POULTRY FARMING - Addis Alem - Agri Consultaddisalem-agriconsult.com/Trainings manual (teacher... · 2014-03-14 · Chicken is a fast growing product in Ethiopia. Many residents are

POULTRY FARMING

SMALL-SCALE POULTRY FARMING IN CENTRAL - ETHIOPIA

(TEACHERS VERSION)

© Genesis Farms Ethiopia, Debre Zeyt (2014) Number of publication: 011720141

POULTRY FARMING

SMALL-SCALE POULTRY FARMING IN CENTRAL-ETHIOPIA

(TEACHERS VERSION)

© Genesis Farms Ethiopia, Debre Zeyt, 2014 Number of publication: 011720141 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. Authors: C.A. den Boer

N. van den Hout L. Vervloed

Layout by L. Vervloed Debre Zeyt, Ethiopia - January 17th 2014

Page | 3 © C.A. den Boer / N. van den Hout / L. Vervloed Genesis Farm, Ethiopia (Debre Zeyt, 2014)

Preface This report is written by t order of P. Marijs, agricultural consultant and trainer on Genesis Farm, placed in Debre Zeyt, Ethiopia. It is a result of a final assignment from the semester ‘Management’ at the University of Applied Sciences Dronten. Chicken is a fast growing product in Ethiopia. Many residents are starting a small-scale poultry farm (maximum 500 chickens). The chickens are in first case for the egg production, but when the chickens cannot lay anymore, they sell the chickens as slaughter product. This trainings manual is about small-scale poultry farming in central - Ethiopia. The goal of the course is to teach the trainees the theoretical part and the practical part of chicken farming and prevent problems in future. We would like to thank the following people and companies: - Mr. P. Marijs, our internship leader - Mr. K. Brak from Maranatha Farm for answering all the questions - National Veterinary Institute, for the information about vaccinations and health care - Mr. J. Couzijnsen from AKF for the information about feeding and health care - Mr. A. Boere and from NABC and Demeke from Yo-farms for the information about the laws in Ethiopia - The local farmers for their information - Several others who have given important advice Enjoy this course! Kelsey den Boer Natasja van den Hout Linda Vervloed Debre Zeyt, January 17th 2014


TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN............................................................................................................................................ 7

1.1 CHICKEN IN GENERAL ................................................................................................................................... 7

1.2 ANATOMY ................................................................................................................................................ 8

1.3 DIGESTIVE TRACT ...................................................................................................................................... 12

1.4 ETHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................................. 17

1.5 THE EGG ................................................................................................................................................ 21

1.6 QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 33

CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN DISEASES .......................................................................................................................... 38

2.1 DISEASES ................................................................................................................................................ 38

2.2 PREVENTION ........................................................................................................................................... 61

2.7 QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 65

CHAPTER 3 – HOUSING ........................................................................................................................................ 67

3.1 HUSBANDRY SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................ 67

3.2 BUILDING CHICKEN HOUSING ....................................................................................................................... 75

3.3 BUILDING AN OWN STABLE .......................................................................................................................... 79

3.4 TUKUL STABLE ......................................................................................................................................... 83

3.5 REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 86

3.6 EQUIPMENT OF THE HOUSING ...................................................................................................................... 86

3.7 TOTAL COSTS OF EQUIPMENT ....................................................................................................................... 91

3.8 QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 93

CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW........................................................................................................................................... 96

4.1 CHICKEN BREEDS ...................................................................................................................................... 96

4.2 BREEDING AND MULTIPLICATION .................................................................................................................. 98

4.3 HIGH-BREEDS .......................................................................................................................................... 98

4.4 SELECTION PROCEDURE .............................................................................................................................. 98

4.5 BUYING THE CHICKENS ............................................................................................................................. 100

4.6 AFTER BUYING ....................................................................................................................................... 101

4.7 REARERS .............................................................................................................................................. 104

4.8 GROWERS ............................................................................................................................................ 110

4.9 LAYERS ................................................................................................................................................ 111

4.10 MEAT CHICKENS ..................................................................................................................................... 114

4.11 CHECKLIST FOR THE GROWING PERIOD ......................................................................................................... 115

4.12 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 117

CHAPTER 5 - MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................................................. 119

5.1 MAINTENANCE OF THE MATERIALS .............................................................................................................. 119

5.2 HYGIENE .............................................................................................................................................. 120

5.3 FEED ................................................................................................................................................... 125

