went out for a Chariot – ride,
the devadasis followed the lord as faithful maids30.
By the 11th century the system became popular in important
temples of Kerala. There were four posts of devadasis in the Sree
Vallabha temple at Thiruvalla. deavdasi system was also practised in
Suchindram temple, Padmanabhasamy temple etc. The enlightened
Maharaja of Venadu in the 13th and 14th centuries refused to
promote the devadasi system in Kerala31. The devadasi system in
Kerala declined due because of the lack of royal patronage, the
growth of education and western influence.
The position of women in medieval Kerala was not hopeful. The
society was scattered into castes and sub-castes topped with
Brahmins to the lower caste including Pulayas and Parayas. The
status of women varied according to the status of each caste. Though
Brahmin occupied high position in the society, their women
30 Simmi Jain, op.cit, p.120.
31 Ibid, p.122.
63
experienced worst coustoms and practices including Sapatni system.
The Nair women enjoyed unrestricted freedom and status in the
society. The Marumakkattayam system gave an important position to
Nair women. But she faced a great set back due to the development
of Sambhandam system. Apart from this a number of restrictions
were also imposed on her. Nair women had to uncover her breast
and remove her upper cloth as a mark of respect while seeing
Brahmin. The position assigned to the lower caste was pathetic.
Lower caste people had no right to worship the gods of the high caste
Hindus. They were not allowed to enter the temples. They were forced
to pay number of taxes. They were denied the right to own property,
right to movement, right to education etc.
Pulappedi
Nair women witnessed some brutal practices like Pulappedi,
Parrappedi and Mannappedi. This dreadful custom existed in Kerala
during the 16th and 17th centuries. During the certain period of the
year, the low caste peoples had the right to pollute the high class
women of Nair and Namboodiri families. The persons belonging to a
low caste like Pulayas, Parayas and Mannas touched or threw a
stone or stick on the high class women particularly Nair women. The
family members join together and announced her as polluted and
64
hence she would lose her caste32. The polluted woman will be driven
out from her house. She has to live the rest of her life with the men
who polluted her. Rev.Samuel Malker has recorded this practice as,
‘the various castes met annually at fighting grounds at Pallam,
Ochira etc and in this season it was supposed that the low caste men
were at liberty to seize high caste women spectators if they could
manage it and attain them’. There are references to this curious
custom in the description of Barbosa and the inscription of
UnniKerala Varma dated Thai Masam 25, 871 Malayalam era.
Honour killing was also in practice by which a low caste man
accidently touches a Nair lady, her relatives will immediately kill her
as well as the men who touched her33. If any Nair women broke caste
rule she would either be sold to Muslim or Christian or put to death.
Pulappede, Parappedi, Manappedi and other similar customs were
abolished in Travancore by a proclamation issued on February 7,
1696 which was erected at the Tiruvitamcode highway by Venad king
Unni Kerala Varma commonly known as Kottayam Kerala Varma34.
According to the inscription, the punishment for the violation of the
proclamation was severe as the culprit and his entire family would be
killed. It was also ordered that if a woman was polluted by Pulappedi,
32 A Sreedhara Menon, Kerala Charitram (Malayalam), Sahitya
Pravarthaka Co –operative, Kottayam, 1967, p.233.
33 A Sreedhara Menon, op.cit, p. 233.
34 V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, Vol 1, p .312.
65
Parappedi or Mannapedi, the pollution should be considered as
removed if the women bathed in a tank and come out. Thus, a cruel
custom ended35.
Unlike the Brahmin or Namboodiri women, the Nair women
enjoyed certain privileges in the society. In the traditional Nair family
organization women occupied important position. Family system of
the Nair’s was naturally tended to the preserve a much greater social
freedom for women than elsewhere in India. The Nair women of
Kshetriya hypergamy received the title Kettilamma and received
material benefits from the ruling class36. The Marumakkattayam
system prevailed in the Nair community gave her considerable
freedom and status in the society. Marumakkattayam is descent
through the female line, that is through sister’s children. A man’s
heirs are his sister’s children and his wife and children had no legal
claim to this property37.This gave some importance to the female
members of Nair community. Women were respected in their house
and community38.
35 Adoor K K Ramachandran Nair, op.cit, p .30.
36 Kumari Padma, A Study on the Status and role of women in the public
life of Kerala from 1850 to 1956, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department
of History, University of Kerala, p .75.
