Potential for Vicia and Lathyrus Species As New Grain and Fodder Legumes for Southern Australia

8/14/2019 Potential for Vicia and Lathyrus Species As New Grain and Fodder Legumes for Southern Australia.

1/79


2/79

V.

Introduction.P.S. Cocks 1Vetches(Viciaspp.) and Chicklings(Lathyrusspp.) in the Farm ing Systems in West A siaand N orth Africa a nd Improvem ent of these Crops at ICARDA .M.C. Saxena, AM. AbdElMoneim, andM. Ratinam 2Genetic Resources ofLathyrus an d Vicia,and Associated Qu arantine Problems.R Reid E. Bettencourt and J. Konopka 10The International an d Local Market Prospects for Viciaan d Lathyrus.R R e e s 2 0Toxins an d Unpalatability Factors.M.E. TateandD . Enneking 39The R ole of the Co-operative Research Centre for Legumes in Mediterranean Agriculturein Developing New Legume Crops.M. W Perry 47Regional Summary - New South Wales and Queensland.H.Marcellos 58Situation Statement for Vetches in South A ustralia.L Kahne and W Bull 61The Current Status of Vicia(Vetch) andLathyrus in Victoria.A.D.McIntyre 66Preliminary Studies on ViciaandLathyrus in Western Australia.K.H.M.Siddique and G H Walton 70


3/79

IntroductionP.S.Cocks

Professor of Crop and Pasture ScienceUniversity of Western Australia.In September 1992 the Grains Research andDevelopment Corporation (GRDC) sponsored aWorkshop at the University of Western Australiato discuss the development of Vicia an d Lathyrusfor use as grain legumes in the wheatbelt ofAustralia. The Workshop was recognition of theimportance of legumes in grain-producing farmingsystems and of the paucity of legumes available tocereal farmers in dry areas where the soils areshallow, fine-textured or neutral to alkaline.Participants came from all States of Australia, andfrom the International Center for AgriculturalResearch in Dry Areas (ICARDA) at Aleppo, innorth Syria. ICARD A has a large research andbreeding program focussed on chickpeas andlentils but also including Viciaand Lathyrus.Lupins and peas are the most important grainlegum es in Australia. In Western Australia, thearea sown to lupins has increased from 50,000 hato approximately 750,000 ha in the last 10 years tomake it by far the most important grain legume.Nevertheless, lupins have several problems - lowand variable yields on shallow and fine texturedsoils, low harvest index and susceptibility to brownleaf spot and Pleiochaeta root rot. Field peas havebeen less successful, occupying about 40,000 ha inWestern A ustralia.While many of the problems of peas and lupinswill be overcome by breeding within species,another approach is to explore new genera.Chickpeas and lentils are two species that needfurther research, but there are two other groupsthat are as yet little more than wild plants. Theseare species of Lathyrus an d Vicia, both native ofthe Mediterranean basin, and both with germplasmknown to do well in areas unsuitable for lupins -dry climates and fine textured neutral to alkalinesoils. The papers in this publication examine thepotential value of these groups in Australia, andlay the ground work for a research program todevelopLathyrus an d Vicia.

Both genera contain many species includingLathyrus sativus, L. cicera, L. ochrus, Vicia sativa,V. narbonensis an d V. villosa. Altogether, 14species of Lathyrus have been cultivatedsomewhere in the World and 15 species of Vicia.V faba also belongs to the Viciagroup but was notconsidered at the Workshop because it is alreadyan established grain legume. Neverthe less, severalparticipants considered that insufficient researchonV faba had been conducted in Australia.

Apart from some information on toxins inV sativaand antipalatability factors in V. narbonensis itrapidly became apparent that there is littleinformation on either genus from Australia. Th isin spite of considerable practical experience withV sativa in South Australia and Victoria. NoLathyrus has been grown in Australia, eithercommercially or, as far as the meeting could tell,experimentally. However, the information fromICARDA is much more extensive. Their researchshows that some germplasm from both genera areadapted to areas with very low rainfall, andalthough the dangers of extrapolation arerecognised, the potential value of ICARDAgermplasm for Australia is clearly considerable.Perhaps the most exciting species is V. narbonsis,if only we can rid it of the various antipalatabilityfactors currently restricting its use. Apart fromthese it is already a crop with good architecture,resemblingV faba, but able to grow in much drierareas. Lathyrus spp. and V. sativa containcomplex neurotoxins and, in south Asia, whereL. sativus is widely grown, excessive consumptioncauses lathyrism, a disorder of the central nervoussystem. Elimin ation of neurotoxins is high on thelist of priorities in the de velopment of both g roups.The organisers wish to thank GRDC forsponsoring the Workshop, especially the PlantImprovem ent Committee. They also wish to than kthe University of Western Australia and theCooperative Research Centre for Legumes inMediterranean Agriculture.


4/79

Vetches(Viciaspp.) and Chicklings(Lathyrusspp.) in the Farm ing Systemsin West Asia and North Africa and I mprovement of these Crops atICARDA.M .C. Saxena, A.M.A bdElMoneim, andM .Ratinam

International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry AreasAleppo, Syria.IntroductionThe west Asia and north Africa (WANA) region isexperiencing an increasing pressure on itsagricultural resource base due to rapidly growinglivestock and human populations (FAO, 1987;Alexa ndratos, 198 8). Shortage of anim al feed isinflicting a heavy burden on the range lands,which are deterioratin g. Severe feed and fooddeficits have also triggered the replacement offallow-barley rotations with continuous barley inthe dryland agriculture and increased cropping onmarginal lands with attendant degradation of thesoil resource base (Jubert, 1985; Oram, 1988).Expansion of cultivation of such legumes asvetches (Vicia spp.) and chicklings (Lathyrusspp.),which are indigenous to the Mediterranean basin,can augment feed and food supply when sowneither to interrupt the barley monoculture or toreplace fallow in fallow-barley rotations (Abd ElMoneim et al. 1988, 1990). These species aresown and harvested in a single year and can beused for grazing during winter, harvested for hayin spring, or carried to maturity for seed and straw.Their introduction in the rotation increases theproductivity of food and feed and, therefore, theanimal carrying capacity of the land in asustainable manner (Cocks, 1988; Harris et al.1991; Papastylian ou, 1991). This is because ofbetter maintenance of organic matter and nitrogenstatus of soil (Peter White, pers. comm.), improvedsoil physical conditions and better control of thediseases and pests as compared to continuouscereal rotations.Environmental AdaptationAlthough there is a huge diversity of species ofVicia and Lathyrus in the Mediterranean region,only a few have been used as feed crops and thesehave received little attention in the past byagronomists and plant breeders. Kernick (1978)reported that three species ofLathyrus and nine ofVicia were potentially impo rtant. ICARDAfocuses only on such annual species of these two

legumes which could adapt to areas where rainfallis between 250 and 400 mm. Table 1 summarisesthe use and environmental adaptation of thespecies of interest. In areas where rainfall is lessthan 300 mm Lathyrus spp. are common, whereasin higher rainfall areas vetches are better adapted.Vicia narbonensis is adapted to drier sites, whereasVicia sativa an d Vicia ervilia perform better withmore assured moisture. Vicia ervilia an d Viciavillosa ssp. dasycarpa are better adapted to thecold environments of the highlands than otherspecies of ViciaandLathyrus, which are adapted toareas with marginal lands and low rainfall.A rea ,Production and YieldPrecise estimates of recent area, production andyield of these legumes are unfortunately notavailable. FAO (1987) reported that in 1985nearly 1.30 m ha were sown to vetches globallywith a yield of 1.69 t/ha and total production of 2.2million tons. The estimates for WA NA were 0.34m ha of area, 0.739 t/ha yield and 0.25 m tproduction. Some recent reports suggest that thecurrent area in WANA under vetches may benearly 0.6 m ha, mainly in Turkey, Syria, Ethiopia,Morocco and Algeria, but also in Iraq, Jordan,Cyprus, Lebanon and Tunisia. Lathyrus sativus isgrown as a food legume on nearly 1 m ha, globally,with a production of about 0.6 m t. The majorproduction is in India, Bangladesh, Nepal andPakistan in South Asia and in Ethiopia in WANA.Afghanistan, Greece, Portugal and France alsoproduce this crop. Lathyrus cicera is common inCyprus, Greece, Iran, Iraq, Spain and Syria andLathyrus ochrus in Cyprus and Greece, mainly forfeed and forage. Precise area and productionestimates for these are not known.

-2 -


5/79

Germplasm Collection and EvaluationICARDA's total collection of Vicia spp. stands at4572 accessions, with 2280 (49.9%) from WANA,1083 (23.7%) from other countries and 1209(26.4% ) from unkno wn sources. The collection ofLathyrus spp. is smaller (1374 accessions) ofwhich 83.6% originate from WANA, 16.2% fromother countries and 0.1% from unknown sources.Only part of the germplasm collection of thespecies listed in Table 1 has been evaluated forvarious agronomic traits and for reaction tocommon biotic and abiotic stresses and goodvariability has been recorded.Germplasra Enh ancementTwo approaches are adopted to develop improvedlines of Viciaa ndLathyrus spp. (Figure 1). In one,selection is affected in the wild accessions todevelop improved cultivated types. In the second,hybridisation is done to introgress desirable traits,using the selections from wild accessions. Thework is carried out by a multidisciplinary team

involving breeders, physiologists, pathologists,entomologists and animal nutritionists.The major objectives for improvement in eachspecies of ViciaandLathyrus are given in Table 1.While attempting to improve yield and adaptationto environment, emphasis is laid on ensuring thatthe palatability, intake and nutritive value ofherbage, hay, grain and straw are acceptable.As an international centre, with majorresponsibility for WANA, ICARDA aims to servethe national feed improvement programs through:(1) assembling, classifying, evaluating,maintaining and distributing germ plasm;(2) developing and supplying breedin gpopulations with adequate diversity to be usedin different environments; and(3) co-ordinating international trials to facilitatemultilocation testing and identification ofwidely adapted cultivars.