5.4 ORDERING FEED ..................................................................................................................................... 126

5.5 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 128


CHAPTER 6 - OUTFLOW ...................................................................................................................................... 129

6.1 THE EGG .............................................................................................................................................. 129

6.2 THE CHICKEN ......................................................................................................................................... 132

6.3 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 134

CHAPTER 7 - BUSINESS ....................................................................................................................................... 138

7.1 EGG PRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 138

7.2 MARKETING .......................................................................................................................................... 139

7.3 REGISTRATION AND IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................................ 143

7.4 NETWORKING AND WORKING TOGETHER ...................................................................................................... 145

7.5 CUSTOMER FOCUS AND CUSTOMER FRIENDLINESS ........................................................................................... 147

7.6 LOGISTICS ............................................................................................................................................. 149

7.7 FINANCIAL ASPECTS ................................................................................................................................. 151

7.8 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 158

CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY ....................................................................................................... 163

8.1 HOW TO APPROACH OTHER COMPANIES ....................................................................................................... 163

8.2 GOVERNMENT ....................................................................................................................................... 164

8.3 WRITING A BUSINESS PLAN ....................................................................................................................... 164

8.4 ADVERTISEMENT .................................................................................................................................... 167

8.5 STAFF .................................................................................................................................................. 168

8.6 COOPERATION ....................................................................................................................................... 168

8.7 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 170

CHAPTER 9 – ASSIGNMENTS AND ANSWERS...................................................................................................... 171

CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN ......................................................................................................................................... 171

CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN CARE.................................................................................................................................. 177

CHAPTER 3 - HOUSING ......................................................................................................................................... 181

CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW .......................................................................................................................................... 185

CHAPTER 5 – MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................................................. 189

CHAPTER 6 – OUTFLOW ....................................................................................................................................... 192

CHAPTER 7 – BUSINESS ........................................................................................................................................ 196

CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY ................................................................................................................ 205

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................................... 208

APPENDIX 1- BUSINESS PLAN ............................................................................................................................. 211


Theme 1. Chicken

Week 1 – Chicken Week 2 – Chicken diseases Week 3 – Housing


CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN This chapter is about the chicken in general, the anatomy, digestive system, the ethology of the chicken and the egg.

1.1 CHICKEN IN GENERAL A chicken is a nidifugous, omnivorous, ground bird. Nidifugous means that when a chicken is born it’s immediately undependable of his parents. The chicks need this undependability to avoid getting caught by a predator. The chicken will live mostly on the ground. The chicken will only use his wings when there danger approaches and when they want to reach for their sitting stick. The second purpose of the wings is to maintain balance. Chickens live in flocks. When hens or roosters are removed from a flock, a temporary disruption in the social order will occur until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens (especially young hens) to an existing flock can lead to fighting and injury. The selection of feed is based on visual and taste senses. The tastes senses are located in the top of the beak, the throat and the tongue. This is important to know when managing poultry and their feed. If the composition of the feed changes due to availability of grains, the hens may not change easily to eat seeds of a different shape or colour. When a chicken is de-beaked their tastes senses decrease. The tongue is a second range sense. It contents taste buds, but it can’t tell the difference between sweet and sour. Little is known about the sense of smell. This figure shows the order of the senses. The most important sense has 3 plusses and the least important has a minus:

- Tactile sense +++ - Sight ++ - Taste + - Smell -

Hearing is an acute sense in chickens, and communication within and among flocks of chickens takes place mainly through signals provided by postures, displays and vocalisations (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Postures and displays are used to signal threat and submission (Kruijt, 1964). Other acute senses are sight and colour vision. This is important to know when managing poultry and their feed, that the selection of the feed is based on visual cues and immediate taste cues. A hen may not change that easily to eating seeds of a different shape and colour, because of this reason it isn’t recommended to change the composition of the feed.


1.2 ANATOMY This subchapter will describe the feathers and shedding, the respiratory tract and the skeleton of the chicken.

1.2.1 FEATHERS AND SHED A chicken is covered with feathers, skin and scales. The feathers protect the body against injuries and they have an insulating function. Each part of the body has its own type of feathers. There are four types of feathers:

1. Flight feathers 2. Body feathers 3. Hair feathers 4. Down feathers (fluff) (Stoas, 1997)

Feathers vary in size and shape, but they always have the following parts:

- Quill (Hollow stem) - Shaft (Rib) - Accessory plume - Web of vane - Barbs (branching from shaft for interlocking)

The anatomy of the feather is found in figure 1.1 ‘Feather anatomy’.