37 C.Achyuta Menon, The Cochin State Manual, Government of Kerala,
Thiruvananthapuram, reprint 1995, first published 1911, pp.246-247.
38 A Sreedhara Menon, op.cit, p.233.
66
Humiliation of womanhood
In the society, Brahmin women had the right to cover
their upper part of their body. The Nair women also had the privilege
to cover their upper part of the body, but they exposed their bosoms
in the presence of the members of royal family and of high rank39.
They looked upon women of any status who refused to expose their
breasts before the Brahmins as immoral and immodest40. The low
caste women who are below Nairs were insisted not to cover the
upper part of the body as a sign of submission. Many incidents were
happened giving severe punishment for violating this anarchic
custom. A woman of south Travancore named Yesudial went to
market to purchase household goods wearing a cloth to cover her
upper portion of the body. On seeing this, upper class men assaulted
her and forcibly tore off her upper cloth and remained her half
naked. In another incident, a woman named Neethiyudial went to the
fair at Veluthori in Kunnattur. Seeing her in upper cloth, the upper
class men abused her with filthy language and she was forced to
remove the upper cloth41.
39 V Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State manual, Vol II, Madras, 1989, p. 252.
40 R N Yesudas, A people’s revolt in Travancore: a backward class
movement for social freedom, Kerala Historical Society, 1975, p.10.
41 D Peter(ed.), Years of Challenge: Charles Mead, Nagercoil, 1994,
pp.37-43.
67
It is an irony to note that even upper class women also did not
like the low class women to cover their breast in front of them. They
even behave worse than men in performing this injustice. For
instance, when the Attingal Rani42, once she went to attend a temple
festival, a woman of lower caste appeared in front of her with upper
part of her body concealed with cloth, on seeing it, the Rani got
infuriated and ordered to cut her breasts43. Protest against these
atrocities by the low class people resulted in violence in various
places in Travancore and it severely affected the law and order in the
country. Thus, this peculiar social injustice existed in south
Travancore from the days of yoke proved the amount of inequality
and social suppression imposed on the low caste people.
Breast Tax
Women of the low caste women had to pay many humiliating
taxes, taxes varied from caste and profession. The height of the
cruelty was that women of the Ezhava and other lower communities
had to pay Mulakkaram (Breast tax). In 1840, to protest this insult a
woman in the town of Cherthala- a place in Kerala refused to pay the
tax and cut off her breasts and threw them before the tax collector.
42 Ruler of small princely state which was later merged with Travancore.
43 Suma Rose, Political,Society, And women: with special reference to
Travancore, 1700-1900 A.D, Carmel International Pub.House, 2004,
pp.71-72.
68
She died of blood loss later that night44. This was considered as the
worst tax imposed on humanity. Apart from this, the peasants, small
scale workers and other section of the working class people were
exploited through a myriad of taxes known by various names like
Enikaram, Talakaram45 and Meniponnu46. The revenue from these
taxes were utilised for conducting festivals and rest was distributed
to the Brahmins. Finding the difficulties faced by the people by
paying these unwarranted taxes, in 1865 the government issued a
proclamation to stop 110 such taxes in Travancore47.
Seclusion of Women
Though the Brahmin women were privileged class, they were
not free from social taboos. They had no permission to go outside
their illams. Even in the house they were not free to walk on veranda
or to sit on pumugham. Hence they had no opportunity to mingle
with men. Namboodiri women could not meet any member other
than her husband and children. Education was denied to them
hence they could neither read nor write. Nambootiri women are
called Anterjanams or Akathuammamar both of which term means
44 K K Nair, Sages Through Ages: India’s Heritage, – Vol V, Author
House, 2007 p.30.
45 Levied for toddy tapping.
46 Levied for wearing gold ornaments.
47 T.B.Premjith Kumar, op.cit, p.67.
69
‘living inside’ referring to the seclusion in which they are kept48.
Brahmin women had no right over their father’s property. Rarely the
Namboodiri women got opportunity to go outside their houses.
However, they have to cover their entire body with white cloth and
should use umbrella called as ola kuda to cover their face, so that
their body could not be seen by any one. Usually they had to be
accompanied by their servants mostly Nair women. The servants
made some sound so that the low caste people should run away from
the path of the Namboodiri women.
In general all sort of women were isolated from socio religious
and economic activities. Even the women of the royal family were
restricted in many ways. The women of the royal family were not
allowed to participate in the amusements. In Padmanabhapuram
palace and Kowdiar palace women had separate curtained suite to
watch dances and other functions without mingling with others.
