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POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDERBy Moira Mardero, Elsie Yip, Curtis Richardson & Marc Baureiss
"Post Traumatic Stress Disorder helps us make resolution with the past. We must ride with it,
not run from it. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is not only a mental experience, but it is a
spiritual and karmic experience, as well. Once you address the trauma clearly, own it and
recognize it, you can release the impact of what occurred and what is not serving you. The past has no business in the present. The memories
are painful, but they can't hurt you.”
Coral Anika Theill, BONSHEA: Making Light of the Dark
Myth or Fact?
It happened a long time ago, time heals all wounds, you should be over it.
The impacts of traumatic events are often delayed because people will banish the memories from their consciousness.
Medication is an option for people in healing from the impacts of trauma.
You will never really be normal again.
The single hardest-hit group of trauma victims is children.
Introduction &The History of PTSD
An emotional illness classified as an anxiety disorder
Usually the result of terribly frightening, life threatening, or otherwise highly unsafe experience
PTSD sufferers re-experience the traumatic event in some way, tend to avoid places, people that remind them of the event
Are also exquisitely sensitive to normal life experiences (hyper arousal)
History con’t
Condition has been around since people first experienced trauma
PTSD recognized as a formal diagnosis in 1980
Called “soldier heart” in the American civil war
Called “combat fatigue” in WWI
Called “gross stress reaction” in WWII
Called “post-Vietnam syndrome” during Vietnam war
Also has been called “battle fatigue & shell shock”
Some Statistics
7-8% of all people in the US will develop PTSD in their lifetime
10-30% of all combat veterans and rape victims will develop PTSD
Somewhat higher in African Americans, Hispanics and Native Americans due to:
A tendency to blame themselves, have less social support, an increased perception of racism for these ethnic groups and differences in how they may express distress
Statistics con’t
5 million people suffer from PTSD in the US
Women are twice as likely as men to develop PTSD
Half of the individuals who use outpatient mental health services have been found to suffer from PTSD
Not being present at a traumatic event does not guarantee that one cannot suffer from traumatic stress leading to PTSD. Ex. 2001 terrorist attacks
Statistics con’t
5 million people suffer from PTSD in the US
Women are twice as likely as men to develop PTSD
Half of the individuals who use outpatient mental health services have been found to suffer from PTSD
Not being present at a traumatic event does not guarantee that one cannot suffer from traumatic stress leading to PTSD. Ex. 2001 terrorist attacks
Rates of PTSD in Children
Research done at Duke University:
68% of children had direct or indirect exposure to a traumatic event by the age of 16
Witnessing a traumatic event (23%)
Learning about a traumatic event (21.4%)
Violent death of a sibling or peer (14.5%)
Being involved in a serious accident (?)
Rates of PTSD in children
Being exposed to a natural disaster (11.1%)
Being diagnosed with a physical illness (11%)
Experience of sexual abuse (10.9%)
30% of children experienced only one traumatic event while 37% had experienced multiple event
Of this study group, only 0.5% of children had a diagnosis of PTSD
Risk for PTSD Symptoms
Factors that increase the likelihood that a child develops PTSD after a traumatic event:
Age (being older)
Having another anxiety disorder
Multiple traumatic experiences
Other Negative Consequences of Childhood Trauma
These children had twice the number of other psychiatric disorders including:
Depression
Generalized anxiety disorder
Social anxiety disorder
PTSD DSM-IV Diagnosis & Criteria
A. The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of the following have been present:
(1) An extreme traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury
A threat to one’s physical integrity
Witnessing an event that involves death, injury or a threat to the physical integrity of another person
Learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm by a family member or close associate
PTSD DSM-IV con’t
(2) The person’s response to the event must involve intense fear, helplessness, or horror
B. The traumatic event is persistently re experienced in one (or more) of the following ways:
(1) Recurrent and distressing recollections of the event (In young children, repetitive play may occur with themes or aspects of the trauma are expressed)
(2) Recurrent distressing dreams of the event
PTSD DSMV IV con’t
(3) Acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (a sense of reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, flashbacks.)
