Potability of Water Sources in Northern Cebu

7/28/2019 Potability of Water Sources in Northern Cebu

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/potability-of-water-sources-in-northern-cebu 1/33

In this regard, please prepare your final document (not more than 5 pages,including references) for inclusion in the bound copies of the forum output whichwill include the following:

• Introduction: development of the problem under investigation, including

its historical antecedents, and statement of thepurpose of theinvestigation.

• Method: description of the procedures used to conduct the investigation.

• Results: Report of the findings and analyses.

• Discussion: Summary, interpretation and implication of the results.

Title: THE POTABILITY OF WATER SOURCES in DANAO CITY

Research Proponents: ENGR. DELFA G. CASTILLA – Project Leader

DR. ROSE MARY ALMACEN

MR. RICARDO GARBO

DELIA G. SABIO

MA. LUISA T. JOPIA

Introduction:

Before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of

pollution has spread with it.

There is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in the

history of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion

people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). There were 3900 children die

every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures representonly people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher.

According to the report of Jocelyn Uy in the Philippine Daily Inquirer dated January 26,

2008; five of every 10 Filipinos believe water pollution is a serious threat to their health andenvironment (SWS Survey 2008); there is also recent World Bank study warned of a possible

water scarcity problem in the country by 2025.

One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of the

water issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millennium Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to

safe drinking water and sanitation.

Last Feb. 15, 2011, Sunstar Daily reported an outbreak of water-borne diseases of typhoid and cholera in Cebu. Mentioned in particulars were Danao City and Catmon and some

isolated cases in the southern parts of Cebu.This study was conducted in order to assess the water quality of Danao City and Catmon

where the outbreak occurred and also to evaluate the extent of water pollution.

A field experiment was conducted Oct. 1, 2012 and Dec. 13, 2012. Water samples weretaken and subjected to laboratory analysis by University of San Carlos – Laboratory in the

http://www.who.int/entity/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp2005/en/index.html

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/

http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.php?id=744








following parameters; fecal coliforms, total coliforms, pH, turbidity (NTU), total dissolved

solids, chloride, sulfate, total iron, cadmium, lead, and manganese. The environment of the water

sources were also included by fielding questionnaires answered by the caretakers of the water sources.

Laboratory results were compared with the Philippines National Standards for Drinking

Water 2007 with the following results: fecal coliforms in Taytay, Tuburan, Tupas, and Catmonfailed with the respective results Too Numerous To Count (TNTC), 61, 2, and 4; for total

coliforms all samples failed; for total dissolved solids CTU-Sabang, CTU-Centrum, Taytay and

Tupas failed with the results of 565(+9), 645(+37), 562(+16), and 717(+45) respectively; for sulfate only Taytay failed with a result of 302(+2); and for manganese only Tupas failed with a

result of 0.524(+0.00159). All water samples passed in the following parameters; turbidity, pH,

chloride, total iron, cadmium, and lead content. Reasons for water contamination were: near to

the residential areas; near to septic tank; near to the livestock animals; near to industries andschools; don’t have proper waste water disposal practices and some do not have toilets and the

water sources were not cemented or properly contained.

This study concluded that the water from Danao and Catmon were not potable and needs

to be treated prior to distribution.

"There is a water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little

water to satisfy our needs. It is a crisis of managing water so badly that billionsof people - and the environment - suffer badly." World Water Vision Report,

2010

Water is the major constituent of living matter. From 50 to 90 percent of the weight of

living organisms is water (Redmond, 2008). Water is also a universal solvent, wherein ittransport, combine, and chemically break down substances. It is very necessary for earth's natural

processes to occur and therefore sustain life on Earth, not only for humans but also animals, plants and other organisms.When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution would ever present

a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the oceans were far too big to pollute.

Today, with around 7 billion people on the planet, it has become apparent that there are limits.Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded those limits. How serious is the

problem? According to the environmental campaign organization WWF, "Pollution from toxic

chemicals threatens life on this planet. Every ocean and every continent, from the tropics to theonce-pristine polar regions, is contaminated."

While the world's population tripled in the 20th century, the use of renewable water

resources has grown six-fold. Within the next fifty years, the world population will increase by

another 40 to 50 %. (World Water Council, 2004) This population growth - coupled withindustrialization and urbanization - will result in an increasing demand for water and will have

serious consequences on the environment.

There is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in thehistory of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely

1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion

people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). There were 3900 children die





every day from water borne diseases (WHO 2004). One must know that these figures represent

only people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher.

The July, 2004 census of Philippine population is 86.2 million and projected to reach 100million in 14 years. The current population growth rate is 2.71% or 3 persons born per minute.

With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of

Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agriculturalactivities. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural runoff has

caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw

sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils, and even solid waste. Eachof these pollutants has a different noxious effect that influences human livelihood and translates

into economic costs. The adverse impact of water pollution costs the economy an estimated

Php67 billion annually (WEPA, 2003).

According to the report of Jocelyn Uy in the Philippine Daily Inquirer dated January 26,2008; five of every 10 Filipinos believe water pollution is a serious threat to their health and

environment (SWS Survey 2008); there is also recent World Bank study warned of a possible

water scarcity problem in the country by 2025.

One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of thewater issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millennium

Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access tosafe drinking water and sanitation.

Danao City is one of the industrialized cities in Central Visayas. It is a 3 rd class city of

Cebu province with a population of 119,252 as per Philippine Census 2005. The biggestcompany being built in Danao City was the Cebu Mitsumi with more than 10,000 workers. There

are also a lot of factories in Danao built by the Durano’s clan but some of it is not in operation

now. Different cottage industries producing different products; like gun making, pottery, mango

juice, rattan furniture, metal foundry shop and many others. It has its own waterworks system butis available only to the residents in the Poblacion, Looc and Suba. Only 30% of the households

in the “Poblacion” are served by the system. About 13% have individual faucets, while 17% are

using the public faucets. One of the problems plaguing the system is the water pressure. A greatnumber of households, about 40% are getting water from dug wells, springs, or rivers. Others

have artesian wells as sources of water. The two major sources of water in the city are the

Tuburan Springs and Quisol Springs. The volume of supply is estimated to be 2,254 liters per minute or 700 gallons per minute. At present, there are 1,221 households having water

connections with the annual collections at P490,236.00.