They were restricted from performing ritualistic functions.
Polyandry and Polygamy
Hypergamy49 was prevalent in Kerala. It was common among
the Kshetriyas, Ambalavasis and the Nairs. According to this custom
48 C.A.Innes. Malabar Gazetteer, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram,
1997, p.106.
49 Hypergamy is the act or practice of seeking a spouse of higher socio-
economic status or caste status than oneself.
70
Nambuthiris could consort with Antarala, Kshetriya and Nair women.
The Antarala and Kshetriyas also permitted to consort with Nair
women. The Nair would consort with lower than their own. However
in no case a woman belonging to higher caste was permitted to
consort with lower men. Polyandry existed among the Nairs and
many other castes. The Nair women had no strict sex code. They
believed that a woman who dies a virgin does not goes to the
paradise50. After Talikettu Kalyanam was over, the mother would
invite various men to cohabit with her daughter, the Namboodiries
had the preference. If a sword was found outside the room of the
women, her husband and other paramours would know that
someone was inside and they would go away51.
The position of the low caste people was pathetic. The
untouchable communities like Pulayas, Parayas and other similar
caste began to suffer from various kinds of disabilities viz. economic,
education, social, occupational, political and religious. The common
people were prohibited from walking through public roads and
drawing water from public wells. Apart from this untouchable
apartheid, they had to keep a stipulated distance from the
Namboodiries and Nair. From a Namboodiri, a Pulaya should keep a
distance of 96 paces and 36 paces from a Nair. If a Namboodiri or
Brahmin walking on the road, a special sound was produced by his
50 C.A.Innes, op.cit, p.116.
51 R.Raman Nair and I. Sulochana Devi, op.cit, p.35.
71
assistant at every four of five paces. Hearing the warning the low
caste people had to instantly quit the road and retrieve somewhere52.
The low caste people were not allowed to own land. Wages were paid
in kind instead of cash. They lived in small huts called maadam. The
Pulayas, Parayas and similar caste had no other choice of occupation
but to work as agriculture labourers.
Dowry system
The giving of dowry was an ancient custom in India; most often
prevailed among the higher castes in Hindu society. Traditionally
dowry denoted a woman’s share of the family wealth, transferred to
her at the time of marriage. The practice was both socially and
religiously sanctioned. As per the custom, a properly dowered
daughter reflected well on her family and their social standing. In
India, the dowry system began to spread from upper strata to all
sought of community. Until the early twentieth century, only the
upper strata like the Brahmin communities like Namboodiri and the
Syrian Christians, who were allegedly converted from the upper
castes, followed the custom of dowry in Kerala. Dowry was not in
practice among the followers of Marumakkattayam like Nairs, and
other castes like Ezhava, Parayas and Pulayas53. Among the Syrian
Christians before 1961 Dowry Prohibition Act, a particular portion of
52 Indian Law Commissioner, Report on Slavery, 1841, p.129.
53 Now dowry is practiced by all communities in Kerala.
72
the dowry was given to the Church. This contribution was known as
pasaram varied from 4 to 10 per cent of the dowry54.
Scrutinizing the marriage system in Kerala had further
widened the gender relations and women’s equality in Kerala. Mostly
marriages were arranged by parents or family members, who were
very particular to match attributes such as religion, caste, age,
education, and socio economic standing in their quest for good
partners for their children. Every religious group and its sub-groups
followed distinct family structure and different marriage customs.
Personal law related to marriage, divorce, and inheritance also varies
according to religious affiliation India55. Dowry was justified as the
appropriate transfer of wealth to a woman as share from her family.
But there was evidence that the money does not remain with the
bride. In most of the cases, the sthreedhanam is utilised by the
husband or his family for their personal uses like to pay off loans,
starting business etc, in many cases after emptying the wealth
received from the bride, the husband and his relatives started to
harass the women in order to gain more wealth from the groom’s
house.
54 Caroline Sweetman (ed), Gender, development, and marriage, Elizabeth
Chako, Marriage, development, and the status of women in Kerala,
Oxfam, UK, 2003, p.55.