Case study 1.1 Chicken in general

You are feeding your chickens the same food every day for the last 20 weeks. You ordered new food from the factory. The factory called you up yesterday to inform you about the fact

that the amount of grain is raised in the composition due to availability. The factory is asking you if you agree with this change in food composition. What would be your answer and how

will the chickens respond?

Answer: A chicken selects his food due to visual and tastes senses. The chickens will notice the

difference in the food composition through these senses. They will see that the shape or colour of the composition is different and they won’t eat it up easily. They can eat it

eventually, but this takes an incredible amount of patience. A stubborn hen won’t eat it and maybe several will, but if you want to be sure you need to decline the question of the factory.

This way the chickens get the same feed as usual.


Figure 1.1 'Feather anatomy'

Chickens only shed ones a year during the laying period. The growers and rearers shed in intervals. These intervals are:

- Four till five weeks - Eight weeks - Thirteen weeks - Twenty weeks

Roosters and hens show a few differences. These differences are to be found in Table 1.1 ‘The differences between roosters and hens’

Table 1.1 ‘The differences between roosters and hens’

Rooster Hen

Bigger than a hen Shorter and rounder feathers

Comb, wattles and earlobes usually bigger

Larger tail

Shiny, pointed feathers on their necks (hackles) and backs (saddle)

Bigger spur

Comb size and colour in males and females are influenced by the levels of sex hormone and are indicators of social status (Guhl and Ortman, 1953).

1.2.2 RESPIRATORY TRACT The main function of the respiratory system of birds is to absorb oxygen and to release carbon dioxide in the body. In addition, the respiratory system also gets rid of excess heat (temperature regulation), detoxification of certain chemicals and vocalization. This vocalization is most noticeably (crowing noise) and annoys the neighbours.


Like humans, birds have a windpipe and two lungs. From there on birds are distinctly unlike mammals. Air flows into a bird’s lungs during the intake of breath. This air continues through the lungs into nine air sacs and then it goes back out through the lungs again. Birds get two doses of oxygen for the price of one breath! The air sacs are arranged around the inside of the chest and abdominal cavity. These air sacs connect with some of the bones of the skeleton. Figure 1.2 ‘Respiratory’ shows every part of the tract.

Figure 1.2 'Respiratory tract'

Humans breathe with the help of the diaphragm muscle, which divides the chest and abdominal cavities. Birds don’t have a working diaphragm; instead, a bird moves its rib cage and keel bone (breastbone) to draw air into the lungs and to force it back out again. Holding a chick or other small bird firmly around the body stops them from breathing and this can kill them. This is just one of several reasons why small children should be supervised when holding chicks. The voice box in chickens is called the syrinx. The syrinx is located down in the chest cavity where the windpipe splits to enter each lung. Both male and female chickens have a syrinx, so hens can crow too (if they feel like it). The syrinx isn’t an optional piece of anatomy though. A rooster can’t live with his syrinx removed. The layout of a chicken’s heart isn’t so different from the layout of a human heart. It has four chambers and pumps blood through two loops: one loop through the lungs, and the other loop through the rest of the body. A bird’s heart is relatively large for its body size, compared to mammal hearts.


1.2.3 SKELETON The skeleton has two additional functions: respiration and calcium transport. The skeletal system of the bird is compact and lightweight, yet strong. The tail and neck vertebrae are movable due to the 14 backbones, but the body vertebrae are fused together to give the body sufficient strength to support the wings. There are two special types of bones which make up the bird’s skeletal system: the pneumatic and medullary bones. The skeleton of a chicken is shown in figure 1.4 ‘Model’. The pneumatic bones are important to the chicken for respiration. They are hollow bones which are connected to the chicken’s respiratory system and are important for the chicken to breathe. Examples of pneumatic bones are the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel (sternum), pelvic girdle, and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae. The medullary bones are an important source of calcium for the laying hen. Calcium is the primary component of egg shell and a hen mobilizes 47% of her body calcium to make the egg shell. Examples of medullary bones are the tibia, femur, pubic bones, ribs, ulna, toes, and scapula. These bones are shown in figure 1.3 ‘Skeleton’.