(4) Intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize an aspect of the event
(5) Physiological reactivity on exposure to cues from the event
PTSD DSMV IV con’t
C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness as indicated by three or more of the following:
(1) Efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations associated with the trauma
(2) Effort to avoid activities, places or people that arouse recollections of the event
(3) Inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma
PTSD DSMV IV con’t
(4) Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities
(5) Feeling of detachment or estrangement from others
(6) Restricted range of affect (e.g. unable to have love feelings
(7) Sense of foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, children or normal life span)
PTSD DSMV IV con’t
D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal as indicated by two (or more) of the following:
(1) Difficulty falling asleep
(2) Irritability or outbursts of anger
(3) Difficulty concentrating
(4) Hyper vigilance
(5) Exaggerated startle response
PTSD DSMV IV con’t
E. Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in Criteria B, C and D) is more than one month
F. The disturbance causes significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
Specify if: Acute: if duration of symptoms is less than 3 months Chronic: if more than 3 months
Specify if: With Delayed Onset: if at least 6 months after the stressor
PTSD in Infants & Toddlers (Birth to Age 1)
Because infants and toddlers have difficulty communicating trauma they have experienced, the following signs of distress may be exhibited:
fussing more
possible “loss” of developmental steps already acquired
possible failure to learn new and expected developmental tasks
PTSD in Preschoolers (Ages 2-5)
For preschoolers, whose language skills are weak and there is a limited ability to verbalize their feelings of distress, the following behaviours can be exhibited:
anxiousness and clinging to the parent/caregiver; separation difficulties
taking a step backward in development by thumb sucking, bed wetting, refusing to sleep or waking at night for fear of the dark
being aggressive in their play
speech difficulties
expressing magical ideas about an event (e.g. “ Daddy left because I was bad.”)
decreases or increases in appetite
PTSD in Childhood (Ages 6-12)
It would be important to watch for the following signs of distress:
sadness and crying
poor concentration
fear of personal harm
bed wetting
confusion
physical complaints (e.g. headaches)
regressive behaviours (e.g. clinging, whining)
PTSD in Childhood con’t(Ages 6-12)
aggressive behaviour at home or school
withdrawal/social isolation
attention-seeking behaviour
school avoidance
irritability
sleep disturbances (e.g. nightmares)
anxiety and fears
eating difficulty
PTSD in Teenagers(Ages 13-18)
rebelliousness
intrusive recollections
anxiety and feelings of guilt
sleep and eating disturbances
antisocial behaviour (e.g. stealing)
poor school performance
increased substance abuse
PTSD in Teenagers con’t(Ages 13-18)
poor concentration and distractibility
psychosomatic symptoms (e.g. headaches, bowel problems)
agitation or decrease in energy level (e.g. loss of interest in activities)
numbing
aggressive behaviour
depression
peer problems
Withdrawal
PTSD in Adults (Ages 19 +)
shock and disbelief
feelings of detachment
unwanted, intrusive recollections
concentration difficulty
psychosomatic complaints
eating disturbance
poor work performance
emotional and mental fatigue
irritability and low frustration tolerance
PTSD in Adults con’t(Ages 19 +)
loss of interest in activities once enjoyed
denial
depression
anxiety
hyper-vigilance
withdrawal
sleep difficulty
emotional change
marital discord
Appropriate Reactions to crisis situations Shock
Denial
Dissociative behaviour
Confusion
Disorganization
Difficulty making decisions
Suggestibility
It is crucial to give back a sense of control and to help empower the individual
(Adapted from Crisis Response in Our Schools, 2003 Lerner, Volpe, Lindell)
The Effect of Trauma
The effects of being traumatized are very individual, and survivors are impacted physically, emotionally, behaviourally, cognitively and spiritually.