Last Feb. 15, 2011, Department of Health (DOH) 7 had asked towns to create a

committee that will focus on monitoring the quality of drinking water. The move came followingreports of outbreaks of water-borne diseases; typhoid and cholera, in four local government units

(LGUs). In Danao City, cholera struck 300 persons and claimed six lives. In Catmon, the DOH 7

recorded 15 diarrhea cases and one death others were in Alegria and Balamban (Sunstar, 2011).With these scenarios, water should

be recognized as a great priority. The proponent wishes to know the extent of water pollution in

Danao City as well as the environmental risk and reliability analysis. Risk and reliability analysismay also provide a general methodology for the assessment of the safety of water related

engineering projects in Danao, thus recommend actions for intervention.

General Objectives:









1. To evaluate the potability of the water sources in the chosen environment through;

a. physical analysis of the saltwater (pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids)

b. microbiological analysis (fecal coliforms, total coliforms)

c. metal analysis (cadmium, lead, manganese)

d. chemical analysis (chloride, sulfate, total iron).

2. To know the status of the potable water sources as per interview by the respondents in

terms possible reasons of contamination.

3. To identify the reasons/sources water pollution, if it is existing.

4. To identify the extent of the seawater seepage in the water sources of Danao City.

5. To formulate an equation for the sea water penetration in the presence of chloride (mgCl/L) with respect to the distance of the water source from the shoreline.

6. To provide awareness to the stakeholders on the extent of safety of potable water in

the city of Danao.



Origin

Genesis 1-2

Population:

Genesis, Aristotle

& MalthusianTheory of

Population

Water

Management

System

Fresh

Water

Water Cycle

Pollution:

Water

Ocean

Desalinatio

n

Water

Quality and

Analysis:

R.A. 9275

Waste

Water

Treatment

Water

Related

Diseases

evaporation

precipitatio

n



Fig. 1. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical and Conceptual Background

“ And God said, let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the openfirmament of heaven.”

Genesis 1:20

God is so great that he don’t want His people to perish, He provided all the

natural resources for the humankind to use. Natural resources include plants, animals,

mineral deposits, soils, clean air, and water. There are 1.3 × 109 km3 of water in the

oceans, 3.3 × 107 km3 in the polar ice caps, 2 × 105 km3 in glaciers, 105 km3 in lakes,

and 1.2 × 103 km3 in rivers. In addition, 2.2 × 105 km3 of water fall annually as

precipitation." (Debenedetti, 2003)

The water in the ocean is salty and not fit to drink. The water in the polar ice caps

and in glaciers will mix with the water in the ocean. The world's oceans comprise 97.3%

of the total water on earth and consist of 5 oceans: Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and

Southern. The current range for the volume of the world's ocean is from 1.3 to 1.5 billion

cubic kilometers and it will still get larger and larger as time passes. These processes

are continuing today. It is estimated that the volume of the earth's ocean increases by 1

cubic meter every year. (Elert, 2001)

About 2 percent of the planet's water is fresh, but 1.6 percent of the planet's

water is locked up in the polar ice caps and glaciers. Another 0.36 percent is found

underground in aquifers and wells. Only about 0.036 percent of the planet's total water



supply is found in lakes and rivers (Qadri, 2000). That's still thousands of trillions of

gallons, but it's a very small amount compared to all the water available. The freshwater

resources, such as the water in streams, rivers, lakes, and groundwater that provide

people and all life forms with most of the water they need every day to live. Even if

freshwater is just 2% it is enough due to water cycle.

Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle is a series of movements of water above, on,

and below the surface of the earth. The water cycle consists of four distinct stages:

storage, evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. Water may be stored temporarily in the

ground; in oceans, lakes, and rivers; and in ice caps and glaciers. It evaporates from the

earth’s surface, condenses in clouds, falls back to the earth as precipitation (rain or

snow), and eventually either runs into the seas or reevaporates into the atmosphere

(Gedzelman, 2008). Almost all the water on the earth has passed through the water

cycle countless times. Very little water has been created or lost over the past billion

years. Water from precipitation which is called rain continually seeps into the ground to

recharge the aquifers, while at the same time water in the ground continually recharges

rivers through seepage. Even though you may only notice water on the Earth's surface,

there is much more freshwater stored in the ground than there is in liquid form on the

surface. In fact, some of the water you see flowing in rivers comes from seepage of

groundwater into river beds. The amount of water that seeps into the ground depends

on how steep the land is and what is under ground. For example: places that have lots

of sand underground will allow more water to sink in than ones that have lots of rock.

When the water seeps down, it will reach a layer of ground that already has water in it.

That is the saturated zone. The highest point in the saturated zone is called the water

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwaquifer.html

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html

http://library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00222/words.htm#qrs

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwaquifer.html

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html

http://library.thinkquest.org/04apr/00222/words.htm#qrs



table. The water table can raise and lower depending on seasons and rainfall.

Groundwater flows through layers of sand, clay, rock, and gravel. This cleans the

water. Because groundwater stays underground, things that fall into surface water can't

fall into it. This means that groundwater stays cleaner than water on the surface. It

has its problems, too. When farmers use fertilizers and insecticides, rain will wash them

into the soil where they get into aquifers or groundwater. Gas stations have big,

underground tanks where they keep the gas. If these leak, the gas sinks into the

groundwater, too. Groundwater doesn't need as much treatment as surface water, but

it usually gets some because of these problems.