Table 1: Use and environmental adaptation of different species of Lathyrus and V icia in west Asia andnorth Africa region and priority research o bjectives for these crops at ICAR DA.Species Use Adaptation Priority research objectivesL. sativus (comm on chickling) GZ, G, S


6/79

Germplasm

Promising selections(based on progeny tests)

Crossing (100 crosses/year)IF2F3 - famil ies

selected foryield,phenology,resistance to stresses, quality

F4 and F5 fami l ies

F6 fami lies m ul t i locafontrials with N AR

Evaluation

Preliminary microplot yieldtrials at 2 sites, selection

fo r yield.

Advanced yield trials2 sites

Multilocation yield trialsw i t hN AR S

Release of cult ivarsby NARS

Figure 1: Selection processes.VetchesEvaluation of 25 promising selections of each ofV. sativa, V. ervilia, an d V. villosa ssp. dasycarpa,over a period of 3 seasons (1986/87 to 1988/89)with rainfall rang ing from 233 to 504 mm andminimum temperatures ranging from -5.8C,revealed considerable inter and intra-specificvariation in phenology, quantitative traits andproductivity (Table 2). V. sativa was most affectedby frost, while V. villosa ssp. dasycarpa was mostcold tolerant. Th e latter, although producing highherbage yield in spring, produced low grain yieldand reduced harvest index because of excessiveflower drop. V. ervilia an d V. sativa (Table 2) andalso V. narbonensis (Table 3) gave high seed yieldand high harvest index. Large variations inphenology and other quantitative traits make itpossible to identify lines suitable for differentproduction niches and for different uses in variousfarming systems in WANA (Abd El Moneim,1992b). For example, the rapid winter and spring

growth of V. sativa make it promising for earlygrazing in mild winter areas at a time when feedshortage is acute. It could also be used for haymaking and for seed and straw produc tion. Inmixture with barley, V. sativa is widely used inTunisia (Halila et al. 1990). In areas wherewinters are severe, because of high cold toleranceV. villosa ssp. dasycarpa has proved mostpromising (Keatinge et al 1991). Beca use of itsprolonged flowering period and low harvest index,it is quite suitable for grazing. Vicia narbonensis,with its high grain yield and harvest index anderect growth habit, is ideal for production of grainand straw (Abd El Moneim, 1992a), particularly inthe areas of low seasonal rainfall and moderatecold (Table 3). In Orobanche infested areas earlymaturing selection of Vicia sativa are less damagedan d V. villosa ssp. dasycarpa are not damaged atall as it resists the parasite (Linkee tal. 1992).

-4 -


7/79

Table 2: Variability for phenological and quantitative traits in the evaluated Vicia spp. accessions atICARDA.

Traits

Days to start of floweringDays to 100% floweringDays to maturitySeedling vigour*Winter growth*Cold effect**Spring growth*Leafiness*Herbage yield (t/ha)***Grain yield (t/ha)Straw yield (t/ha)Harvest index (%)* Visual score on 0-5 scale where 0** 0 = no damage ; 5 = all killed*** at 50-10 0% flowering

V. sativaRange

105 - 115134 - 160170 - 1892.5 - 4.53.0 - 5.02.1 - 4.54.3 - 5.03.5 - 5.0

2.29 - 4.200.80 - 2.642.80 - 7.90

18 - 32

S e m1.031.101.180.300.400.310.370.400.510.150.381.6

= poor, 5 = very good

V. erviliaRange95 - 109

115 - 130122 - 1401.9 - 3.52.5 - 5.00.5 - 2.02.1 - 5.02.0 - 5.0

2.02 - 2.710.73 - 1.272.10 - 3.50

26 - 39

Sem1.020.951.090.300.460.100.300.280.140.100.152.1

V. v. ssp. dasycarpaRange

114 - 136140 - 168162 - 1961.1 - 3.20.9 - 1.00.5 - 1.50.6 - 5.01.0 - 4.0

5.79 - 11.20.28 - 0.95.82 - 7.58

14 - 19

Sem1.101.201.280.200.130.090.260.300.820.070.611.30

Table 3: Mean performanc e of 25 lines of Vicia narbonensis and 12 lines of Lathyrus sativus in eightdifferent environments comprising locations and seasons.

EnvironmentsSite

1. Tel H adya2. Tel Hadya3. Tel Hadya4. Tel Hadya5. Breda6. Breda7. Breda8. BredaMeanLSD (p=O.O5)

Season

1985/861986/871987/881988/891985/861986/871987/881988/89

Seasonalrainfall

(mm)31635850423321 8245415195

Vicia narbonsisSeed yield(t/ha)

1.551.901.100.901.291.401.610.471.280.54

HI

3840343236363830354.0

Lathyrus sativusSeed yield Herbage yield*

(t/ha) (t/ha)0.851.360.910.500.370.391.250.55

0.7720.211

2.682.812.581.981.221.333.281.462.42

* Cut at 50-100% flowering

-5 -


8/79

Table 4: Num ber of selections of Vicia and Lathyrus spp. having resistance to different biotic and abioticstresses as evaluated at Tel Hadya.

Stress

Ascochyta blightBotrytis blightDowny m ildewPowdery mildewCyst nematodeRoot-knot nematodeBroomrapeCold

Common7054

11106

32

VetchNarbon

13375

101

42

Wooly-pod121088

11112399

Common54

13119600

ChicklingDwarf

3374330

50

Ochrus526454

181

Inter and intra-specific variation in the selectionsof Vicia spp. has been adequate for major bioticand abiotic stresses as well (Table 4). Sources ofresistance have been identified for Ascochytablight {Ascochyta pisi f.sp. viciae), downy mildew(Pernospora viciae), powdery mildew (Erysiphipisi f.sp. viciae), botrytis blight (Botrytis cineria),cyst nematode (Heterodera ciceri), root-knotnematode (Meloidogyne artiellia), broomrape(Orobanche crenata) and cold. These are beingused in the breeding program.Pod shattering was a major constraint to the use ofVicia sativa as a grain crop. Incorporation of non-shattering genes into agronomically promisinglines resulted in recombinants with 95-97% non-shattering pods in good agronomic backgrounds asagainst only 40-45% in the original, otherwiseimproved, parents . This has agronom icadvantages as well: (i) the harvest can be delayedand mechanized to permit better compatibility withother crop enterprizes of the farmer; (ii) theproblem of vetch weeds is reduced in the rotation.With these improvements, introduction ofV sativa

to replace fallow has become an economical andagronomically feasible proposition.The subterranean vetch (Vicia sativa ssp.amphicarpa), which is a typical Mediterraneanspecies commonly found in poor lands in WANA,provides new opportunities for using it in a ley-farming system in habitats that are too dry andmarginal for other vetches and medics. Because ofunderground cleistogamous flowers, it producesnearly 50% of its pods underground. It is droughtresistant and has high persistence under heavygrazing. Studies at ICARD A, initiated in 1989/90,investigated the p otential of one of the selections ofthis vetch and the results have been very promising(Table 5). The agronomic advantag e ofintroduction of subterranean vetch is that it canwithstand tillage during the cereal phase.Improvement work has concentrated onincorporating increased herbage yield by crossingpromising selections of subterranean vetch with thesuperiorV sativa lines, and good success has beenachieved.

-6 -


9/79

Table 5: Effect of grazing m anagemen t of subterranean vetch on its dry herbage yield in the year ofestablishment (1989/90), yield of succeeding (1990/91) barley (as compared to barley after ba rley),vetch seed bank at the start and the end of barley phase, and dry herbage yield ofself-regeneration vetch in 1991/92, Tel Hadya,

Yield/seed bank (kg/ha)

Herbage yield* 1989/90Barley seed 1990/91Barley total shoot 1990/91Starting seed bank 1990/91End-season seed bank 1990/91Herbage yield* 1991/92

February830

19664347

5032

3258

Subterranean vetchGrazingMarch730

20354193

13095

3879

April860

19253947

160141

3708

Nograzing

202019093877

24021 8

3900

Barley

-15993143

---

S E M

5798

21 52734

320 At 50% flowering

ChicklingsAs mentioned earlierLathyrus spp. are particularlypromising in low rainfall areas because of theirability to grow under droughty conditions.L. sativus an d L. cicera are particularly adapted todry, and cool environm ents (Table 3). The cropimprovement objectives for theLathyrus species ofinterest to ICARDA are already listed in Table 1.The diseases that constrain production includeAscochyta blight (Ascochyta pisi f.sp. lathyn),downey mildew {Pernospora trifoliorum), powderymildew {Erysiphi martii f.sp. lathyri) and botrytisblight {Botrytis cineria). Root-knot nematode andcyst nematode also damage the crop. Lathyrussativus an d L. cicera are parasitized by broomrape,an d L. sativus an d L. ochrus are susceptible tocold. Sources of resistance to common biotic andabiotic stresses have been identified (Table 4).These are being used in the breeding program.

Although the seeds of Lathyrus are rich in crudeprotein (29 g/100g of edible seed), and have highlysine content, they also possess the neurotoxin, p-N-oxalyl-:L, p-diaminopropianic acid (ODAP, syn.BOAA), which is implicated in causing lathyrismsyndrome in humans and domestic animals (Briggset al. 1983; Roy and Kisby, 1989) by affecting thecentral nervous system. ICARD A is aiming todevelop p romising Lathyrus lines with low or zeroBO AA content. Screening of 81 pure lines ofL. sativus, 19 of L. cicera, and 22 lines ofL. ochrus for BOAA content revealed a wide rangein the concentration of the neurotoxin. It ranged

from 18 to 316 ug/g of seed inL. sativus, 405-506ug/g of seed in L. cicera and 20 to 266 ug inL. ochrus. The lowest value recorded in L. sativusis lower than that ever reported for any cultivar inthe past. Using the low BOA A content lines abreeding program for genetic detoxification ofL. sativus has been started. Developm ent ofcultivars with a low or zero level of BOAA andhigh yield potential in dry areas would prevent thedevelopment of lathyrism and provide a safe foodfor humans and feed for animals in such regionswhere drought is frequent.Emphasis is being placed on enhancing the coldtolerance in L. ochrus, which has great potentialfor production of herbage and seeds particularly inareas which are infested with broomrape and arethus unfit for production of I. sativus. L. ciliolatus(subterranean chickling) is being improved for itsproductivity.