Physical
Eating disturbances (more or less than usual)
Sleep disturbances (more or less than usual)
Pain in areas on the body that may have been involved in the traumatic experience
Low energy
Chronic unexplained pain
Headaches
Anxiety/panic
Emotional
Depression, spontaneous crying, despair and hopelessness
Anxiety
Extreme vulnerability
Panic attacks
Fearfulness
Compulsive and obsessive behaviours
Emotional con’t
Feeling out of control
Irritability, anger and resentment
Emotional numbness
Frightening thoughts
Difficulties in relationships
Behavioural
Self-harm such as cutting
Substance abuse
Alcohol abuse
Gambling
Self-destructive behaviours
Isolation
Choosing friends that may be unhealthy
Suicide attempts
Cognitive
Memory lapses, especially about the trauma
Loss of time
Being flooded and overwhelmed with recollections of the trauma
Difficulty making decisions
Decreased ability to concentrate
Feeling distracted
Withdrawal from normal routine
Thoughts of suicide
Spiritual
Guilt
Shame and self-blame
Self-hatred
Feeling damaged
Feeling like a “bad” person
Questioning the presence of God
Spiritual con’t
Questioning one’s purpose
Thoughts of being evil, especially when abuse is perpetuated by Clergy
Turning away from the faith or obsessively attending services and praying
Feeling that as well as the individual, the whole race or culture is bad
PTSD and its Effect on the Brain
http://www.chordsforchange.org/2010/02/04/brainonmusic/
Factors Shown to Increase the Likelihood of PTSD in
Children
The severity of the event
Parental reaction to the event
The child’s physical and /or emotional proximity to the event
Helping the Child Survive the Traumatic
eventDemaree (1995) states, “maintaining a safe
classroom environment is the cornerstone for meeting the needs of children with PTSD” ( p. 33). Teachers can individualize their programs when they know and understand the differences and special needs of children with PTSD. This can be established by:
setting clear, consistent limits
Helping the Child Survive the Traumatic
eventproviding a positive learning environment with
consistent daily routines and expectations
reassuring their safety needs by showing empathy and care
model good stress management and problem-solving skills
providing opportunities for personal control
finding positive outlets for their release of frustration and regulation of their own stress level (i.e. relaxation techniques such as yoga, singing, artwork or physical movement)
Helping the Child Survive the Traumatic
event reinforce the belief that conditions can and
will improve despite temporary setbacks
maintaining a relationship with the child
being positive and patient with the child
incorporating more physical activity in the classroom
providing ample opportunities for students to interact with one another
Associated Conditions
Along with associated symptoms, there are a number of co-occurring psychiatric disorders that are commonly found in children and adolescents who have been traumatized. They include:
major depression
substance abuse
anxiety disorders such as separation anxiety, panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
oppositional defiant disorder
conduct disorder
Associated Conditions con’t
By co-occurring, we mean: one or more Mental Health Disorders as well as one or more disorders relating to substance and/or alcohol abuse
It is estimated that 4 million people in the United States have a co-occurring disorders.
Co-occurring disorders are common with trauma survivors. They should be expected rather than seen as the exception.
Associated Conditions con’t
PTSD is a risk factor for substance abuse, dependence, and addiction.
The trauma survivor is often looking for a way to numb feelings, emotions, pain and suffering in an attempt to cope.
Although not mentioned in the DSM IV, disruptive behaviour disorders often co-occur in children with PTSD.
25% ADHD15.4% Conduct Disorder25% Oppositional Defiant Disorder
(Nickerson et al, 2009)
ResilienceA set of beliefs, feelings and behaviours that
emerge at a time of crisis and adversity.
Protective Factors present in resilient children Persistence Goal-orientation Adaptability Optimism Willingness to approach novel events High Self-esteem Intelligence Good social skills
(Adapted from PTSD in Childhood, 2010, Chapman, Stefanation and Sukhan, Winnipeg)
Resiliency, What can we do?
Refer to the individual as a trauma survivor not as a victim. This reduces the sense of powerlessness.
Validate the individuals resilience and protective factors.
Build new skills and better adaptations as past coping behaviours may no longer be needed and/or acceptable.
Work from a resilience-minded perspective.
Help the trauma survivor to realizes/he has the skills from within to heal and recover.
The Support System
School Classroom Teachers
Preschool and Elementary School Age Children Adolescents Adult Students
School Guidance CounselorSchool Psychologist
Therapies provided by outside agencies
General role of the support systemProvide for safety and security
Help the child regain control over parts of his/her life.
Listen Don’t minimize the child’s perception of the crisis
and/or traumatic event.
Allow the child to share his/her feelings at his/her own pace.
Recognize that physical ailments and illness can be linked to PTSD.
Understand co-occurring disorders.
Collaborate with everyone involved.
Debriefing
Is a structure for listening and talking to the trauma survivor.
It is a way for adults to provide an environment in which children can safely express their emotions and reactions
It is not counseling
Goal of Debriefing
normalize the child’s responses
aid in the recovery process
allow a venue for venting
teach coping skills
help the child to understand what occurred
Debriefing Method
Brooks & Siegel (1996) in their book, The Scared Child, lay out a four-step method for helping children through a traumatic experience.