Figure 1.3 'Skeleton' Figure 1.4 'Model'


1.3 DIGESTIVE TRACT This subchapter is about the organs of the digestive tract and the digestive process. The following applies to poultry in general. Figure 1.4. ‘Digestive tract’ shows a scheduled drawing of the digestive tract of a chicken. The digestive tract of a chicken consists of:

- Mouth - Crop - Glandular stomach - Gizzard, or muscular stomach - Small intestine - Large intestine - Cloacae

Case study 1.2 Anatomy

You want to buy a new rooster for your flock, so you go to a farmer who sells roosters. The farmer shows you a flock of chickens which contains roosters and hens. It’s your job to pick

the right rooster out. You made a selection of 2 chickens that you want to see separated from the flock so that you can observe them. Both of the chickens are healthy and happy.

Chicken 1:

It’s a rather short chicken with round feathers.

Chicken 2: This chicken is the largest of all. This chicken has a large tail and has some shiny pointed

feathers in its neck and back

Which chicken would you buy?

Answer: Chicken 2, this is the rooster. Chicken 1 is a hen.


Figure 1.4 'Digestive tract'

1.3.1 MOUTH A chicken has no lips, cheeks or teeth as shown in figure 1.5 ‘Mouth’. The beak is composed of two horny parts:

- The upper beak, which is attached to the skull - The lower beak, which is hinged

A chicken can’t chew so they pick the feed up. After picking up the feed it arrives in the mouth. The mouth produces saliva. The saliva contains no digestive fluids and server to make the feed smooth and moist. It’s easy for a chicken to swallow their feed due to the elasticity of their gullet. The chicken still needs to raise its head to tip the water into the pharynx and gullet. It then passes the gullet (oesophagus) to a pouch known as the crop. The passage is by gravity and air pressure differences. The tongue is used to push feed to the back of the mouth so that it can be swallowed. There are taste buds on the roof of the mouth and back of the tongue. The mouth is also very sensitive to temperature differences.


Figure 1.5 'Mouth'

1.3.2 CROP The crop is an out-pocketing of the oesophagus and is located just outside the body cavity in the neck region as shown in figure 1.6 ‘Crop’. Consumed feed and water are stored in the crop until the remainder of the digestive tract is ready to receive more feed. When empty, or nearly empty, the crop sends hunger signals to the brain so that more feed is consumed. The crop is simply a temporary storage pouch that evolved for prey birds which need to move to the open to feed. They are able to consume relatively large quantities of food rapidly and then return to a more secure location to digest it. Occasionally the crop becomes impacted (crop impaction, also referred to as crop binding or pendulous crop). This may occur when feed is withheld for a period of time, causing chickens to eat too much and too fast when the feed is returned. A crop may also become impacted in a chicken that is free-ranged on a pasture of tough, fibrous vegetation. With a crop impaction, even if a chicken continues to eat, the feed can’t get past the impacted crop. The swollen crop may also cut off the windpipe, suffocating the chicken. Crop impaction is unlikely to occur in properly fed broilers or broiler breeders.


Figure 1.6 'Crop'

1.3.3 GLANDULAR STOMACH This is the enlarged part of the gullet just before it connection with the gizzard. In its wall are many glands that secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsin.

1.3.4 GIZZARD, OR MUSCULAR STOMACH The Gizzard is the actual stomach of a chicken. The inside of the Gizzard is coated with a hard stratum corneum. Its wall contents two sets of strong muscles which acts as the birds teeth. Consumed feed and the released digestive juices pass from the proventriculus to the gizzard for grinding, mixing, and mashing. Large poorly-soluble particles (such as small stones or grit) are retained in the gizzard until ground into tiny pieces by the action of the muscles and exposure to the acid and food particles. Grit is originally part of the feed. The contractions of the Gizzard together with the grit grind down the feed and this makes the gastric juices more effective. So when the chicken eats, he will also pick some grit up. An adult chicken needs about 10 to 15 grams of grit every two weeks. Figure 1.7 ‘Crop, Gizzard and Glandular stomach’ shows the locations of these three parts of the digestive system.


Figure 1.7 'Crop, Gizzard and Glandular stomach'

1.3.5 APPENDIX A chicken has two big appendixes at the passage from the small- and large intestine. The function is to digest a little bit of the crude fibre and to extract water from the excrement. The rest of the feed goes to the large intestine.