55 Ibid, pp.52-54.
73
Sambandham
The development of Sambhandam system brought great
miseries to Nair women. According to this system only the eldest
member of the Brahmin family had the right to marry from his own
caste. The younger brother in the Namboodiri family made informal
alliance with the women of Nair families. The Nair women and her
family members considered these alliances as great honour and Nair
women made many alliances as much as one can56. Nair women
also married many Nair men. The status and honour of Nair woman
increased on the number of husbands she had57. The children from
this alliance lived in mother’s house. The Brahmin (Namboodiri) had
no responsibility over the children. More over the children of a
Namboodiri through a Nair woman had no legal rights over paternal
property58. Namboothiri father also considered these children
untouchable.
Smarthavicharam
Smarthavicharam was another custom that humiliated the
Namboodiri women. It was a vigorous trail on a Namboodiri girl or
women for adultery charges. If accused, the particular woman was
lodged in a separate hut, for her presence inside the house could
56 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, pp.303-304.
57 A Sreedhara Menon, op.cit .p.233.
58 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, p.430.
74
pollute other members of her family59. The trial may extend for
months and if found guilty she was out casted and ousted from their
house. Such women were made as a concubine by low caste people
or sold as slaves60. The permission of the king was necessary for
conducting Smarthavicharam. The most notorious Smarthavicharam
was held in 1905 that involved Kuriyedath Thathri, the wife of
Chemmanthatta Kuriyedath Raman Namboodiri of Mukundapuram
Taluk in Trissur district. The ritualistic trial extended many months.
Finally the verdict was announced on July 13 1905 indicting Thathri
and the other accused men. Now this custom is outdated and the
last incident of Smarthavicharam reported was taken place in 1918.
In Namboodiri community, the oldest male member of the family
could marry from the same caste. The elder male member married
several wives in exchange for his daughter or sister. This system was
called as Sapatni system and it led to polyandry among the
Namboodiries.
Talikettukalyanam
Talikettukalyanam was prevalent among most of the castes
particularly in the Nair community. It was to be conducted before a
girl attains puberty. On failure her family was excommunicated.
Usually it was performed at the age of eleven and was more
59 C. J Fuller, The Nayars Today, Syndics of the Cambridge University
Press New York, 1976, p.13.
60 P. K. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, p.453.
75
expensive than a marriage. It was not obligatory for a girl to marry
the same person who tied the Taali at Talikettukalyanam ceremony.
And there was no objection in accepting him as her husband. It was
believed that the virginity of the girl ceased with the performance of
Talikettukalyanam61. The families consider this ceremony to expose
their power and prestige and they conducted this ceremony in a
luxurious manner, which led to the disintegration of Thravadu. Child
marriage was very common in Brahmin and Nair communities. Child
marriage was a major impediment to girl’s education. Because of the
child marriage the society denied freedom of the girl to interact with
peers and participate in community activities62.
Divorce
Divorce was easy and common among Nairs. A marriage lasted
as long as the parties wished. In order to terminate marriage
alliance, they did not have to go through any disgusting processes. If
she was tired of her husband, she had to put her sandals outside the
house, which meant that he was no longer welcome63. In due course
61 R. Raman Nair, l Sulochana Devi, op.cit, p.2.
62 A. Stanley Wolpert (ed.) , Encyclopedia of India, Vol 1, Charles
Scribner’s Sons,U.S.A, 1927,p.262.
63 R.Raman Nair and I. Sulochana Devi, Chattampi swamikal, an
intellectual Biography, Centre for south Indian studies, Trivandrum,
p.33.
76
of time the Sambhandam system and Marumakkattayam made chaos
in the society particularly in Nair families64.
Widowhood
Widowhood is considered as punishment for the crimes
committed in her previous lives. Hence she is looked up on as sinner.
Widowhood among the upper caste is state of social death65 . Widows
are considered inauspicious beings. It was the worst ordeal that the
women faced in Kerala particularly the higher caste women. Factors
that made widowhood are child marriage and age difference between
husband and wife. Widowhood is not transition from one marital
status to another after the death of her husband. Entering into
widowhood is more hazardous, painful and humiliating. Widows not
only suffered with social and economic sanctions but also faced
many psychological consequences, loneliness and many cases
deprivation causing emotional disturbances and imbalance66.
Dowry was common in Brahmin community. It forced the
parents of the poor Brahmins to give their daughters to very old
Namboodiries. These ill- sorted marriages created many child
64 P K Gopalakrishnan, op.cit, pp .303-304.
65 Nandini Chawan and Qutub Jehan Kidwai, Personal Law Reforms and
Gender Empowerment: a debate on Uniform Civil code, Hope India
Publications, Gurgaon, 2006, p.35.