Man was created by God to have dominion over the living things that moved

upon the earth (Genesis 1:27-28). Aristotle, the Greek philosopher had theorized that

successful creatures on earth possessed a gift or perfecting principle (King, 2008) that

enabled them to rise to meet the demands of this world. Those who perished did not

have the perfecting principles. Man had mastered procreation that is why the world now

is overpopulated. Malthus (1798) recognized that population if unchecked, grows at a

geometric rate: 1 2 4 8 16 32. However, food only increases at an arithmetic rate, as

land is finite: 1 2 3 4 5 6. Human population tends to grow faster than the power in the

earth to produce subsistence. Today, there are around 7 billion people on the planet

(Woodford, 2012). The effects of these two unequal powers must be kept equal. This

principle can be used as a preventive measure, humans should limit their population

size voluntarily or else we can’t apply the perfecting principle.

It is a tenet of the neo-Malthusian position that population growth inexorably

leads to the destruction of the environment. It is only a matter of time before the earth’s



carrying capacity will collapse under the pressure of people. One of the ways that

humanity is ‘biting the hand that feeds it’ is through pollution of the air and water. Water

pollution is usually caused by human activities.

One traditional way that hydrologists concerned with social water issues measure

scarcity is by looking at per-capita water availability or use; i.e., the water available or

used in a region per person. Assuming that the world's renewable freshwater supply is

relatively constant, the average amount of water available per person in 1850 was about

43,000 cubic meters per year. By 1990, this figure had dropped to 9,000 cubic meters

per year, simply because of the increase in global population. When measured this way,

the spatial and temporal distribution problems described above become even more

evident.

Water pollution can be defined in many ways. Usually, it means one or more

substances have built up in water to such an extent that they cause problems for

animals or people. Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other inland waters can naturally clean up

a certain amount of pollution by dispersing it harmlessly. It is all about quantities: how

much of a polluting substance is released and how big a volume of water it is released

into (MBG, 2006). A small quantity of a toxic chemical may have little impact if it is

spilled into the ocean from a ship. But the same amount of the same chemical can have

a much bigger impact pumped into a lake or river, where there is less clean water to

disperse it. This, in turn, could affect the health of all the plants, animals, and humans

whose lives depend on the river.

A 1971 United Nations report defined ocean pollution as: "The introduction by

man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment



including estuaries resulting in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources,

hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including fishing, impairment of

quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities." Water pollution almost always

means that some damage has been done to an ocean, river, lake, or other water

source. Fortunately, Earth is forgiving and damage from water pollution is often

reversible.

Adult human needs to drink at least 1.5 liters of water a day to replace fluid lost in

urine, sweat, and respired air and to perform essential biochemical functions. Moreover,

almost 90 percent of body mass is water. Water, however, can also carry dangerous

pathogens and toxic chemicals into the body. The catalogue of waterborne pathogens is

long, and it includes many that are well-known as well as far larger numbers of more

obscure organisms. Waterborne pathogens include viruses (e.g., hepatitis A,

poliomyelitis); bacteria (e.g., cholera, typhoid, coliform organisms); protozoa (e.g.,

cryptosporidiosum, amebae, giardia); worms (e.g., schistosomia, guinea worm); and

toxins (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, numerous organic chemicals). (Last, 2000)

Water also harbors the intermediate stages of many parasites, either as free-

living larvae or in some other form, and it is the vehicle for essential stages in the life

cycle of many dangerous insect vectors, notably mosquitoes and blackflies. Chemical

contamination or pollution of drinking water is another serious problem—one that has

become a great deal worse in the modern industrial era, due to the widespread, and

often unregulated, discharge of toxic substances into rivers, lakes, and oceans.

Water sources like springs, rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, wells, reservoirs, and

rainwater runoff into tanks and cisterns can all be contaminated by fecal matter of



human or animal origin (Santo Domingo, 2010). Organic matter of other origin like dead

animals and decaying vegetation can contaminate drinking water too, in ways that

range from very dangerous to merely unpleasant.

There is no easy way to solve water pollution; if there were, it wouldn't be so

much of a problem. Broadly speaking, there are three different things that can help to

tackle the problem—education, laws, and economics—and they work together as a

team (Woodford, 2012). Educating the people is a way of making them aware of the

problem so that they can stop dumping their waste water anywhere. Concerned citizens

should form a group as a watchdog for water quality. Greater public awareness can

make a positive difference. The best to implement the effective Waste Water

Management is by passing laws whether local, national or global. The international laws

governing the oceans are as follows; the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

(signed by over 120 nations), the 1978 MARPOL International Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and the 1998 OSPAR Convention for the Protection

of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic . Most countries also have their

own water pollution laws. In the United States, for example, there is the 1972 Clean

Water Act and the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. In the Philippines, Republic Act No.

9275 was enacted last 2004 otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act. Its aim

is to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution from land-based sources like

industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and community/household

activities. It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and

minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the

stakeholders.

http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm

http://www.imo.org/about/conventions/listofconventions/pages/international-convention-for-the-prevention-of-pollution-from-ships-(marpol).aspx


http://www.ospar.org/


http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/cwa.html


http://www.epa.gov/regulations/laws/sdwa.html

http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm







http://www.epa.gov/regulations/laws/sdwa.html



Most environmental experts agree that the best way to tackle pollution is through

something called the polluter pays principle (Woodford, 2012). This means that whoever

causes pollution should have to pay to clean it up, one way or another. Polluter pays

can operate in all kinds of ways. It could mean that tanker owners should have to take

out insurance that covers the cost of oil spill cleanups, for example. It could also mean

that shoppers should have to pay for their plastic grocery bags, as is now common in

Ireland, to encourage recycling and minimize waste. Or it could mean that factories that

use rivers must have their water inlet pipes downstream of their effluent outflow pipes,

so if they cause pollution they themselves are the first people to suffer. Ultimately, the

polluter pays principle is designed to deter people from polluting by making it less

expensive for them to behave in an environmentally responsible way. With these

suggested strategies, the Malthusian Theory will not happen.

Water from suspect sources usually can be made safe to drink by boiling.

Ancient empirical observation of this fact in India and China may have led to the

popularity in those countries of drinking tea and other infusions made with boiling water.