1.3.6 SMALL INTESTINE The length of the small intestine is about 1.5 meter. This length is for an adult chicken. The first part forms a loop known as the duodenal loop in which the most of the intestinal digestion takes place. Enclosed in this loop is the pancreas. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. The liver and the gall bladder also secrete products into the small intestine. The nutrients resulting from the digestive process pass into the bloodstream through the wall of the small intestine. Between the small and the large intestine are two blind guts (caeca). The digestion of crude fibre in the feed only takes place in these blind guts, with the help of bacteria present here.

1.3.7 LARGE INTESTINE The large intestine is relatively short. It’s about 10 centimetres, that’s about 80% of what remains of the feed that passes directly from the small intestine to the large intestine. The rest of the feed stops at the appendix. The large intestine excretes the water out of the excrements and urine.

1.3.8 CLOACAE The word cloacae means ‘common sewer’. The digestive, the urinary and the reproductive tracts all empty into the cloacae. Chickens don’t have a urinary bladder; the urine from the kidney is constantly added to the feed remnants. This leads to the formation of the whitish uric acid salts so characteristic of chicken excrements (STOAS (1992)).

1.3.9 EXCREMENTS A chicken has two types of excrement:


1. From the rectum, firm excrement, brown, green of colour and cloaked with a white layer of hydrochloric acid.

2. The appendix discharge, paste like excrements, dark brown of colour. Per 8/10 rectal discharge an appendix discharge occurs.

1.4 ETHOLOGY Chickens in captivity show the same behaviour as the Red Jungle fowl (Gallus Gallus). The Red Jungle fowl is thought to be ancestral to the domestic chicken. The Red Jungle fowl was first domesticated at least five thousand years ago in Asia, then taken around the world, and the domestic form is kept globally as a very productive food source of both meat and eggs The behaviour is necessary for the breeding and survival in the wild. Whether they are in the wild or captivity the chicken still needs to express certain behaviours. This is called instinct. Behavioural problems occur when the chicken doesn’t have the chance of expressing his instinctual behaviour. You need to consider a few aspects. This is to avoid certain behaviour problems.

- The space that a chicken needs, so that they can avoid each other when needed - The availability of laying houses - The availability of bedding material - The availability of feed and water

A chicken starts to show unnatural behaviour patterns, when the chicken is exposed to stress. This type of behaviour is called stereotypic behaviour. Immediate reaction is required when the chicken shows stereotypical behaviour. Stereotypical behaviour is a way of communication. The chicken lets you know through his way that it’s not happy or healthy. The following behaviours will occur when a chicken is happy and healthy:

- Scratch; a chicken loves to scratch and to peck in the ground. This is natural behaviour to search for feed. The combination of their long toes with sharp nails is perfect to express this behaviour.

- Picking of conspecifics; a chicken expresses this behaviour to determine a pecking order or when a rooster protects his hens. Chickens also show cannibalism behaviour. This is the second reason why they peck each other. They can lose a lot of feathers through this and

Case study 1.3 Digestive tract

A chicken has only one form of excrement. A human has two forms: urine and poop. Why won’t you ever see a chicken urinate?

Answer:

The word cloacae means ‘common sewer’. The digestive, the urinary and the reproductive tracts all empty into the cloacae.

Birds don’t have a urinary bladder; the urine from the kidney is constantly added to the feed remnants. This leads to the formation of the whitish uric acid salts so characteristic of bird

excrements.


they can wound each other. To avoid that the chickens get fixated at each other it’s necessary to get some distractions (like alfalfa or grass).

- Sleeping (roost); in the nature a chicken uses a tree to sleep on. So make sure that there is a sitting stick for them to sleep on.

- The nursing of the feathers (polish); the purpose of this is to keep the feathers water repellent and flexible. The meaning of this behaviour is that the chicken will grease and order its feathers. To grease their feathers they will rub their beak against their preen gland near the tail bone. A chicken can’t express this behaviour when it’s debeaked.

- The nursing of the skin (taking a dust bath); this is to clean the skin of parasites, itch and skin irritations. Make sure that the bedding material is dry and loose.

- Communication; chickens have multiple varieties of vocalisations: warning, predator alarm calls, contact calls, territorial calls, laying calls, nesting calls, mating calls, threat calls, submissive calls, distress alarm, fear calls, contentment calls and feed calls (Mench and Keeling, 2001). The chickens will constantly cackle when they feel save and when they are healthy. So the care taker wants to hear this cackle.

- Moult; when the autumn arrives the chickens will start to replace their old feathers with new ones. This process will last for two months. The moult cost the chicken a lot of energy. Make sure that the chickens get enough proteins for their moult (PTC+, Hoenders).