66 P.Adhinarayan Reddy, problems of widows in India, Swarup and sons,
New Delhi, 2004, p.5.
77
widows. The plight of the widows was more pitiable than any other
social category. Widows were unwelcomed by the society. Seeing a
widow was consider as bad omen. Widows were restrained from
amusement, attending feasts, house hold functions and festivals.
They were isolated by all means. They were put up; caused them to
mourn till their death.
There are different categories of widows, the aged, the
destitute, the young and even widows of teen age and each category
of widows has its own problems and may also differ from one
category to another67. Immediately after the death of her husband,
she had to remove all her ornaments and required to wear white
cloth; the colour of mourning. Her hair was scraped, for sixteen days
she does not step out. Position of Namboodiri women was pity as
they were considered as bad omen and hatred one. They remained on
dark rooms till their end of the life. Widows suffered from various
handicaps and injustices in the society, they were ill-treated,
physically man handled. Some high caste Hindu women become
Devadasis in order to escape from widowhood. Among the lower
caste, widow remarriage was allowed yet there was some aversion
towards it68. One important aspect among the lower caste which
causes hard – ship to the widows was the situation in the family in
which they live. Husband and wife went to job daily in order to feed
67 Ibid, p.8.
68 Ibid, p.13.
78
their children. When husband dies no one would come to the
economic relief of the widow, as their relatives may also depend on
wage labour. Economic security for the widow and her infants among
lower caste is the most important problem rather than social cultural
discrimination69. Widow remarriage becomes common during the
beginning of the 20th century. The census commissioner in 1931
noted that widow remarriage was not prohibited among Nairs,
Ezhavas and many other Hindu castes70. In a study the mortality
rate among the widows of age group forty five years and above is
eighty six per cent higher than married women71. According to a
census report of early nineteenth century, the number of widows
below the age of 10 years was 63,000 and above 10 years was more
than five lakhs. This shows the terribility of the social injustice72.
Status of Women in Muslim Community
The Muslim community in Kerala practiced many outdated
customs and practices that were directly harm to the womanhood.
Dowry was common in the Muslim community; they gave little
importance for the education of the girl children. Purdhah system
was common in Malabar region. Child marriage and Polygamy was
69 Ibid, p.3.
70 R Raman Nair, l Sulochana Devi, op.cit, p.5.
71 P.Adhinarayan Reddy, op.cit, p.7.
72 Kamal Kant Misra (ed.), Recent Studies on Indian Women: empirical
work of social scientists, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 2007, p.112.
79
common in all parts of Kerala. Divorce was common in Muslim
community the husband repeated the word ‘Talaq’ (Divorce) thrice
and divorce took legal73. Adultery was severely punished, the guilty
were being dragged through the village by a rope and was given 101
lashes as prescribed by the Jamat mosque74.
The general position of women in Kerala has improved
considerably during the last hundred years. The land reforms
introduced by the various governments helped in bringing a better
position to the women. The replacement of the joint family system
with nuclear family gave relief to the family system in Kerala. Women
also played a prominent role in the freedom struggle. After various
reform movements, women are educated and become a part of
Kerala’s development.
The medieval age witnessed a number of social evils in Kerala
particularly the caste System and its by-products like
Untouchability. Hindus lived in hundreds of separate compartments
of castes and sub castes. Lower caste people were consider inferior
even to animals were kept aside as untouchables. Women were the
greatest victim of this degradation. Superstition, polygamy,
polyandry, child marriage, and parsimonious practices like
Talikettukalyanam, Pulapedi etc gave untold miseries to women.
73 Dr.Patam Singh, Women Legislators in Indian Politics, Concept
Publishing company, New Delhi,2003, p.24.
74 C.A Innes, op.cit, p.530.
80
Sambhandam was another social evil that affected women. The ill
sorted marriages of girls with age old men resulted in widowhood of
the girls. The experience of widowhood was another mercy situation
that women faced. Women were not allowed to cover upper part of
their body. Roads were disabled to the common people. Education
was totally denied to women. Thus the position of women was worse
than the cattle. These atrocities resulted in an unstable society. After
viewing all these atrocities Swami Vivekananda once remarked that
Kerala is a lunatic asylum. The advent of the missionaries and the
rise of intellectual and spiritual leaders, the progressive attitude of
the rulers gave great relief to the common people particularly women.
Social system was worse than what we could than imagine now.