However, boiling is neither practical nor sensible for the treatment of large municipal

water supplies. These must be protected by appropriate treatment measures—filtration

and purification generally through chlorination that were developed mainly in the

nineteenth century in the industrial nations. Provision of safe drinking water supplies

has been among the most effective and important measures ever taken to advance the

public's health.

The other essential components in the prevention of waterborne diseases are the

sanitary disposal of sewage and the environmental control of toxic chemicals. Sanitary

http://www.explainthatstuff.com/recycling.html

http://www.explainthatstuff.com/recycling.html



services are based on sewage disposal systems in most organized urban communities.

The combination of sanitary disposal of human sewage and the provision of safe water

supplies has virtually eliminated many of the serious waterborne epidemic diseases that

took such a heavy toll of life until the early years of the twentieth century. However,

sanitary services break down when floods, earthquakes, and other disasters occur, and

at such times it is essential to boil water to ensure that pathogens are killed. Other

methods, such as the use of iodine or chloramine in tablet or powder form are

sometimes used; both under emergency conditions and by backpackers and the like,

but these methods are less effective than boiling.

For general guidelines to have a safe potable water some tips are suggested

WEPA, 2012. Potable water should be tested more often if there’s suspect of water

contamination. Each year, test for coliform bacteria, nitrate, pH and TDS should be

done. It is best to test these contaminants during summer or following a rainy period.

These kinds of tests should also be conducted after repairing or replacing an old well or

pipes, and after installing a new well pump. Every 3 years, test for sulfate, chloride,

iron, manganese, lead, hardness and corrosion index should be done. If a new baby is

expected in the household it is a good idea to test for nitrate in the early months of a

pregnancy, before bringing an infant home, and again during the first 6 months of the

baby's life. (http://inspectapedia.com/water/watrtest.htm, 2012)

Where you live, or what you are living next to, can sometimes affect the quality of

your well water. If someone in your family becomes ill, or the taste, odor or color of your

water changes, your water supply may be contaminated. If your well is in an area of

intensive agricultural use: test for pesticides commonly used in the area, coliform

http://inspectapedia.com/water/watrtest.htm,%202012




bacteria, nitrate, pH and TDS. If you live near a coal or other mining operation: test for

iron, manganese, aluminum, pH and corrosion index. If your well is near a gas drilling

operation: test for chloride, sodium, barium and strontium. If your water, smells like

gasoline or fuel oil, and your well is located near on operational or abandoned gas

station or buried fuel storage tanks: test for fuel components or volatile organic

compounds ('OC's). If your well is near a dump, junkyard, landfill, factory, or dry

cleaning operation: test for volatile organic chemicals (such as gasoline components

and cleaning solvents) pH, TDS, chloride, sulfate and metals. If your well is near

seawater, a road salt storage site, or a heavily salted roadway and you notice the water

tastes salty or signs of corrosion appear on pipes: test for chloride, TDS and sodium.

(http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-the-safe-distance-between-a-water-sourface-and-

a-toilet.html)

Amrita Virtual Lab Collaborative Platform had the following theories about water

content:

Water clarity is measured by monitoring the turbidity. This is useful to check the

effectiveness of the treatment process, but is no use in controlling dosing or

investigating the source of a problem if one arises. Turbidity is the amount of particulate

matter that is suspended in water. Turbidity measures the scattering effect that

suspended solids have on light: the higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the

turbidity.

Alkalinity is an aggregate property of the water sample which measures the acid-

neutralizing capacity of a water sample. It can be interpreted in terms specific

substances only when a complete chemical composition of the sample is also

http://www.experts123.com/q/what

http://www.experts123.com/q/what



performed. The alkalinity of surface water is due to the carbonate, bicarbonate and

hydroxide content and is often interpreted in terms of the concentrations of these

constituents. Higher the alkalinity, greater is the capacity of water to neutralize acids.

Conversely lower the alkalinity less will be the neutralizing capacity. Alkalinity of sample

can be estimated by titration with standard H 2SO4 or HCI solution. Titration to pH 8.3 or

decolorization of phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete neutralization of OH -

and 1/2 of CO32-, while to pH 4.5 or sharp change from yellow to orange of methyl

orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity.

Saline water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt while fresh water has less than

1,000 ppm (Water Supply Paper, 1958). This saline water can be made into freshwater,

which everyone needs everyday. The process is called desalination, and it is being

used more and more around the world to provide people with needed freshwater.

Advances in technology are allowing desalination to become a reliable and cost-

effective water-scarcity solution transforming both brackish and sea water into fresh

water.

The Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water were presented in Table 1

as adapted by University of San Carlos – Water Laboratory wherein eleven parameters

of drinking water quality will be tested.

Table 1 Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water adapted by USC-Water Lab

Parameters Method Used Maximum Level (mg/L)Physical & Chemical Test:Turbidity Turbidity Meter 5 NTU (Nepheloturbidity unit)pH Glass Electrode 6.5-8.5Total dissolved solids Gravimetric 500Chloride Argentometric Titration 250.0Sulfate Turbidimetric 250.00Total Iron Phenanthroline, Colorimetric 1.0

Microbiological Test:



Fecal Coliforms Membrane Filtration <1 fecal coliform colony/100 mlTotal Coliforms Membrane Filtration <1 fecal coliform colony/100 ml

Trace Metals:Cadmium AAS Flame Technique 0.003Lead AAS Flame Technique 0.01Manganese AAS Flame Technique 0.4

According to the Secretary of Health, Francisco T. Duque III (2007), the common

causes of drinking water pollutants were as follows:

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of water (or other fluid) caused by

individual particles that are too small to be seen without magnification. Turbidity in

drinking water is caused by particulate matter that may be present from source as a

consequence of inadequate filtration or from resuspension of sediment in the

distribution system. Most causes turbidity are due to the presence of suspended matter

such as clay, silt, fine organic or inorganic matter and microorganisms. Soil scientists

divide soil particles, also known as soil separates, into three main size groups: sand,

silt, and clay. According to the classification scheme used by the United States

Department of Agriculture (USDA), the size designations are: sand, 0.05 to 2.00 mm

(0.002 to 0.08 in); silt 0.002 to 0.05 mm (0.00008 to 0.002 in); and clay, less than 0.002

mm (0.00008 in). Depending upon the rock materials from which they were derived,

these assorted mineral particles ultimately release the chemicals on which plants

depend for survival, such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, iron,

and manganese.