International CooperationThe improved genetic material is currentlydistributed to the national programs in WANA inthe form of two international yield trials, eachcontaining 20 entries. The demand for thesenurseries has been increasing. The cooperators inthe national programs are encouraged to send theirlocal selections for entry into these nurseries to getinformation on their adaptability to differentenvironments.

-7 -


10/79

Collaboration is being developed with institutionsin industrialized countries particularly to identifyrapid and reliable methods of evaluating geneticmaterial for the content of antinutritional factors.The Centre is willing to cooperate with otherinstitutions, which may have an interest inexploiting the potential of Vicia an d Lathyrusspecies for augmenting food and feed production indry areas and promoting sustainable agriculture.ReferencesAbd El Moneim, A.M., Cocks, P.S., andSweden, Y. (1988). Yield stability of selectedforage vetches {Vicia spp.) under rainfedconditions in west Asia. Journal AgricultureScience, Cambridge. 11 ,295-301.Abd, El Moneim, A.M., Cocks, P.S., andMawlawy, B. (1990). Genotype - environmentinteractions and stability analysis for herbageand seed yields of forages under rainfedconditions. Plant Breeding. 104,231-40.Abd El Moneim, A.M. (1992a). Narbon vetch{Vicia narbonensis L.): A potential feed legumecrop for dry areas in West Asia. JournalAgronomy and Crop Science (in press).Abd El Moneim, A.M. (1992b). Agronomicpotential of three vetches {Vicia spp.) underrainfed conditions. Journal Agronomy andCrop Science (in press).Abd El Moneim, A.M., and Cocks, P.S. (1992).Adaptation and yield stability of selected linesof Lathyrus spp. under rainfed conditions.Euphytica (in press).Alexandratos, N. (1988). World Agriculture:Towards 2000. (Pinter, London).Briggs, C.J., Parenno, N. and Campbell, C.G.

(1983). Phytochem ical assessment of Lathyrusspecies for the neurotoxin agent |3-N-0xalyl-l-l-a-(3-Diamino-propionic acid. JournalMedicinal Plant Research. 47, 188-90.

Cocks, P.S. (1988). The role of pasture and foragelegumes in livestock based farming systems.Pages 3-10 in "Nitrogen Fixation by Legumesin Mediterranean Agriculture." (D.P. Beck andL.A. Materon eds.), ICARDA, (MartinusNij hoff Publishers: Dordrec ht).

FAO, (1987). Agriculture Towards 2000. FAO ,UN C87/27, Rome, Italy.Halila, M.H., Dahman, A.B.K., and Seklani, H.

(1990). The role of legumes in the farm ingssystems of Tun isia. Page s 115-125 in "TheRole of Legumes in the Farming Systems of theMediterranean Areas." (A.E. Osman et aleds.).(Kluwer Academic Publishers: TheNetherlands).Harris, H., Osman, A.E., Cooper, P.J.M. andJones, M.J. (1991). The management of croprotations for greater WUE under rainfedconditions. Pages 237-250 in "Soil and CropManagement for Improved Water UseEfficiency in Rainfed Areas." (H. Harris, P.J.M.Cooper and M. Pala, eds.). ICARDA , P.O. Box5466, Aleppo, Syria.Jaubert, R (1985). The semi-arid areas of Syria:Farming systems in decline and issues inresearch design. In "Proceedings 1984Symposium of Farming Systems Research."(Flora, C.B. and Tomeoek, M., eds.) (KansasState University: Manhattan, USA).Keatinge, J.D.H., Asghar, A., Roidar, K B ., A bd

El Moneim, A.M. and Ahmed, S. (1991).Germplasm evaluation of annual sown foragelegumes and environmental conditionsmarginal for crop growth in highland of westAsia. Journal Agronomy and Crop Science.166,48-57.Kernick, M.D . (1978). Indigenous and semi-aridforage plants of north Africa, the Near andMiddle East. Pages 519-689 in "EcologicalManagement of Arid and Semi-aridRangelands in Africa and Near and MiddleEast." (EMASAR), (FAO: Rome, Italy).Linke, K.H., Abd El Moneim, A.M. and Sacena,M.C. (1992). Variation in resistance of some

forage legume species to Orobanche crenataForsk. Field Crop Res. (in press).Oram, P. (1988). Agricultural production andfood deficits in west Asia and north Africa:Future prospects and the role of high elevationareas. Pages 99-131. In "Winter Cereals andFood Legumes in Mountainous Areas."(Srivastava, J.P., et al, eds.). (ICARDA :Aleppo, Syria).


11/79

Papastylianou, L (1991). Land and rainfall use Roy, D. and Kisby , G.E. (1989). Toxicology ofefficiency and nitrogen balance of rotation Lathyrus sativus and neurotoxin BOAA. Pagessystems under rainfed conditions in Cyprus. 76-85 . In "The Grasspea: Thre at and Promise.Pages 260-266 in "Soil and Crop Mana geent Proceedings International Network of thefor Improved Wa ter Use Efficiency in Rainfed Improvement of Lathyrus sativus an dAreas." (Harris, H., Cooper, P.J.M. and Pala, Eradication of Lathyru s." (NY. Third WorldM., eds.). (ICARDA : P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Medical Research Found ation.)Syria).

-9 -


12/79

Genetic Resources ofLathyrusand Vicia, and Associated QuarantineProblemsR. Reid1, E. Bettencourt2 and J. Konopka3

1Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries,Mt Pleasant Laboratories, Tasmania2International Board of Plant Genetic Resources,Rome, Italy.3International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas,Aleppo, SyriaLathyrus an d Vicia are two of several closelyrelated genera in the Leguminosae that togetherform a clearly defined tribe, the Vicieae. This tribeis characterized by the possession of leaf tendrils inthe majority of its members, an unusualarrangement of vascular tissue in the stem anddistinctive floral parts. Lathyrus an d Vicia eachcontain respectively 150 species (39 recognisedsub-species) and 146 species (49 recognised sub-species), and show parallel patterns of variation.The least specialised parts of both genera bearstrong morphological similarities and were onceheld to be a single separate genus, Orobus. Theother members of the tribe are Lens, Pisum andVavilovia. Lathyrus an d Vicia are now separatedlargely on the basis of stylar hair patterns.Geographical Distr ibutionBoth genera are widely distributed throughout theworld, ranging from the Arctic to Cape Horn in theAmericas, and from Siberia to the mountains ofEast Africa in the Old World. Both are totallyabsent from the Australian - Pacific region, S.E.Asia and Southern Africa. The University ofSouthampton, through the Vicieae DatabaseProject, has tabulated the worldwide distribution ofall species of Lathyrus an d Vicia. Thegeographical database contains distribution recordsfor 107 countries (or similar geographical units)which are divided into 5 continental regions:Europe, Asia, Africa, North America and, Southand Central Am erica. The Vicieae are not as wellknown throughout the world as they are in Europe,and are least well known in South and CentralAmerica (Allkinet al.1983; Allkinet al. 1985).

The Irano - Turanian sub-region is clearly thecentre of origin of both genera. Turkey isparticularly rich (60 and 83 species respectively ofLathyrus an d Vicia), but so are the surroundingcountries in the Balkans and Caucasus. Thre esecondary centres have been recognised in theWestern Mediterranean, the Western United Statesand Argentina.UtilizationThe Vicieae have contributed many species to thepool of economic plants. Although 36 or sospecies are documented as having been cultivated,this number probably was exceeded in the distantpast. Species ofLathyrus an d Viciaknown to havebeen cultivated are listed in Table 1.LathyrusThere is evidence that Lathyrus species were usedas human food in Europe as early as 9000 B.P.(Marinval, 1986). Certainly by 6000 B.P. anumber of species of both Lathyrus an d Viciawereunder cultivation in S.W. Asia and theMediterranean basis. Indeed some species such asL. gorgonii an d L. marmoratus probably ceased ascultivated species before the time of the RomanEm pire. Of the major grain species the earliestarcheological finds are from the eastern Balkanpeninsula, which is the location of the most densefinds of later periods. This might lead one toconclude that the origin of the cultivation ofL. sativus orL. cicera should be somewhere in thisregion.

-10-


13/79

Table 1: Species ofLathyrus and iciaknown to have been cultivatedLathyrus Vicia

Species Use Species UseL. annuusL. aphacaL. ciceraL. clymenumL. gorgoniiL. hirsutusL. latifoliusL. ochrusL. odoratusL. pratensisL. sativusL. sylvestrisL. tingitanusL. tuberosus

Grain cropFodder cropGrain cropGrain cropFodder cropFodder cropLand reclamationGrain cropEssential oilPastureGrain cropPastureLand reclamationEdible tubers

V. articulataV. benghalensisV. craccaV. erviliaV.fabaV gramineaV. hirsutaV johannisV michauxiiV. monanthaV. narbonensisV pannonicaV sativaV. tenufoliaV. villosa

Grain cropPoultry feedLand reclamationGrain cropGrain cropPastureFodder cropGrain cropFodder cropGrain cropGrain cropGrain cropFodder cropFodder cropPasture

L. sativus is cultivated in the Mediterranean andnear temperate as well as tropical countries, fromthe Canary Islands in the west, through Germanyin the north, and Ethiopia in the south, to Indiaand central Asia in the east. This is in vividcontrast with L. cicera cultivation which is knownonly in S. Europe ie. Spain, France, Italy andGreece. If the area of cultivation ofL. cicera todayreflects its ancient patterns of cultivation, then,most ancient finds from countries east of Greeceshould be attributed toL. sativus. Both species areknown as being suited to dry climates and have areputation for producing good seed crops on poorsoil. Both however are recorded as being adverseto strongly acid soil conditions.In Bangladesh, L. sativus is popular as a coolseason crop because the seed can be sown directlyinto paddy and grows in the stubble after harvest.No cultivation, fertilization or inter-culturaloperations are practiced. Farm ers let their cattlegraze once or twice in the standing crops before

harvesting the third growth for seed and haymak ing purposes (Kaul, 1985). In India it is oneof the most reliable grain crops and may be theonly food available in some areas when faminesoccur. This can lead to excessive consum ption an dmay provoke the neurological form of lathyrism.Of the otherLathyrus species still used as grain ie.L. annuus, L. clymenum an dL. ochrus, all are tobefound cultivated only in Greece, Syria and Turkey(Maxted pers. comm .)Human lathyrism is caused by the ingestion ofcertain Lathyrus species, namely L. sativus,L. cicera an d L. clymenum. The seeds contain aneurotoxin, p-N-oxalyl-amino-L-alanine (BOAA).Historically, the disease has been documented in anumber of countries in Europe, Africa and Asia.Human lathyrism continues to be a public healthproblem in parts of Bangladesh, China, Ethiopiaand India.