1. Preparing the Self2. Having the Child Tell his/her Story3. Sharing the Child’s Reactions4. Survival and Recovery
Preparing the Self
Do your research.
www.wsd1.org Departments and Services
Library Support Services Pathfinders
Prepare yourself psychologically /emotionally.
Handout, Nickerson et al, (2009) Identifying, Assessing & Treating PTSD at School
Screening & Referral
Preschool and elementary school aged childrenPlay using clay or blocks
Painting
Drawing feelings and memories
Journal writing/scribing
Writing letters/cards
Reading and discussing stories
Create a memory board about the crisis
Memory box/scrapbooking happy thoughts(Adapted from Crisis Response in Our Schools, 2003, Lerner, Volpe, Lindell)
Adolescents
Journal, poetry and story writing
Writing cards/letters
Art
Relaxation techniques
Exercise
Problem Solving Strategies
Listening to music
Small group discussions
(Adapted from Crisis Response in Our Schools, 2003 Lerner, Volpe, Lindell)
Adult students
Temporarily altered work schedule
Writing
Relaxation/meditation strategies
Exercise
Listening to music
Social support
(Adapted from Crisis Response in Our Schools, 2003 Lerner, Volpe, Lindell)
Programs/Resources
Kelso www.kelsoschoice.com
Five Point Scalewww.fivepointscale.com
Teen Friendly site www.kidshelpphone.ca
Resource Documents www.anxietybc.com
American Red Cross, Masters of Disasters Curriculum http://www.redcross.org/preparedness/educatorsmodule/ed-cd-main-menu-1.html
The School Guidance Counselor
Individual and small group counseling
Support groups
Crisis InterventionThe goal of Crisis Intervention is to help
restore the trauma survivor to previous levels of functioning. cessation of emergency reactions.understanding and expressing feelings
and emotions around the trauma.short-term goals, practical considerations
and concrete plans of action(Johnson, 1989)
The School Psychologist
Individual counseling
Assessment
Therapy provided by outside agenciesShort term treatment, focused on the acute-
stage interventions. Helping restore the trauma survivor to previous levels of functioning.
Long term treatment, focused on resolution of psychological and behavioral issues following the traumatic experience.Play TherapyArt TherapyFamily therapyPsychiatric Treatments
Trauma Recovery
Normalize the experience and the symptoms for the trauma survivor
Assist the trauma survivor in connecting with services critical to recoveryHealth and Mental Health services
Help the trauma survivor to define recovery
Facilitate connects with family, friends, the community, and culture
(Adapted from Trauma-informed, 2008)
Recovery and School Reintegration
The memories of the traumatic experience will always remain for the trauma survivor.
The individual must incorporate the event into his/her life experiences.
Creating a reintegration plan that includes goals, guidelines and contacts.
Pre-scheduled preventative sessions to address high-stress circumstances such as anniversaries could help the trauma survivor.
Monitoring
Examining the Effects of Trauma Causality
“Unlike the minor crises that are part if the normal travails of life, trauma are situations that are outside the range of expected experience” (Brooks & Siegel 3.)
Does the different causality of trauma in turn mean a particular manifestation or unique exhibition of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?
Examining the Effects of Trauma Causality
This section will investigate the characteristics (i.e.: behavioral, cognitive, emotional, physical) of the effects of different types of trauma which could develop into Posttraumatic Stress Disorder—especially in children.
“An experience that is only moderately difficult for one person may be unbearable and traumatic to another” (Johnson 34.)
Examining the Effects of Trauma Causality
It is important to note that any significant trauma can develop into PTSD, and what is traumatic to one may not entirely be traumatic to another; because frame-of-reference, cognitive ability, abstract understanding, emotional resilience, mental fortitude,—much of which is dependent upon stages of Human Development—a similar stimuli may be received as a mild disruption to one while being an impacting nuance to shatter the psyche of another.
Examining the Effects of Trauma Causality
To better discuss the possible trauma responsible for an individual’s PTSD, the different types of trauma discussed will be both limited in numbers and categorized into traumatic experience triggers.