The degree of water turbidity affects the amount of sunlight that can penetrate

through the water column and may therefore be a limiting factor of photosynthesis of

marine plants.



pH is a numerical measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water ranging from 0 to

14. Neutral waters have pH near 7. Acidic waters have pH less than 7 and alkaline

waters have pH greater than 7.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) in drinking water originate from natural sources,

sewage, urban runoff and industrial wastewater.

Chloride in drinking water originates from natural sources, sewage and industrial

effluents, urban runoff, and seawater intrusion. Seawater intrusion or salinity is defined

as the total solids in water after all carbonates have been converted to oxides, all

bromides and iodide have been replaced by chloride, and all organic matter has been

oxidized. Terms associated with salinity are chlorinity and chlorosity. Chlorinity includes

chloride, bromide,and iodide, all reported as chloride while chlorosity is the chlorinity

multiplied by water density at 20oC.

The chloride content of water is often used as a guiding parameter for the salt

content of water, e.g. in case of the intrusion of seawater into an aquifer or the

estimation of the inorganic pollution of water.

Sulfates occur in natural waters and in wastewater. If high concentrations are

consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative

effects, but there is no significant danger to public health from sulfates.

Iron is found in natural fresh waters. It may be present in drinking water as a

result of the use or iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during

water distribution.

Fecal Coliforms Bacteria is a group of bacteria normally present in large

numbers in the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm‐blooded animals.



Specifically, the group includes all the rod‐shaped bacteria that are non‐spore‐forming,

Gram‐Negative, lactose‐fermenting in 24 hours at 44.5°C, and which can grow with or

without oxygen. Bacteria included in this classification represent a subgroup of the

larger group termed “coliform. “

Drinking-water supplies should be free from contamination by human and animal

excreta, which can contain a variety of microbial contaminants. Microbiological

parameters are indices of potential waterborne diseases and, in general, are limited to

bacteria, viruses and pathogenic protozoa. The major interest in classifying and issuing

standards is the identification, quantification, and evaluation of organisms associated

with waterborne diseases. Practically, all pathogenic organisms that can be carried by

water originate from the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals.

Bacterial intestinal pathogens known to be transmitted in drinking-water are

strains of Salmonella, Shigella, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae,

Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter fetus, Legionella pneumophila although, a

soil bacterium, may be contracted by inhalation exposure to the bacteria in water.

There are also many common viral and protozoan organisms that transmit disease in

humans. Human enteric viruses that may be present in water include Poliovirus,

Echovirus, Coxsackie Virus A, Coxsackie Virus B, new enterovirus types 68-71,

Hepatitis type A, Gastroenteritis type Norwalk, Rotavirus and Adenovirus. The

protozoans are Giardia, Cryptosporidium spp, Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli,

Naegleria and Acanthamoeba. (CE 521B Notes 1, 2nd sem AY 2010-2011 Department

of Civil Engineering University of San Carlos)



Public health concern regarding cyanobacteria relates to their potential to

produce a variety of toxins, known as “cyanotoxins.” In contrast to pathogenic bacteria,

cyanobacteria do not proliferate within the human body after uptake; they proliferate

only in the aquatic environment before intake. Toxic peptides (e.g., microcystins) are

usually contained within the cells and may be largely eliminated by filtration. However,

toxic alkaloids such as cylindrospermospsin and neurotoxins are also released into the

water and may pass through filtration systems. Frequent examinations for fecal indicator

organisms remain as the most sensitive and specific way of assessing the hygienic

quality of water. Fecal indicator bacteria should fulfill certain criteria to give meaningful

results. The tests required to detect specific pathogens are generally very difficult and

expensive so it is impractical for water systems to routinely test for specific types of

organisms. A more practical approach is to examine the water for indicator organisms

specifically associated with fecal contamination. An indicator organism essentially

provides evidence of fecal contamination from humans or warm-blooded animals. The

criteria for an ideal organism are as follows: a. Always present when pathogenic

organism of concern is present, and absent in clean, uncontaminated water. b. Present

in large numbers in the feces of humans and warm-blooded animals c. Respond to

natural environmental conditions and to treatment process in a manner similar to the

waterborne pathogens of interest d. Readily detectable by simple methods, easy to

isolate, identify and enumerate e. Ratio of indicator/pathogen should be high f. Indicator

and pathogen should come from the same source or gastrointestinal tract.

Coliform Organisms (Total Coliforms) is defined as all the aerobic and

facultative anaerobic, gram-negative, nonsporeforming, rod-shaped bacteria that



ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 h at 35oC. This definition includes E. coli ,

the most numerous facultative bacterium in the feces of warm-blooded animals, plus

species belonging to the genera Enterobacter , Klebsiella, and Citrobacter .

Total coliform could be considered as part of natural aquatic flora because of their

regrowth in water. Because of this characteristic, their detection in water supply may

mean false positive for fecal contamination. Another way by which false positive can

occur is when the bacteria Aeromonas is present in the sample. Aeromonas can

biochemically mimic the coliform group. False negatives can occur when coliforms are

present along with high populations of HPC bacteria. The presence of HPC bacteria

may restrict the activities of coliform group bacteria. Water intended for human

consumption should contain no indicator organisms.

However, pathogens more resistant to conventional environmental conditions or

treatment technologies may be present in treated drinking-water in the absence of E.

coli or total coliforms. Protozoa and some enteroviruses are more resistant to many

disinfectants including chlorine, and may remain viable and pathogenic in drinking-water

following disinfection process.

Cadmium is used in manufacture of steel, plastics and battery and released to

the environment through wastewater or fumes. Cadmium is released in water supply as

impurity of the zinc coating of galvanized pipes and solders and metal fittings.