-11-


14/79

Table 2: Principal env ironmental requirements of the grain Lathyrus species

Species Environmental requirementsLathyrus annuus

Lathyrus cicera

Lathyrus clymenum

Lathyrus ochrus

Lathyrus sativus

Mediterranean/Irano-Turanian250-600 mm rainfallLoams/ClaysMediterranean/Irano-Turanian300-500 mm rainfallCalcareous claysMediterranean300-500 mm rainfallFertile sands/loamsMediterranean300-500 mm rainfallFertile sands/loamsC. Europe/Mediterranean/Irano-Turanian/ N.India/Ethiopia250-600 mm rainfallCalcareous alluvials

ViciaVicia faba is well known as an impo rtant grainlegume in m uch of the north tem perate zone and athigher altitudes in the cool season of some sub-tropical regions and needs no further description.Most of the positively identified V. faba seedremains from archaelogical excavations are fromsouthern and cen tral Europe and date from the lateNeolithic and the Bronze Age. Recently however,faba-bean seeds dating from 7000 B.P. wereidentified in large quantities in Israel (Ladizinsky,1989). Th e species has spread widely throughou tthe world, spreading to China sometime after 500AD and the A mericas after 1500 AD.Of the other Vicia species, V. sativa and V. erviliaare today the two main forage crops of SouthwestAsia and the Mediterranean basin. In historicaltimes, they were used as human food only in casesof extrem e famine. Both vetches haveaccompanied the better-known food legumes sincethe Neolithic, but whether they were grown as foodgrain or primarily fodder is not clear.V pannonica grows both wild and is cultivated inGeorgia from where it has gradually spread west,being a m inor forage crop in the Southern Ukraine,Romania and Hungary. V. articulata an dV. monantha are found throughout the

Mediterranean basin and are occasionallycultivated as forage crops. V. narbonensis is nolonger cultivated for its grain but as a minor foragecrop principally in the eastern Mediterranean. V.sativa prefers well drained soils and apparentlygrows best in loams or sandy loams. V pannonicagrows well in wet, heavy soils. V. articulata seemsto be restricted to well drained sandy soils but isprobably the least winter hardy of the species underdiscussion. Experimental plantings in the USA,for example, have shown it is limited to Floridaand the Gulf and Pacific Coasts. V. ervilia isadapted to a wide range of soils, both acid andalkaline, but well drained. It has a reputation forbeing very resistant to cold, with landraces fromthe Meseta Central in Spain surviving minimumtemperatures of -20C. V. monantha is found onmildly acid soils in the western Mediterranean(Morocco and Portugal), and has also beencollected from oases in the Northern Sahara.V. narbonensis is both cold (-10C) and droughttolerant. Collecting in Syria, Maxted mad e thecomment V. narbonensis looked particularlyinteresting, the species being found in the drieststeppe sites visited and obviously has droughtresistant capabilities" (Maxted & Bisby, 1986).

-12-


15/79

Table 3: Principal environme ntal requirements of grain iciaspecies

Species Environmental RequirementsVicia articulata

Vicia ervilia

Vicia faba

Vicia monantha

Vicia narbonensis

Vicia pannonica

Vicia sativa

Mediterranean300-500 mm rainfallLoams/ClaysMediterranean/Irano-Turanian300-600 mm rainfallSandy loamsMediterranean/Irano-Turanian/Ethiopia/China?All fertile soilsMediterranean400-600 mm rainfallMild acid soilsMediterranean/Irano-Turanian250-600 mm rainfallFertile loamsE. Europe/Caucasus500-800 mm rainfallFertile loamsMediterranean, Irano-Turanian300-600 mm rainfallWell drained sandy loams

Genetic ResourcesThe total global holdings of Lathyrus and Vicia,comprise 6160 and 42,402 accessions and m ade upof 72 and 113 species respectively. The largestcomponent being L. sativus (1230),L. unidentified(2046), V. faba (21,388), V sativa (8723),V.unidentified (7167). The Lathyrus collectionsare held in 35 genebanks in 26 countries, and theVicia collection in 96 genebanks in 44 countries.The holdings of the principal grain species aresummarized in Table 4.There is almost certainly a high level ofduplication in these collections, probably in theorder of 50% but it is beyond the scope of thispape r to report in any detail. The quality of thepassport data on the individual accessions leaves alot to be desired. A study commissioned by IBPGRsought to survey the quality and quantity of datagathered during forage collecting missionsthroug hout the Me diterranea n. Only 19 of the 26major genebanks were able to supply data.Analysis showed that less than 30% of the totalcollection had accurate site data available, lessthan 12% altitude data and less than 2 % basic soilinformation (Mayer, 1987). Furthe r study by

IBPGR, in conjunction with ICARDA, hasimproved the situation, but many genebanks arestill seemingly unable to supply even the mostbasic of passport data.The wild progenitor of V. faba has not yet beenidentified, and although it almost certainly evolvedsomewhere in S.W. Asia, the centre of diversity, assuch, cannot be designated. Thu s mate rial fromEurope, N. Africa, S.W. Asia, India and China areequally important. The total global holding s, aslisted by IBPGR, comprise some 20,688 accessionsheld in 68 genebank s. The princip al collectionsare listed in Table 5.The largest, and arguably the most importantcollection of faba-bean is that established byICARDA . However, with the recent phase-out ofthe faba-bean improvement program at that Centreand its transfer to Morocco, future researchactivities will only involve the germplasmcollection. The Genetic Resource Unit at ICARD Ahas assumed responsibility for the collection,conservation and documentation of all V. fabagermplasm.

-13-


16/79

Table 4: Global holdings of iciaand L athyrus

SpeciesLathyrus annuusL. ciceraL. clymenumL. ochrusL. sativusVicia articulataV. erviliaV /abaV. monanthaV. narbonensisV pannonicaV. sativa

Breeding lines-

36--

65-

1426352

-5

171151

Landraces1-1

1421

-21 8

8267-24

2720

Old cultivars----

19-

601106

-1-

68 1

Wild speces53

1061832

3291967

-12

1418

463

Unknown57

26 14587

91 121

3375663

47232154

3708

In the last ten years, missions to collect V. fabageraiplasm have been conducted in Cyprus, Egypt,Turkey, Syria and Afghanistan by ICARDAscientists in conjunction with nationalprogramm es. Missions have also been made in theMediterranean region by the GeraiplasmLaboratory, Bari, Italy, and in Ethiopia by theEthiopian Genetic Resource Centre.

Table 5: Principal genetic resources (Viciafaba)

Many other collecting missions have collectedV.faba geraiplasm as a secondary target species,and a small number of accessions have beenassembled from virtually every N. African, S.W.Asian and Europe an country. Major areas stillrequire detailed collecting, especially wherelandraces are widely used, including Albania,Macedonia and Bulgaria, in Europe; the CaucasusRepublics, the Himalayan region, and NorthernChina.

Site Country Total AccessionsICARDAINIABariInst. AndaluciaPGRCINRAGaterslebenCG RBraunschweigRadzikow

SyriaEcuadorItalySpainEthiopiaFranceGermanyNetherlandsGermanyPoland

364516501461123112081100794740702550

-14-


17/79

IBPGR has recently (1990-91) conducted a surveyof wild Lens, deer, Vicia, Pisum an d Lathyrusspecies in the former Soviet Central Asia whichprovided useful information on appropriateprocedures for ecogeographic surveys prior tocollecting missions, and also supplied much-recorded data on an important group of croprelatives. Herbarium m aterial in key internationaland in the regional herbaria was studied andinformation sought on the accessions of the targettaxa originating in the area and already present ingeneb anks. The herbaria in the region providedvaluable information on the occurrence of differenttaxa at various locations and a survey of genebanksconfirmed they held almost no accessions from theregion. A collecting mission organised incollaboration with VIR, St Petersburg, Russia, wasable to visit some of the localities indicated fromthe herbarium survey but had to be curtailed owingto political upheav al in the region. However,significant genetic erosion in the area wasconfirmed and further missions will occur whenthe situation stabilises.IBPGR has recently (1990-91) conducted a surveyof wild Lens, deer, Vicia, Pisum an d Lathyrusspecies in the former Soviet Central Asia whichprovided useful information on appropriateprocedures for ecogeographic surveys prior tocollecting missions, and also supplied much-recorded data on an important group of croprelatives. Herba rium material in key internationaland in the regional herbaria was studied andinformation sought on the accessions of the targettaxa originating in the area and already present ingeneba nks. The herbaria in the region providedvaluable information on the occurrence of differenttaxa at various locations and a survey of genebanksconfirmed they held almost no accessions from theregion. A collecting mission organised in

collaboration with VTR, St Petersburg, Russia, wasable to visit some of the localities indicated fromthe herbarium survey but had to be curtailed owingto political upheaval in the region. However,significant genetic erosion in the area wasconfirmed and further missions will occur whenthe situation stabilises.ICARDAIn view of ICARDA's overall objective ofdeveloping sustainable farming systems, there is aclear need for legume crops adapted to the dryareas of its target zone (N. Africa and S.W. Asia).As such ICARDA has had a long term programconcerned with the collection, documentation,evaluations and conservation of all the knowngrain legume species and their wild relatives thatoccur there. The program has concentrated ondeveloping improved cultivars of chickpeas, lentils,and until recently faba beans; and the productionof widely adapted and palatable cultivars of severalfeed legum es which can be used for differentpurposes (ICARD A, 1990). In the latter case thetwo genera being intensively evaluated areLathyrus an d Vicia. Of the vetches the program isin the process of selecting or hybridizing genotypesfrom V. villosa ssp. dasycarpa, V. ervilia, V. sativaan d V. narbonensis; and of the chicklings,L. sativus, L. cicera and L. ochrus are beingevaluated. To date, two of the most excitingspecies areV narbonensis an d L. cicera because oftheir potential in dry areas.The Genetic Resource Unit at ICARDA hasassembled and maintains the largest collection ofLathyrus an d Vicia germplasm and is recognisedby the IBPGR as a designated centre. The detailsof the collection are listed in Tables 6 and 7, forLathyrus an d Vicia respectively.