Examining the Effects of Trauma Causality
The manner in which the cause/trigger of the traumatic event will be categorized will be
Intimate or Direct Trigger—somehow trauma has been experienced by an individual as by his own senses or person, including imagined trauma; the trigger is the trauma.
Consequential or Reactionary Trigger—somehow trauma has been experienced by an individual which is the response of another to trauma he has experienced which can be perceived as a global/shared experience and may not have a rationality behind it; this inflicting of trauma is a perpetuating of the experience that may not be in synch with the initial trauma.
One person’s direct trigger of trauma is another’s reactionary trigger to his own trauma.
Examples of Intimate/Direct Trauma
Death of a Loved One
Divorce
Domestic Violence (or Abuse: Physical, Psychological, Sexual)
Illness & Injury
Natural Disaster
Trauma by Proxy
Warfare
Examples of General Consequential/Reactionary
Trauma Triggers
Coping with the Loss of/Unfamiliar Family Roles…………… Residential Schools
Culture Influence/Dissonance………………………………… Newcomers; Immigrants
Gang affiliations………………………………………………. Hyper-Violent Existence
Literal/Cultural Genocide……………………………………... Holocaust
Relocation—Forced, Necessary, Required……………………. Newcomers; Refugees
Socio-economic Background………………………………….. Inner-city; Single/young Parent
Examining Effects of Trauma Causality
“An argument can be made that historic generational trauma strongly influences Aboriginal people’s locus of personal and social control. It engenders a sense of fatalism and reactivity to historical and colonial forces, and this adversely influences their social relations” (Keith 22.)
It is not apt, however, to simplify the relationship of the series of traumatic experiences along a single generational thread; it is too superficial a representation, and it is too difficult to accurately discover/portray the entirety of this social phenomenon too commonly occurring amongst marginalized peoples and populations.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Death of a Loved One
“Children believe that their world is stable, that the people who are in it today will be in it tomorrow and forever,” (Brooks & Siegel 4.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Death of a Loved One
Children and adolescents do not mourn as their older counterparts.
“The mourning process is not linear in children as it is in adults. For children, there is no beginning, middle, and end. Rather, the process is repeated as the child grows older and understands the death from a more mature perspective” (Brooks & Siegel 47.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Divorce
Though it is not uncommon, divorce is traumatic just the
same, especially for children; it is the breaking of what was believed to be unbreakable,
compounded by the fact that it is those whom were to maintain
it forever taking it apart.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Divorce
Children “are the powerless victims in the divorce. They have no say in the decision, they are pushed around psychologically, and in some cases they are even used as pawns by irresponsible parents” (Brooks & Siegel 84.)
“Children of divorce were likely to be afraid to trust relationships and hesitant about making a commitment to a specific person” (Brooks & Siegel 84.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Divorce
Divorce is not a simple action; it is an on-going process which has three stages:
Crisis Stage
The Short Term
The Long Term
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Divorce
Age, gender, and stage of divorce affect a child’s reaction to divorce.
Ironically, it is the older children which are more likely to have a worse reaction to divorce than younger children; this reason is the concept which most would think would make it easier, but in fact it is quite the contrary; their understanding of the situation as well as their more solidified concept/identity of family makes for worse injury by divorce than the damage of divorce accompanied by ignorance and malleable sense of self & family of youth.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Domestic Violence
Domestic violence includes physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse, and abuse of property and pets” (Lerner 55), either experienced or witnessed (as in respect to spousal abuse.)
“If a child has been abused physically, [psychologically,] or sexually, or if a child has been witness to spousal abuse, it is likely that the child will experience posttraumatic acute-stress reactions. If the abuse has been going on for a long time, the child is likely to experience the symptoms of PTSD” (Brooks & Siegel 62.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Domestic Violence
Children whom have experienced domestic abuse are at significant risk for delinquency, substance abuse, school drop-out, and difficulties in their own relationships, as well as exhibit symptoms of PTSD.
How children react to domestic violence is largely affected by the type of abuse being experienced/witnessed and the age/cognitive-psychological ability of the child.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Illness & Injury
The trauma of illness & injury is not always in the actual ailment, but rather the circumstance around it:
Absent parents
Absent family
Unfamiliar or uncomfortable surroundings
Financial concerns
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Illness & Injury
“Illness and injury, [themselves,] are traumatic because they are usually unexpected” (Brooks & Siegel 6.)