Lead may be present in water primarily from plumbing systems containing lead

pipes, solder, fittings or the service connections to the homes. Although it may be found

naturally occurring in certain areas, rarely is it present in water supply as a result of its

dissolution from natural sources.



Manganese is naturally occurring in many surface and groundwater sources,

particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation conditions.

The minimum frequency of sampling for drinking water were presented in Table 2

taken from the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water.

Table 2. Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-Water Supply Systems

Source & Mode of Supply

PopulationServed

Frequency of Sampling

Microbiological Test Physical &Chemical Test

Level 1 90-500 Once in 3 months Once a year Level 2 600 Once in 2 months Once a year Level 3 Less than

5,0001 sample/month Once a year

5,000-100,000 1 sample/5000 population monthly Once a year More than100,000

20 samples & additional 1sample/10,000 population monthly

Once a year

Emergency Supplies of Drinking Water

Before delivery to users Once a year

Water Refilling Stations 1 sample monthly Twice a year Water VendingMachines

1 sample monthly Twice a year

Related Literature

The study made by Alalim (2006) in Daanbantayan, Cebu had a similarity in this

study. However, that study was descriptive in which the extent of water potability was

based on the perceptions of the respondents. This study will use both descriptive and

experimental method in which different parameters will be measured to identify the

presence of pollutants in the fresh water. The degree of seawater seepage will be also

determined and will be used for forecasting of fresh water availability.

Population growth, urbanization, and industrialization reduce the quality of

Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and

agricultural activities as quoted by Pulley and Serra in the Philippine Environment

Monitor 2003. The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agricultural



runoff has caused extensive pollution of the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in

the form of raw sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils,

and even solid waste. Each of these pollutants has a different noxious effect that

influences human livelihood and translates into economic costs. The adverse impact of

water pollution costs the economy an estimated Php 67 billion annually (more than US $

1.3 billion). The Government continues its fight against worsening water pollution by

espousing and including among its priorities, environment policies, legislation, and

decrees that address the growing need to control water pollution. In the last few years,

the Government has also employed economic instruments such as pollution fines and

environmental taxes. The pending Clean Water Act proposes an integrated, holistic,

decentralized and participatory approach to abating, preventing and controlling water

pollution in the country. This monumental step, taken collectively by various

stakeholders, is the first attempt to consolidate different fragmented laws and provide a

unified direction and focus to fighting water pollution.

The Philippines Environment Monitor 2003 comprises eight sections: (i) an

overview of the country’s water quality and availability status, and water pollution

conditions of surface, ground and coastal waters by region; (ii) the sources of water

pollution, including various types of effluents, their generation, and the effects of

wastewater discharges to human health and the environment; (iii) the four critical

regions that were found to have unsatisfactory rating for water quality and quantity; (iv)

the effects and economic losses due to polluted waters, health cost, and costs to fishery

and tourism sectors; (v) a description of the water policies, institutional arrangements in

water resources management, and enforcement of standards and economic



instruments; (vi) urban sanitation and sewerage program and performance; (vii)

investment requirements in water pollution control; and (viii) the challenges in

implementing an integrated water resources management program.

Methodology

Descriptive method was undertaken in this study. It underwent three Phases;

Phase 1 was the identification of water sources in Danao City through interview of the

Department Head of Danao City Water Works. Phase 2 will be the sampling stage by

taking water samples from the water sources in five areas in Danao City and were

subjected to different water analysis like physical analysis (turbidity, pH, total dissolved

solids), microbiological analysis (fecal coliforms, total coliforms), metal analysis

(cadmium, lead, manganese), and chemical analysis (chloride, sulfate, iron). The

testing will be done only once per area since the water sources were identified under

Level 1 and 2 as per Philippine National Standards for drinking water. The water

samples will be taken right away to the accredited water testing center of USC-Water

Laboratory.

Phase 3 was the personal interview with the caretaker of the deep well following

the self-made questionnaire and field inspections wherein actual measurements were

done and actual observations of the state of the sampling site were also recorded by the

researcher.



Letter requesting permission to conduct the study were made and was given to

Danao City mayor personally and to the barangay captains of Sabang, Tuburan,

Poblacion and Taytay.

Data was in terms of frequencies, percentages, and mean using MegaStat

software. Regression formula was also used in identifying the extent of the sea water

seepage through the presence of chloride in the water sample with respect to the

distance of the water source from the shoreline.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 3. Water Testing Laboratory Results by the USC-Water Laboratory

PARAMETER CTU, Sabang CTU-CENTRUM,Sabang

TAYTAY TUBURAN SUR TUPAZ,Poblacion

PNSDrinking

Water 2007

Fecal Coliforms <1 <1 TNTC 61 2 <1

Total Coliforms 2 1 TNTC TNTC 49 <1

Turbidity (NTU) 0.07 0.51 0.43 0.76 0.13 5

pH 7.09 7.16 6.98 6.80 7.06 6.5 – 8.5

Total dissolved solids 565 (+9) 645(+37) 562

(+16)

475 (+19) 717(+45) 500

Chloride (mg Cl/L) 80.8 111 39.2 17.6 50.9 250.0

Sulfate (mg SO4 /L) 19.8(+0.1) 4.75(+0.47) 302 (+2) 11.7(+1.2) 62.8(+0.9) 250.00

Total Iron (mg Fe/L) 0.02 0.023(+0.001) 0.05 0.22(+0.01) 0.035(+0.003) 1.0

Cadmium (mg Cd/L) <0.00025 <0.00025 <0.00025 <0.00025 0.00145(+0.00010) 0.003

Lead (mg Pb/L) <0.0075 <0.0075 <0.0075 <0.0075 <0.0075 0.01

Manganese (mg Mn/L) 0.0012(+0.0002) 0.0024(+0.0001) 0.0027 0.0009(+0.0001) 0.5241(+0.0159) 0.4

Note: TNTC – Too Numerous To Count (>200 colonies per 100 ml)PNS – Philippine National StandardNumber in parenthesis ( ), denotes 95% confidence levelFailed as to PNS Drinking Water 2007

Water samples were taken from five sources in Danao City specifically in CTU

Sabang, CTU-CENTRUM Sabang, Taytay, Tuburan Sur, and Tupaz Poblacion. Only

the parameters that failed as to PNS Drinking Water 2007 were being discussed in

order to trace the possible reasons of the contaminants.