-15-


18/79

Table 6: Vicia collection o/ICAR DA.General: Total 4574 accessions including 249 samples collected in Algeria last year (DZA91).DZA91 is accounted separately as accessions have to be (re-)identified duringcharacterization.Donated: 2913 accessionsCollected ICAR D A: 1661 accessions

aintabensisangustifoliabenghalensiscaesareacuspidatadionysiensisesdraelonensisgalilaeahajastanahybridakalakhensisluteamichauxiimontevidensisnoeanaperegrinasativaserratifoliaunijuga

c.f. monanthamonanthaperegrinavillosa

82

201

574131

1507

6527

110227

217841

1511824

Viciaspecies (excluding DZA91)altissimaarticulatabenthamianacassiadasycarpaeristalioidesfabaglareosahirsutahyrcanicalathyroidesmelanopsmollismultijugapalaestinapulchellasepiumtetraspermavillosa

419

15

29116

231

281822

1100134

39224

Vicia- DZA91lathyroidesnarbonensissativasp .

15

10819

anatolicabarbazitabithynicacreticadichroanthaerviliagaleatagrandiflorahyaeniscyamusjohannislunatamichauximonanthanarbonensispannonicagatmensissericocarpatigridissp .

luteapalaestinatetrasperma

802

4711

25 01

161142

12

42211119

866

1119

1628

Origin of ViciagermplasmAFG 25;ALB 14;AUS 33;BEL 18;BGR 60;CAN 5; CSK 17;CYP 96;DDR 51;DEU 30;DNK 2;DZA 268;EGY15;ESP 24;FIN 2; FRA 48;GAB2;GBR 2;GRC 98;HNK 1;HUN 131;IRN 58;IRQ 11;ITA 273;JOR 110;JPN48;LBN 43;LBY 1;MAR 10;MLT 20;NLD 2;NPL 1;PAK 13;POL 16;PRT 71;PRY 3;R0M 3;SAU 1;SUN78;SWE 12;SYR918;TUN2;TUR711;USA9;YUG9;ZAF 1;UNK 1209(Over 1100 accessions of unknow n origin are donations from Bari)

-16-


19/79


20/79

Future Germplasm NeedsThe need for further collecting has beenhighlighted by the recent discovery of three newspecies in Turkey and Syria. V. kalakhensis has avery restricted distribution on the border betweenSyria and Lebanon (and is believed also to occur inthe Bekaa Valley). It is recognized as beingclosely related enough to V. /aba to enableconventional gene exchange via hybridization.V. erastalioides was discovered in South-WestAnatolia in a high rainfall area in limestone.There is little obvious commercial potential in thisspecies, however as a further member of theV faba group it probably warrants inclusion in anywild species germplasm screening programme.(Both the above new species were noted as beingforage plants.) (Maxted, 1988). The thirddiscovery is L. belinensis, a species withhorticultural potential.Within Lathyrus an d Vicia there is undoubtedpotential for further exploiting existing species andthe development of new species in forage orpasture development programmes, besides theobvious crop opportunities. Am ong the smallerVicieae genera Lens, Pisum an d Vavilovia there isstill untapped potential for passing desirable genesto their related cultivated crops, P. sativum an dL. culinaris. However the environment within theEastern Mediterranean, where all occur ischanging rapidly, as new and improvedagricultural techniques and rural policies areapplied. This is and will undoubtedly lead to thedestruction of certain habitats favoured by thesewild species and will thus lead to genetic erosion.It is essential that wild Vicieae and other legumegermplasm is collected rapidly and systematicallythroughout the region.QuarantineThe Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service(AQUIS) have the responsibility for the quarantineregulations pertaining to the entry of Vicia speciesinto Australia. (Currently no specific regulationscover Lathyrus).The conditions for the import of Vicia, like manyother restricted legume genera, is governed byPlant Qu arantin e legislation. Inbrief, this requiresthe application for a permit in accordance with aspecified form and forwarded to the ChiefQuarantine Officer (Plants) of the State in whichthe seed is to be sown. Generally a permit will notbe issued for the importation of a quantity of seed

which is greater than the minimum quantitynecessary to establish, under Quarantine, anaccession of the particular species or genus inAustralia.The seed, upon entry, must be inspected forcontaminating seeds and/or insect pests and treatedaccordingly. Then the seed is grown in aGovernment Quarantine glasshouse for as long asit takes for the resultant plants to produce seed.Only the glasshouse seed is released to theimporter. During the growing process the plantswill be tested using three herbaceous indicators forthe following seed-borne viruses;- broad bean stain virus, broad bean true mosaic virus, pea seed-borne mosaic virus, cow pea mosaic virus, and red clover vein mosaic virus.The cost per accession seemingly varies from Stateto State but is in the ran ge of $150-$250.In some cases imported seed can be grown underfield conditions on the proviso that each seedlotwill carry certification that three thousand seedshave been tested either in the EEC or Australia andfound to be free from the above viral disea ses. Th eseed must be grown at least 30m from any otherlegume crop and in an area where Sitona weevil isnot known to exist. The crop is then inspected atregular intervals by a Plant Pathologist. Variousharvest treatments are imposed depending uponwhich, if any, virus is detected. Again the costseems to vary from State to State.Consideration needs to be given to the overallproblem of quarantine in relation to the genusVicia. It is clear that the genus has enormo uspotential as both a source of grain and pastureplants. If a major programme of evaluation isundertaken then a very large number of accessionswill be required to enter Austra lia. The re is littlepoint starting a major programme of this type on alimited genetic resource base, especially when agreat deal of material has been collected, evaluatedand documented by other national andinternational institutions. However, the high costof quarantine is constraining the development ofboth new crops and cultivars. Consequentlybreeders and agronomist are often turning to lesspromising species as a source of new crops andforages. It is thus most important that the

-18-


21/79

Quarantine authorities must make every effort toimprove access to new germplasm if Australia is tomaintain a vigorous plant improvementprogramme.It would seem logical that an understanding bedeveloped with ICARDA, and possibly othergenebanks, that germplasm that has already been"cleaned" of viruses, and can be certified as such,may enter an Australian improvement programmewith a minimum of restriction and, mostimportantly, cost.ReferencesAllkin, R , M acFarland, T.D., W hite, R.J.,Bisby, F.A. and Adey, M.E. (1983). "TheGeographical Distribution of Vicia . VicieaeDatabase Project, University of Southampton.Allkin, R , MacFarland, T.D., Wh ite, R J. ,Bisby, F.A. and Adey, M.E. (1985). T h eGeorgraphical Distribution of Lathyrus .Vicieae Database Project, University ofSouthampton.

Kaul, A.K., Islam, M.Q. and Hamid, A. (1985)."Screening of Lathyrus germplasm ofBangladesh for BOAA content and someagronomic characters" in Lathyrus andLathyrism. Eds. A.K. Kaul & D. Combes.Ladizinsky, G. (1989). "Origin andDomestication of Southwest Asian GrainLegumes", in. Foraging and Farming, Eds.D.R. Harris & G.C. Hillman.Marinval, P. (1985). "Decouvertes et Utilisationsdes Graines de Lathyrus sativus et Lathyruscicera en France du Mesolithique ". inLathyrus and Lathryrism Eds. A.K. Kaul & D.Combes.Maxted, N. & Bisby, F. (1986). "Forage LegumeCollection in Syria" IBPGR Internal Report86/169, Rome, Italy.Maxted, N. (1988). "A new species of Vicia fromSouth-West Turkey". Notes from Ed inburg hBotanical Gardens. 45(3):453-456.Mayer, A. (1987). "Database on forages of theMediterranean Basin and adjacent semiarid-arid areas. IBPGR Interna l Report, Rom e,Italy.

-19-


22/79

The I nternational and Local M arket Prospects for ViciaandLathyrus.R. Rees

ABARECanberra, A ustraliaSummary of Market OpportunitiesA number of significant livestock feed marketshave been identified for Viciaan d Lathyrus whichif developed could significantly increase thereturns to whea t/sheep farmers. The majormarkets for the immediate future will be as haymixes for sheep and cattle, as protein for ruminantfeed and as an annual seed for sowing as a greenmanure crop. The expansion of current vetch varieties andLathyrus into drier country will give marginalfarmers in Australia additional alternativeenterprises and improve their current farmingpractices through the addition of a grainlegume into their enterprise rotation system.The development of hay mixes which includevetch/'Lathyrus with cereals will improve theproductive potential of ruminant animalsrelative to ruminants currently fed cereal hayand cereal stubbles. The economics of pasture improvement suchas establishing a vigorous pasture legumesuch as medicago or Vicia spp. is notfavourable at present given current returnsfrom she ep and cereals. For the longer termthe probable recovery in the world wool tradeis likely to lead to a significant capitalinvestment in suitable varieties of Vicia an dLathyrus to be included as grazing legumesand for hay in Australian farming systems. There is currently a substantial market forgrain legumes for use in various livestockfeed com binations. In Western Australiathere are significant quantities of lupins usedfor sheep feeding as there is in other Statestogether with usage by the dairy and cattleindustries. Currently, Vicia varieties such asBlanchefleur and Popany vetch are beingused successfully in rumina nt rations. Fieldpeas and faba beans are being usedextensively in monogastric rations.