“Because the terrible event happened during a normal part of life, children can become uncomfortable with ordinary life” (Brooks & Siegel 6.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Natural disaster
“Unlike other traumas, which mostly affect one person or one family or at most a few families, natural disasters usually traumatize whole communities” (Brooks & Siegel 73.) Long term disruptions in all aspects of life occur—few are left unscathed by the event.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Natural disaster
The most significant feelings of bereavement to individuals whom experience natural disasters as noted from Barbara Brooks, Ph.D. & Paula M. Siegel’s book, The Scared Child: Helping Kids Overcome Traumatic Events, are:
Lost sense of security
Loss of familiar surroundings
Loss of personal possessions
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Natural disaster
Children experience and express differently than adults; trivial losses to adults may be gross detriments to children, and
granted vice versa; however, both suffer equally as well as
deeply.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Trauma by Proxy
Not all traumas need to be experienced firsthand; some traumatic experiences are had through exposure to real events through another medium:
Media (Television, Newsprint, Music, Artistry/Digital Artistry, Internet)
Gossip amongst primary/secondary/tertiary/etc. social group
Identification to Narrator/Subject/Character/Antagonist/Etc.
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Trauma by Proxy
Why this trauma is predominantly found in children is their perception and inability to separate/ability to identify themselves with those falling victim to circumstance.
“Trauma by proxy is filtered through a child’s perception of the world. Youngsters in varying age groups have different understandings and reactions to catastrophic events that they hear about or see in the media” (Brooks & Siegel 127.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Trauma by Proxy
“Children are more vulnerable than adults to being
traumatized by distant events. Kids are particularly at risk of
developing posttraumatic symptoms after being exposed to events in which they identify with the victim” (Brook & Siegel
125.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Warfare
“Refugees and immigrants coming from war-torn countries or repressive regimes have often experienced considerable trauma” (Unknown 24.)
“There is a great variability in the physical and psychological effects of war and torture trauma, as well as tremendous variability in how survivors present themselves and their stories. There is also a high variability in ability to remember what happened and put into words. Many war and torture traumas are considered ‘unspeakable acts.’” (Unknown 31.)
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Warfare
“Children showed a significantly higher incidence of behavior problems and problems with
psychosocial competence, but significantly lower levels of depression. There were no significant differences [for
children] in anxiety. Neither age nor gender was related to any of the outcomes” (Flores 8-9).
Intimate/Direct Trauma: Warfare
“Features that might contribute to the development of long-lasting anxiety and trauma:
the subjection of daily life to pervasive tension and fear;
the ubiquitous use of deadly weapons including land minds; and
the targeting of violence against civilians and combatants in a hateful brutal manner” (Flores 9).
Conclusion
Though the messages from individuals suffering trauma from
different causalities maybe similar, there are nuances within their
messages and specifics within their actions which are particular; all
express anxiety, conflict, pain… but each individual burdened from a unique trauma have a distinct identifiable source of his ailing,
which can or cannot develop into posttraumatic stress disorder.
Conclusion
Overall, PTSD looks familiar amongst those whom have
been diagnosed with it; however, the trauma that offset the individual psyches express characteristics in the signs and
symptoms displayed—each case is marked by its origin and cause like a sort of identifiable
traumatic features.
References Brooks, Barbara, Ph. D. & Siegel, Paula M, (1996). The Scared Child:
Helping Kids Overcome Traumatic Events. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Flores, Joaquin E. (1999). “Schooling, Family, and Individual Factors Mitigating Psychological Effects of War on Children.” Current Issues in Comparative Education, 2(1)—November 15. Teachers College, Columbia University.
Johnson, Kendall, Ph. D. (1989). Trauma in the Lives of Children. Alameda: Hunter House Inc.
Keith, Anita L. (2006). For Our Children Our Sacred Beings: Understanding the Impact of Generational Trauma on our Aboriginal Youth. Delta: Healing the Land Publishing.
Lerner, Mark D., Volpe, Joseph S., & Lindell, Brad. (2003). A Practical Guide for Crisis Response in Our Schools (5th Edition). Commack, NY: The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress.
Nickerson, A., Reeves, M., Brock, S., & Jimerson, S. (2009). Identifying, assessing and treating ptsd at school. New York, NY: Springer