Table 4. Contaminant Source Inventory Table

Questions CTU-Danao CTU-Centrum

Taytay TuburanSur

Tupaz,Poblacion

Year Constructed 1968 2010 1983 1989 1952Deep of the Drilling (ft) 55 140 20 40 40Maintained by Agency/Private CTU-Danao CTU-Danao Private City Hall PrivateFrequency of PreventiveMaintenance

Once amonth

Once amonth

None None None

Is there a budget for maintenance?

Yes Yes None Yes None

Last water treatment Jan. 11, 2010 None None None NoneIs there a presence of corrosion in

the pipe?

Yes None Yes Yes Yes

Cemented area surrounding thedeep well (square meters)

None 16 20 None 16

Did the users washed their clothes near the well? (within 100m)

No No Yes Yes Yes

Did the users take a bath or bathetheir animals near the well?

No No Yes Yes No

Did you see any unrestrictedlivestock 100 meters away?

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Number of population/householdsusing the deep well

2,000population

2,000population

5 households 107households

50households

All the households have toilets Yes Yes Yes No YesIs it shady? (sun rays cannot

penetrate within the area?

Yes No No Yes Yes

Is there a presence of soil erosionwithin 100m perimeter?

No No No Yes No

Distance of the nearest house(meters)

9 6 2 8 6

Distance of the nearest septictank (meters)

11 19 10 56 10

Distance of the nearest vegetablegarden or agricultural farm usingpesticides within 100

None None None None None

Distance of the nearest poultry,piggery or livestock animals (m)

None 142 60 22 None

Distance of the nearestuncemented water drainage

None 87 100 None 300

Distance of the nearest industrialsite or factory (meters)

250 200 300 1000 500

What is their product or business? Furniture/car wash

Furniture/car wash

Gasolinestation/FoodProducts

FoodProducts

Hospital

Distance from the public road (m) 300 230 25 30 15Distance from the shoreline(meters)

250 450 950 2500 750

What kind of soil the area has asto texture? (sand, clay, silt)

Silt Silt Sand Silt Sand



Taytay

Figure 2.



Fig. 2 Map of potential contaminant sources depicted on an aerial view

Microbiological Test Result (Fecal and Total Coliforms)

As to microbiological tests specifically Total Coliforms all the water sources failed

since the PNS Drinking Water Standard should be less than one fecal colony per 100 ml

of water. CTU-CENTRUM had 1, CTU - Sabang had 2, Tupaz Poblacion had 49 and

Taytay and Tuburan Sur had too numerous to count or more than 200 colonies per

100 ml of water.

In order to identify and locate potential sources of contamination, the caretaker of

the five deep wells were being interviewed and the results were presented in Table 4.

All samples taken from the different sampling stations were found to be well below the

required level of tolerated quantity of coliform for drinking water. High level of coliform

found in Taytay is quite understandable due to the following reasons; even if the area

near the well had been cemented the nearest septic tank is only 10 meters which is

supposed to be to 100 meters away from the water source to avoid water

contamination; dogs also roam around the area and as dogs it’s just normal to moved

their wastes anywhere thus contaminating the water source; a piggery can be found

within 60 meters thus adding contamination.

Same thing in Tuburan Sur wherein the users bathe their animals near the well

and while the animals were taking a bath they just move their feces there and since it is

not cemented the animal feces goes directly to the water source; not all households

have toilets, so they just move their wastes anywhere where they can’t be seen and the



human waste goes to the water source as well; the nearest septic tank is only 56 meters

away and a piggery can be found 22 meters away which added air pollution aside from

water pollution.

In Tupaz, Poblacion only the septic tank which is 10 meters away caused the

presence of 2 fecal coliforms and 49 total coliforms which made the water not suitable

for drinking. It can be used for cooking provided that it should undergo a boiling point.

In CTU-Danao Campus dogs, cats, chicken and goats were roaming around the

campus and the nearest septic tank is only 9 meters away thus contaminating the water

sources.

Test Result of Total Dissolved Solids

All the water sources being tested except in Tuburan Sur failed as to the amount

of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ranging from 562-717 mg solids/L which is 12 to 43%

higher than the PNSDW for TDS. The possible reasons of the this contamination were

as follows; CTU-Danao is very near to DECA Homes which is just 9 meters away and

also near the school canteen which don’t have a proper waste water disposal. The

nearest furniture shop is just 250 meters away. CTU-Centrum water source is 6 meters

to the nearest residence, 19 meters to the nearest septic tank and 200 meters to the

furniture shop. The deep wells of Taytay and Tupaz, Poblacion were privately owned

and within the residential areas thus the greater the presence of total dissolved solids.

Sulfates Test Result

With regards to the amount of sulfates only the deep well in Taytay failed since

the nearest septic tank is just 10 meters away and it is within a residential area and

there is also the presence of a river 100 meters away.



Manganese Test Result

The deep well in Tupaz, Poblacion was higher by 31% in manganese content

than the PNS Drinking Water since it is located in the city proper and most of the areas

there are cemented so oxygen cannot penetrate within the soil. Manganese can be

found in an anaerobic or low oxidation conditions.

Chloride/Salinity

Nowadays, there’s an invasion of a body of fresh water by a body of salt water,

due to its greater density as a result of global warming. It can occur either in surface or

groundwater bodies thus it can contaminate our water sources. So, according to USC-

Water Laboratory the chloride content of water is often used as a guiding parameter for

the salt content or the salinity of the water source.