The relatively high yield potential of narbonbean (which is a vetch species) in driercountry bears an examination of the possibleuse of the grain in various livestock feeds butin competition with existing legumes such asfield peas and faba beans which are alreadyaccepted in a variety of livestock rations. Anoffensive odour given off by the beaneffectively rules it out of the humanconsumption market until new moreodourless varieties can be found.As a result of the Common AgriculturalPolicy (CAP) reform proposals there arepossibilities for Australia to service the seedmarket for suitable varieties of forage Viciawhich may be allowed to be sown on 15 percent of the arable crop area set aside underthe CAP program. In addition, the continuedthrust toward sustainable farming systemsshould enhance the options for Australiansales of green manu re seeds such as vetch.During the 1980's Japan emerged as a majorimporter of hay products to feed thesubsidised beef industry. Devaluation of theAustralian dollar relative to the US dollar andthe Japanese yen has assisted the growth ofthe Australian oaten hay industry incompetition with primarily US hay products.More recently there has been someacceptance by the Japanese of hay/vetchmixes.In Australia the vetch grain varieties grownare Blanchefleur and Languedoc and themain forage varieties are Namoi and Popany.These varieties are not suitable for humanconsumption. There are currently strongdoubts about the levels of toxin in existingvarieties, the impact of processing on levelsof toxin and the lack of any significantconsumer feedback as to the acceptance ofvetch for hum an consumption. Littleinformation is available on whether Vicia orLathyrus will appeal to consumers for theircolour, taste, cooking time an d palatability.

- 20-


23/79

However, the development of low toxinvarieties of, in particular, red seeded Viciaan d Lathyrus could substantially increaseexports of relatively low priced food legumeswhich will compete against red lentil and alsothe lower priced split pea and chick peamark ets on the Indian subcontinent. Thiswill result in increased competition inexisting food markets for Australian fieldpeas,chick peas and for lentils. In higher rainfall country Viciaa nd Lathyruswill have difficulty competing with returnsfrom faba bean, chickpea, field pea, lupin andsoon lentil.In t roduct ionThe rapid expansion of Vicia growing in Australiain 1992-93 has been due to a number of marketingfactors including the emerg ence of a red variety of Vicia(blanchefleur vetch) as a potential substitutefor red lentil for human consumption,particularly on the Indian subcontinent the identification of a seed market to plantgrain legumes as a green manure crop in theEuropean Community in competition withTurkish Vicia

the development of the compressed (doubledumped) hay market to Japan and theacceptance by Japan of Vicia/cereal mixes asacceptable hay products the better performance of Vicia on lowrainfall country relative to other legumevarieties currently being grown the acceptance in southern Australia of haymixes containing Vicia for sheep, cattle andhorses. the use of Vicia seed in pellets for the livesheep trade and for the bird seed tradeThe production of Lathyrus in Australia has beenconfined to a number of agronomic trials withprom ising yield results. The re has not been anymarket development work so the potential marketis unclear. The re are existing food markets forLathyrus in the Indian subcontinent which wouldincrease, provided toxicity problems associatedwithLathyrus seed are overcome.

At the same time the key to any further productionexpansion in Australia, particularly of Vicia willdepend upon the extent to which farmers areprepared to substitute already existing profitablelegumes for these two relatively unknown grainlegumes in international trade. A brief descriptionof the main features of the major Vicia andLathyrus species which are commonly grownaround the world are given below.This paper will detail current grain legumeproduction in Australia, review production andtrial results for Vicia an d Lathyrus in Australia,examine the place of Viciaan d Lathyrus in worldfarming systems, and identify potential markets foruse in human consumption, for livestock feed, andas a green manure crop for the two species.For the purposes of the paper, analysis has beenconfined to eight species of Vicia and four ofLathyrus. The essential details of each, as outlinedby Duke (1981), are presented below.Description of species consideredA. Viciaspecies (Duke p.271-276)Vicia sativaCommon Name: Common vetch cv Languedoc, cvPink Avago, cv Blanchefleur- seed is high in protein (28 to 33 per cent), butcan contain toxic, cyanogenic glucosides(Walton, 1988)- no problems feeding vetch seed to rum inantanimals (Walton, 1988)- prefer calcareous loam soils- said to produce hydro cyanic acid andneurolathyrogens ((3-cyano-alanine and y-glutamyl-p-cyano- a- alanine)Vicia villosa Roth.Common Name: Namoi, Winter vetch, Hairyvetch, Sand vetch, Woolly pod vetchSynonym: Vicia dasycarpa-one of the oldest and most common vetches- makes good hay, silage, pasture, green manure,and cover crop- good tolerance to adverse soil and climate andused to replace fallow with forage in Spain- is the most hardy of the commercial vetches- widely cultivated in all countries in the temperate

zone-21-


24/79

- produces high dry matter yields m ixed w ithcereals relative to other pure stands of vetchVicia sativa L. ssp.nigra(L.) EhrhComm on Nam e: Blackpod vetch, NarrowleafvetchVicia erviliaCommon Name: Bitter vetch- native of southern Europe and north Africa- seed has 21 per cent protein and widely used as alivestock feed, especially sheep- most resistant to cold and freezing temperatures- adapted to a wide range of soils with a pH of upto 8.2- late flowering - 30 days after Languedoc- extensively grown in Asiatic Turkey, and seedhas been shipped in large quantities to Englandand other countries for stock feed, especiallysheep.Vicia benghalensis L.Comm on Name : Purple vetch cv Popany- widely grown for forage and hay- high in protein - 29 to 33 per cent- adversely affected by cold temperaturesVicia narbonensisCommon Name: Narbonb ean- more tolera nt tha n faba bean to some fungaldiseases such as chocolate spot- well adapted to poor siliceous soils of southernFrance and the coarse textured soils in Syria.- used as a forage crop in the Middle East- high in protein - 22 to 28 per cent- used as stockfeed or human consumption

Vicia monantha RetzCommon Name: Bard vetch- adapted only to south w est United States inirrigated Yuma and Imperial Valleys.- cannot compete with other vetches further north.Viciapannonica CrantzCommon Name: Hungarian vetch- grown in the Pacific North West of the USA- is winter hardy- limited seed use for mixed ground feeds- grown for hay, pasture, and green manureVicia faba L.Common Name: Fava bean, Faba bean, T ickbean,Horsebean, Windsorbean, Broadbean- not asked to consider this species.B. Lathyrus species (Duke p 106-110)Lathyrus sativusCommon Name:Khesari Grass pea, chickling vetch,- is cultivated in India, central, south and easternEurope and northern Africa, mainly for forage,while the seed is used for human food. Khe sari

seeds are used in a number of countries in WestAsia as a food for the poor. They are made intopaste balls, put in curries, or boiled and eatenlike a pulse- excessive consum ption of the uncooked seed,which contains a neurotoxin, results in lathyrism,a paralysis of the limbs- seed high in protein (26 to 30 per cent) with theseed being drought tolerant- tolerates a w ide rang e of soil types, but issensitive to acid soils below pH 5.5- hardy crop suited to dry climates- grows well on land considered suitable for wheat,rice, cotton and other more popular pulses.- oil from seeds is a dangerous cathartic containinga poisonous principle, probably an acid salt orphytic acid.

- 22 -


25/79

Lathyrus ciceraCommon Name: flat pod pea vine- found in Asia and in the Mediterranean and usedmainly as a forage- no toxins shown, protein 25 to 29 per cent- tolerates a wide range of soil types, but preferscalcareous clays- prom ising yields in the 10 to 16 inch rainfallbelt.Lathyrus ochrusComm on Name: Cyprus vetch- found in southern Europe where herbage is usedfor forage and the seed for stockfeed.- reported to have toxic properties - is high inprotein 25 to 30 per cent- drought tolerant, potential livestock feed, greenmanu re or hay crop.Lathyrus hirsutus L.Com mon Nam e: Roughp ea, Caleypea, Singletary,Wild winter pea- important winter legume for pasture and hay, andfor soil improvement in southern United States- especially valuable for winter an d early springforage- well adapted to the cotton producing areas of thesouthern United States- grows on soils too wet for clover and small grains- does better on heavier soils than many otherannual legumes- rough peas, wh en grazed at m aturity, arepoisonous to livestock; cattle show signs oflameness.Trends in Grain Legume production inAustraliaThe major grain legumes in Australia are lupinsand field peas. Durin g the 1980s Australianfarmers increasingly turned to grain legumes as a

rotation crop with cereals. The ready acceptanc eof field pea and lupin into ruminant feed rationsand for field peas and faba bean into monogastricrations in Australia and the European Communityhas encouraged expansion of the area sown tograin legumes. The acceptance by the Indiansubcontinent of Australian field peas and chickpeasfor food consumption has also given the industry asignificant boost. It is against this developmentthat Vicia an d Lathyrus will have to compete tosecure an appropriate market niche in theAustralian farming system.The area sown to lupins and field peas in Australiapeaked in 1988-89, fell for the next two years butrecovered strongly in 1991-92. The area sown tochickpeas, mainly desi type, has risen rapidly since1984-85 despite a drought in Queensland, themajor production area, in 1991-92 (Table 1). In1992-93 drought and lower price expectations haveseverely reduced production of chickpea innorthern growing areas but an otherwise excellentseason in southern areas has been marred in SouthAustralia, Victoria and southern New South Walesby wet weather during harvest which hassignificantly reduced both quality and productionof all grain legumes.Relatively high wool prices in 1987-88 and1988-89 led to an expansion in wool production.However, the subsequent world recession coupledwith political difficulties in the CIS and China ledto a significant build up in wool stocks.Production of field peas peaked in 1988-89exceeding half a million tonnes for the first timeand lupin in 1991-92 exceeding 1 million tonne sfor the first time. Chickpea produ ction rose from anegligible amount in 1984-85 to slightly above200ktin 1991-92 (Table 2).It is important to note the distribution of grainlegumes by State, with Victoria and SouthAustralia being the major field pea producingStates, Western Australia the dominant lupin Stateand Queensland the major chickpea producingState, although that trend is changing as Victoriaand NSW have increased the area sown tochickpeas (Table 3).

- 2 3 -


26/79

Table 1: Trends in Area Sown to Field Peas, Chickpea and Lupins: Australia - Selected Years(1971-72 to 1991-92). ('000 ha)Field Peas Chickpea Lupin

1971-72 24 na 331982-83 114 na 2571986-87 314 67 7471988-89 456 70 8501989-90 326 93 8021991-92 445 215 925

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (1992) and various years

Table 2: Trends in Production of Field Peas, Chickpea and Lupins: Australia - Selected Years(1971-72 to 1992-93). (Kt).

Field Pea Chickpea Lupin1971-72 39 na 241982-83 30 na 1991986-87 513 63 8021988-89 523 89 9301989-90 388 108 7731990-91 309 196 9521991-92 509 206 885Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (1992) and various years

Table 3: Area sown ('000 ha) to grain legum es in Australia: by State, 1991-92 and5 year average to 1991-92.

Lupin1991-19925 yr to 91-92

Field pea1991-925 yr to 91-92

Chickpea1991-925 yr to 91-92

NS W

6554

4237

6633

VI C

3636

193195

7530

QLD

ni lni l

ni lnil

5043

W A

785745

4437

0.50.4

SA

4743

143125

199

TAS

11

10

ni lni l

AUST

934879

42 3394

21 1115

Source: ABARE Crop Report 19 January 1993

-24-


27/79

Production of ViciaandLathyrus in AustraliaViciaThe grain varieties grown in Australia areBlanchefleur and Languedoc, both of which belongto the Vicia sativa species. Grazing and hayvarieties are Namoi {Vicia villosa) and Popany{Vicia benghalensis). There are no statistics on theareas sown of the different varieties but accordingto State Department of Agriculture reports, there

was an upsurge in the production of Blanchefleurvetch in 1992-93 (Table 4). The area sown toVicia sativa is forecast to fall in 1993-94 becauseof marketing difficulties.LathyrusThere is no known significant commercialproduction ofLathyrus in Australia

Table 4: Vicia sativa area: Australia and major producing states: 1991-92 and estimate 1992-93.('000 ha)

Year South Australia Victoria Austra l ia1991-921992-93e

2131

na50

na87

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, e ABARE estimates January 19, 1993Production potential for Viciaa nd Lathyrus inAustralia There have been a number of promising studiesexamining various Vicia an d Lathyrus types withother grain legumes on different soil types and fordifferent rainfall zones.In a Western Australian study (Walton and Trent,1988) of six grain legume species over 10 sitesthere was a significant site by species interaction.When trialed on a neutral soil group lupins andfaba beans achieved the highest seed yields, whilstcommon vetch and faba bean responded to thecooler, longer growing season and better texturedsoils in the southern region. Over the 10 sitesnarrow leaf lupins and field peas had higher seedyields than faba beans, Lathyrus cicera (flat-podpea vine) and narbon bean.

There was also a species by soil type interactionfound. On acidic yellow sands, narrow leaf lupinsout yielded all other crops exam ined. On alkalineclay soils, field peas out yielded all other crops andlupins had a substantially inferior yield. Comm onvetch and faba bean showed good yield potentialon clay soils. on neutral soil with rainfall >300 mm lupinand field pea yields were significantly higherthan for any other crop. The only other cropsto exceed a yield of 1 t/ha were commonvetch and faba bean.

on country where rainfall was less than 300mm field pea yields were highest. On thisbasis, any other crop would need to achieve aprice considerably in excess of field peas. Ofthe crops tested, only chick pea has thepotential in some years to significantly exceedpea returns.on low rainfall acid soil country, lupin andfield pea yields easily exceeded the othercrops.on low rainfall alkaline soils common vetch,faba bean and Lathyrus showed promisealthough the yield difference between fieldpeas and all other crops was significant.

In South Australia, Lathyrus was the highestyielding variety under low rainfall conditions(Laurence, 1979) and faba bean under high rainfallconditions.Silsbury (1975) found that when comparing trialsof7varieties of field peas andLathyrus sativus an dLathyrus cicera over 5 sites between 1955 and1960 that Lathyrus cicera was clearly the highestyielding legume, producing more grain than thecontrol (white Brunswick pea) and producing 25per cent more grain than any other grain in thetrial. Although a relatively old report the lack ofany significant improvement in relative yieldsbetween the species since that time demonstrates

-25-


28/79

that Lathyrus still has some potential. The lack ofvariation in the harvest index in Lathyrus cicera isundoubtedly a factor in its consistently high yield.The report concluded that Lathyrus sativus an dLathyrus cicera appear to have considerablepotential for development as grain legume crops insouthern Australia.Over two seasons in central and southern NewSouth Wales Blanchefleur vetch yields averaged13 per cent lower than field peas (7 comp arisons)but 35 per cent better than chickpeas(5 com parisons). Languedoc vetch averagedslightly lower than peas (NSW Agnote, 1992).In summary, common vetch yields, whilstcomparable to field peas, are not high enough todisplace peas, and from a marketing viewpoint areunacceptable in the human food market. Lathyrusappears to have the most potential in drier climatesand alkaline soils as a hay crop or as a greenmanure seed crop.Profitabili ty of grain legumes in alternative,intensive rotation systemsThe popularity of grain legumes is increasingrapidly as Australian farmers appreciate thefinancial and agronomic benefits grain legumescan provide in the development of profitable andsustainable production systems.Traditional farming practices up until the 1980sfavoured a ley farming system which includedenterprises such as cereals and livestock incombination with a number of years under pasturelegumes. The re was limited technologicalinformation available on the production, marketingand whole farm effects of growing grain legumes.There are a number of improvement programscurrently in existence in Australia for a range ofgrain legumes including lupin, faba bean,chickpea, lentil, soybean, peanut, mung bean, navybean and cowpea (Brinsmead et al 1991). Otherpotential grain legumes include vetch, Lathyrus,fenugreek, guar, and a range of summer legumesfrom the phaseolus family. A wide spectrum ofspecies and varieties is required because of therelatively narrow rainfall, temperature and soiltype boundaries for individual types.However, during the 1980s a number of factorshave combined to change the emphasis fromtraditional practices to more intensive butsustainable rotations which include grain legumesas grain crops and possible use of green manure

crops in farmers' revised management practices(Rees and Presser, 1991).They include: availability of, know ledge of, and ability tocultivate new legume crops. declining profits from lower wheat proteinlevels and lower wool prices; increases in soil disease problems in cerealcrops, and the benefits of pulses in reducingthese problems; increasing cereal yields following pulse crops; use of effective herbicid es in pulses to controlgrassy weeds which are difficult or expensive

to control in cereal crops; profitable use of pulse stubbles and grain spiltafter harvesting for feeding; lower wheat protein levels using traditionalcereal-pasture rotation methods; the relative profitability of pulses in their ownright; the need to develop a nitrogen crop for lowerrainfall country.In the early 1980s and until the wool price boom of1987-88 relative returns for wool had laggedsignificantly behind wheat returns in the majorwheat-sheep zones of Australia. There wassufficient economic incentive to reduce sheepnumbers and increase cropping intensities butthere was a reluctance to change to what manyfarmers would regard as unsustainable croppingrotations. However, the world-wide reduction ineconomic growth during the late 1980s and sincethat time and relatively low purchases from theCIS and Ch ina in the 1990s has led to a build up inworld wool stocks and has again meant relativelylow returns for wool compared to grains in recentyears. In addition, other economic pressures suchas high interest rates up until recently, drought andlow wheat prices caused farmers to implementmore intensive cropping programs.Gross margins prepared by the SA Department ofAgriculture for a range of crop and livestockactivities in the wheat-sheep belt of SouthAustralia in 1990-91 demonstrate the markeddifference in profitability between wheat, wool and

-26-


29/79

grain legum es in that year. Cash returns for fieldpeas were forecast at $189/ha compared with$171/ha for wheat and only $50-60/ha from sheep(prices were assumed to be $201/t for peas, $121/tfor wheat and $4.90/kg for greasy wool) and didnot include a measure for the agronomic benefits ofpulses (SA Dept of Agriculture, 1991).Protein levels in wheat are dependent on the levelof available nitrogen in the soil, in a cereal pasturesystem grain legumes in rotation can increase soilfertility. However, the ingress of new pasture pestsand weeds, and the use of residual herbicides havemade it more difficult for farmers to maintainquality, legume dom inant pastures. This problemhas been compounded with more intensive

cropping, increased grazing pressures, and possiblypoor grazing management as a result of economicpressures on farmers to increase production.However, the economics of pasture improvement inestablishing a vigorous legume growth in a pastureare not favourable given current returns from sheepand cereals, and are not likely to be for the nextfew years.The economic incentives which are required forfarmers to increase the cropping intensity can beillustrated by an analysis of the profitability of anumber of alternative rotations.