Table 5. Cloride content of the water source and its distance from the nearest shoreline

Chloride (mg Cl/L)PNS=250

Distance from the shoreline(meters)

CTU-Sabang 80.8 712CTU-Centrum 111 450Taytay 39.2 950Tuburan Sur 17.6 2500Tupaz, Pob. 50.9 750

Regression Analysis

r² 0.622

Adjusted r² 0.496

r -0.789Std. Error 580.653

n 5

k 1

Dep. Var. (meters)

ANOVA table

Source SS df MS F p-value



Regression1,662,761.509

1 1 1,662,761.5091 4.93 .1130

Residual1,011,473.690

9 3 337,157.8970

Total2,674,235.200

0 4

Regression output confidence interval

variables coefficients std. error t (df=3) p-

value95%

lower 95% upper

Intercept 2,128.7184 541.9261 3.928 .0294 404.0677 3,853.3691

PNS=250 -17.6347 7.9409 -2.221 .1130 -42.9062 7.6368

b: -17.63469739

a: 2128.718374

Formula: y=a+bx

Example: if x = 100 meters

y=a+bx=2128.718374+(-17.63469739)(100)=365 mg/L of chloride

In using this regression formula, if the distance of the water source from the

nearest shoreline is 100 meters, there will be 365 mg/L of chloride, it means that the

nearer the water source to the shoreline the greater is the presence of chloride which is

also the indication of the sea water penetration.

GANNT CHART

Table 5. Shows the work schedule of the whole research project

Activities June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan

Preliminaries

Distribution of Questionnaires & Interviews

First Water Sampling

Second Water Sampling

Third Sea Water Sampling

Data Processing



Report Writing & Editing

Submission of Reports / Dissemination

BUDGETARY REQUIREMENTS

Honorarium Php 36,000.00Supplies, Materials, Gadgets 4,500.00Travelling Expense 15,000.00Sea Water Analysis Fee 81,500.00TOTAL BUDGET Php 137,000.00

References:

Alalim, Marichu D. (2006) “Bacteriological Characteristics and Utilization of PotableWater Supply in Daanbantayan, Cebu: Proposed Intervention Plan.

Debenedetti, Pablo G. & H. Eugene Stanley. "Supercooled and Glassy Water"Physics Today. Vol. 56, No. 6 (June 2003): 40.

Elert, Glenn. 2001. “The Physics Factbook”.http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/SyedQadri.shtml.

Gedzelman, Stanley David. 2008. “Water Cycle.” Microsoft Student 2009 (DVD).

Gleick, P. H. 1996. “Water Resources”. Encylopedia of Climate Weather. OxfordUniversity Press, New York, Vol. 2. Pp 817-823

Grogan, Patricia, FCJ. 1997. “Christian Community Bible”. Cathlic Bishops of thePhilippines. Claretian Publications, Quezon City, Philippines.

King, Christoper & Scott, Eugenie C. 2008. “Evolution”. Microsoft Student 2009. (DVD).

Last, John M. 2000. “Ambient Water Quality”. USGS Water Supply Paper.

Malthus, T.R. 1798. “An essay on the principle of population.” Chapter 2, p 18. OxfordWorld’s Classics Reprint.

Missouri Botanical Garden (MBG). 2006.

Paredes, Armando H., et al; 2010. Asia-Pacific Water Forum.

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/SyedQadri.shtml

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/SyedQadri.shtml



Pulley, Robert Vance & Serra Maria Teresa; “Philippines Environment Monitor 2003”.282970PHOEnvironment0monitor.pdf. Date viewed 12-13-2011.

Qadri, Syed S. 2000. “How much mater is there on Earth?”..com.http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/question157.htm (Date viewed: May 21, 2012)

Redmond, W.A. 2008. “Water” Microsoft Student 2009 (DVD).

Santo Domingo, Jorge, Ashbolt Nicholas J. 2010. “Fecal pollution of water”. Ecyclopediaof Earth.

Shyking. 2009. Microsoft Encarta.

Speight, James. 2008. “Tar Sand”. Microsoft Encarta.

Strickland. 2008. Microsoft Encarta.

Uy, Jocelyn. Philippine Daily Inquirer. 1/26/2008

Woodford, Chris. 2012. “Explain That Stuff”. http://www.explainthatstuff.com/chris- woodford.html. Last Updated: April 25, 2012. (Date Viewed: May 21,2012)

Zimmer, D. & Renault D. 2003. “Republic Act 9275” The Philippine Clean Water Act.

http://www/wepa-db.net/policies/law/philippines/pd9275.htm

Amrita Virtual Lab Collaborative Platform (Ver 0.2.60), 2012. http://amrita.vlab.co.in/?sub=2&brch=193&sim=575&cnt=5

“Introduction to microbial water analysis”. http://inst.bact.wisc.edu/inst/index.php?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id=27215-1

Lenntech B.V, 2011. http://www.lenntech.com/water-pollution-faq.htm#ixzz1vU5X6xUT


http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/state/philippines/overview.htm

http://inspectapedia.com/water/watrtest.htm, 2012

http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geophysics/question157.htm


http://www.explainthatstuff.com/chris-%20%20%20%20woodford.html



http://www.lenntech.com/water-pollution-faq.htm#ixzz1vU5X6xUT









http://www.lenntech.com/water-pollution-faq.htm#ixzz1vU5X6xUT






http://www.experts123.com/q/what-is-the-safe-distance-between-a-water-source-and-a-toilet.html)

American Waterworks Association. 2002. The How, Where and Why of Applying HACCP to Water . Workshop Manual for American Waterworks AssociationWater Quality Technology Conference, Seattle, November 10, 2002.Presented by the World Health Organization, Sydney Catchment Authority,and Melbourne Water.Berry, T and Failing, L. 2003. Source to Tap Assessment Risk Assessment WorkshopNotes. September, 23, 2003. Compass Resource Management.Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 2004. From source to tap:Guidance on the multibarrier

approach to safe drinking water . Produced jointlyby the Federal‐Provincial‐Territorial Committee on Drinking Water and the

CCME Water Quality Task Group. http://www.ccme.ca/sourcetotap/mba.html.

Prepared by:

DELFA G. CASTILLACTU – Danao Campus

Documents

Potability of Water Sources in Northern Cebu