Table 5: Gross margins for a range of alternative cropping rotations in the wheat sheep belt of SouthAustralia in 1990-91 (Source:Reesand Presser, 1991)

Rotation

12345

1wheatwheatwheatwheatwheatwheat

2barley

pasturebarleypeas

pasturebarley

Ye a r

3peas

barleypasturebarley

pasturepeas

4wheat

pasturepasturepasturewheatwheat

5barleywheatwheatwheat

pasturebarley

6peas

pasturebarleypeas

pasturegreenmanure

CropIntensity%10050506033100

Average annualgrossmarginS/ha13377621067798

Over the last few years a grain legume sown forgrain every 3 years has been the most profitablerotation. There are however, several agronomicissues, such as the long term effect on soil fertilityand soil borne diseases which may reduce cropyields over the medium term. No allowance hasbeen made for these factors in the study or of thebenefits and costs of sheep grazing.This kind of analysis may have some impact on thedecisions which farmers have to make whenchoosing a flexible rotation system. There is aneed to develop an acceptable grain legume fordrier areas such as the Mallee regions of southernAus tralia and Eyre Peninsula. A more broadlybased testing of Lathyrus and narbon bean isnecessary to establish whether they have superiorattributes over other grain legumes on driercountry. At issue will be the relative returns in any

one year available from grain legume grainproduction relative to hay and forage productionusing either Viciaor Lathyrus.Demand in Australia fo r Viciaand Lathyrus

(i) StockfeedThere is little or no food demand for these twolegumes in Australia, and food demand is unlikelyto be significant even with the development ofmore palatable varieties unless there is asignificant shift in consump tion to grain legum es.The greatest potential use is for livestock feed,principally for ruminant animals (in competitionwith lupins) and for poultry and pigs (incompetition with field peas, faba bean and in someyears chickpeas). Their nutritional value is similar

- 27 -


30/79

to field peas but there is some reduction in growthrates in monogastric rations due to unacceptablyhigh levels of growth retardants in current varietiesand the problem of toxins, particularly in youngeranim als. The re are few reported growth problemsin ruminant animals using vetch.Tables 6 and 7 below represent a domestic supplyutilisation table for the two major grain legumesproduced in Australia, lupin and field pea, whichTable 6: Apparent utilisation of lupins (kt).

reflect a significant usage in the Australianlivestock feed m arket. Average disposal of lupinsin A ustralia was between 350 000 ton nes and515 000 tonnes in the five years 1987-88 to 1991-92 with the major market being feed for sheep.There is significant utilisation of lupin in allAustralian States except Queensland, although indrought years small quantities of lupins areimported from New South Wales.

1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92productionexportsapparent domestic consumption

857493364

930517413

772378394

75240 1351

1038524514

Source: ABARE Crop Report 19 January 1993.

Table 7: Apparent utilisation of field peas (kt)

1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92productionexportsapparent domestic consumption

490367177

523377231

388294194

309355151

46340 8276

Source: ABA RE Crop Report 19 January 1993

There is also strong domestic usage of field peas inall States except Queensland where none aregrown. The major usage is as an energycomponent in stockfeed rations for poultry andpigs.The acceptance of vetch and/or Lathyrus inruminant rations will be dependant on theirrelative price to lupins. In South Australia andWestern Australia blanchefleur and languedocvetch have been used successfully for sheep feedand in pellets for the livesheep trade.In a study by Allden and Geytenbeck (1983) sheepfed on narbon beans made substantial weightgains, but grew significantly less wool than sheepfed on othe r legu me s. Sheep fed chickpea, Cyprusvetch, narrow leaf lupin, field pea, faba bean andcommon vetch crops in separate rations gained themost weight whilst the highest wool growth came

from the Cyprus vetch, lupin, field pea and fababean crops.Cattle, grazing four separate legume crops, madeexcellent weight gains on faba beans, moderategains on narrow-leafed lupin and indifferent gainson sub clover pasture, Cyprus vetch and field pea.Cattle were better able to use legumes with eitherlarge seeds, such as faba bean, or those such aslupins that retained their seed in the pod (Alldenand Geytenbeck, 1983).Following a heavy fall of rain, sheep fed on chickpea, vetchling (Lathyrus cicera), vetch and fieldpeas lost weight whereas those sheep fed on fieldbeans and lupins continued their rapid growth(100-130 g/day). Digestibility studies showed thatgrain legume residues (stem, leaf and pod) were ofhigher digestibility (48-60 per cent) th an a b arleycrop residue (44 per c ent), the legume species

-28-


31/79

differing among themselves (Allden andGeytenbeck, 1983).In 1971 sheep grazing on lupins, peas, andLanguedoc vetch gained more weight but grew lesswool than when fed with lupins under all feedingconditions than those grazed on peas and vetches.Sheep grazed on legume stubbles and fed 250ggrain/day gave a similar liveweight and woolproduction to that of the standing grain legumecrop (Arnoldet al 1980).In a second experiment in 1974 lambs grazed onwhole crops gained a similar amount of weightover 42 days on lupins and peas but less on vetches(V. dasycarpa)where grain yield was very low andhad lodged after a very wet winter. Gross marginsper ha from the grazing activities were $140 onpeas, $92 on lupins and -$25/ha on vetches(Arnold et al 1980).Markets for Languedoc vetch include piggerieswhich can inco rporate between 10 per cent and30 per cent in their feed rations. A constraint withLanguedoc seed may be to be able to identify itfrom Popany and Namoi vetch seed which suppressgrowth rate in pigs whereas Languedoc reportedlydoes not (NSW Agnote, 1992) although thisconclusion was not supported by Davies (1987).In an experimental grain legume evaluation forpigs Davies found that diets for growing pigscontaining Namoi and Popany vetch and narbonbeans caused severely reduced intake and pigweight loss. Pigs fed Tyson chick pea andLanguedoc vetch rations grew significantly moreslowly than those fed the control diet. Growth rateon the soybean, Tyson and Languedoc diets was645, 595 and 545 g/day respectively. The feedconversion ratio (FCR) of pigs fed the soybean andLanguedoc diets was 2.12 and 2.44 respectively.This is a 15% difference, the same as thedifference in the growth rate. If the growthdepression is attributed entirely to Languedoc, itperformed as if it had a DE of 12.5 MJ/kg(compared with the estimated value of 15), or alysine level of 9.5 g/kg (instead of the me asuredvalue of 17.4). Relative to peas Languedoc did notperform as well.Several international studies seem to confirm thevalue of vetch as a forage legume, describe thepossible uses of narbon bean as a feed forruminants and identify a number of dietaryproblems with using faba beans and vetches inlayer hen diets.

The relatively high prices for sheep make foragelegumes increasingly attractive to farmers in WestAsia. Trials with a number of vetch varietiesshowed there was considerable variation inherbage and seed yields within both genotypes andenvironments, and genotype times environmentinteractions were highly significant. Woolly podvetch yielded the most herbage, followed byNarbon vetch. The very high seed yield of narbonbean (mean yield over all environments was morethan 2t/ha) raises the possibility that this speciescould be used as a grain legume in the semi aridregions of West Asia, especially as a feed forlivestock and, possibly after selection for greaterpalatability, for human consumption (Abd ElMoneim and Cocks, 1988). Tait and Ennekin g(1992) have identified an anti-feedant factor innarbon bean which is discussed in more detailbelow.

In Spain an experiment was conducted to establishthe effect of increasing the dietary amounts of fieldbeans, sweet lupins, cull peas and vetches on theproductivity of high performance laying hens.There was a significant negative relationshipbetween the dietary concentration of beans andvetches and food intake, egg production and foodto egg ratio. The inclusion of peas or lupins of upto 300 and 200 g/kg respectively, did not affectproductivity. The diets with vetches and thehighest amounts of the other three legumes causedegg production to decline in the last weekcompared to the beginnin g of the experiment. Thiseffect seems to indicate an accumulation oftoxicants in the organs of the birds (CastanonPerez-Lanzac, 1989).In summary, feed trials indicate that vetch andLathyrus are good forage legumes; there appear tobe few problems feeding vetch or Lathyrus seed toruminants but a number of growth retardantproblems emerged when they were fed tomonogastric animals.(ii) HayThere is an increasing recognition by farmers ofthe need for better quality but relatively cheap hayfor stock maintenance particularly at a time whenwool and sheep prices are so low. As aconsequence increasing numbers of farmers arerealising the relative cost benefits of producing haymixtures which include cereals with Viciavarietiesin competition with lucerne. In the next few yearsthis may have implications for lucerne hay sales aslucerne hay has a lower nitrogen value relative toVicia and farmers could turn to the relativelycheaper Vicia product. Consequently lucerne

-29-


32/79

prices could be expected to fall in the medium termif traditional lucerne buyers convert to the Viciaproduct.Trends in Field Pea, Chickpea and Lupinexports from AustraliaIn 1986-87 Australia exported some 72 per cent ofthe field peas produced, 68 per cent of the lupinsand 100 per cent of the chickpeas. The rema inderwas used in various stockfeed rations for ruminantsand monogastric animals on the domestic market.

The European Community was the major marketfor Australian field pea exports in 1986-87(244 kt). Exports to that destination have fallensteadily since this time as India and Bangladeshemerged as major users of Australian field peasand desi chickpeas for human consumption. Inrecent years Australia has also exported most of itschickpeas to these two countries (Table 8). Forlupins the major markets have been Japan and theEuropean Community for use as protein feed forruminant anima ls. Lupins are not being consumedfor food despite being given clearance to do so bythe World Health Organisation.

Table 8: Australian exports of field peas, chickpeas and lupins, by destination 1986-87 and 1990-91 (Kt).

South, South East and East AsiaIndiaBangladeshMalaysiaJapanKorea, RepublicTaiwan

European CommunityNetherlandsPortugalSpain

Total Exports

Field Peas1986-87

948

4

136

371

1991-92

22110.77

156

86186

C hickpeas L upins1986-87 1991-92

na

1749

0.70.1 82

11125

93

0.30.2

na 86

25025

396

175122548

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics

World production of Viciaand LathyrusCommon vetch is a widely distributed andacceptable legume grown for seed for use mainlyfor forage and hay production in Europe, USA andin countries around the Mediterranean basin.Lathyrus is considered native to southern Europeand W est Asia. It is widely grown in India, Iran,Middle East and South America.The table below lists a number of the largestproducers of Vicia. The major producer is the

former Soviet Union, but there are more than 25countries who produceVicia.Whilst there are no aggregate world productionfigures available forLathyrus the major producer isIndia. In 1981-82 the area sown to Lathyrus was700 000 ha which resulted in production of 173 ktor 7 per cent of the total pulses produced in India.In 1985 Thakur & Rai (1985) stated that Lathyruscontributes abo ut 6 per cent of India's total pulseproduction, 80 per cent of which is in two S tates,Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

Documents

Potential for Vicia and Lathyrus Species As New Grain and Fodder Legumes for Southern Australia