A hen needs a nest site. Before egg laying hens will work to gain access to a nest site. Without a nest the hens will often show abnormal behaviour during pre-laying such as: pacing, reduced sitting and displacement behaviours (Sherwin and Nicol, 1993). So when a hen has a nesting site there is an opportunity for more normal behaviour. (Wegner, 1980). Hens will often try to lay eggs in nests that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. The results of this behaviour are that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every chicken. Therefore it’s not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share the same nest at the same time. If the nest is too small for the hens or when a hen is determined, they will lay on top of each other. If you want to encourage hens to lay in a particular location, you can use some fake eggs made of plastic, stones or golf balls. Chickens will form subgroups, when they are kept together for some months. These subgroups will be restricted to an area. A chicken is capable of recognising their own group members and those of an overlapping territory. It was suggested that this territorial behaviour is important in large flocks as it reduces the numbers of conflicts when strangers meet (McBride and Foenander, 1962). This ability is very difficult for chickens under commercial poultry husbandry conditions where group sizes are very large (Mauldin, 1992). Dim or coloured lightening can affect a chicken’s ability to discriminate between other chickens (Mench and Keeling, 2001). It has also been shown that individuals are more dominant in the area where they spend most their time than in flocks. Hens tend to live in neighbourhoods where they are well-acquainted (Craig and Guhl, 1969). Laying hens choose to feed close to each other when given a choice of feeding locations. This demonstrates the importance of social attraction (Meunier–Salaun and Faure, 1984). Hens that are in cages and in neighbouring cages synchronize their feeding. A chicken will peck and feed more when they have company than when they are alone (Keeling and Hurink, 1996). It has also been shown (McBride James, J.W. and Shoffner, R.N, 1963) that hens don’t move randomly in normal intensive housing conditions. They maintain their heads at regular patterns of spacing and orientate them to avoid the frontal aspects of other chickens. However they turn probably in defence, to face approaching chickens.


A chicken likes to eat eggs. An egg that’s broken will be likely eaten by other chickens. Some chickens become habitual egg-eaters that break eggs open and eat them. An egg eater needs to be separated from the flock. Chickens copy each other’s behaviour. So if you leave an egg-eater in the flock, you may end up with more egg-eaters. Holes and cracked eggs don’t necessary mean that there is an egg-eater in the flock. A hen can accidentally crack an egg in the nest when she sits on it. Sometimes curiosity or boredom leads a chicken to peck at an egg without the intention of eating it. The empty eggshells from the kitchen can be fed back to chickens as a calcium supplement without the concern of creating egg-eaters. You can also crush or blend the eggs to be sure that you won’t create egg-eaters. The eggshells provide calcium which is essential for good eggs.

1.4.1 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR Some males haunt other males, which can be a problem. The haunting can be a form of dominance. Roosters also show Pseudo-mating. Pseudo-mating occurs frequently between high-ranking males and low-ranking males who are pursued. (Guhl, 1950). The roosters show this behaviour to establish a dominance relationship. The same situation can occur in flocks of hens. Caged chickens may show some abnormal behaviour such as: head flicking, feather pecking, pecking and pulling the feathers of other chickens (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Feather picking can be a form of redirection of ground pecking (Blokhuis, 1989). Experience in an early stage of life may influence the pecking behaviour in later life. (Blockhuis, 1991). It’s possible that the chickens may perceive the feathers as dust and that may cause a redirection of ground pecking to feather pecking (Hansen and Braastad, 1994). Another abnormal behaviour pattern is cannibalism. This occurs in certain husbandry systems. Chickens starts cannibalising when they has seen blood (Brak, 2013) By giving some alfalfa as enrichment for the chickens there will be solved most of the behavioural problems. Alfalfa is used as an item to prevent boredom around a flock of chickens and is a plant that consists of 90% water and 10% protein and fibres. The fibres stimulate the digestion tract.

1.4.2 HUSBANDRY SYSTEMS IN COMPARISON WITH ETHOLOGY There are a few husbandry systems available in Ethiopia:

- Cages, also known as laying battery - Free-range chickens - Outside run

Chickens in Ethiopia can’t be held in outside run conditions. It would be uneconomical because of labour, feed requirements, wastage in egg handling and hygiene, disease control and predator control (Sainsbury, 1980). Free-range eggs have a 15-20% rate of dirty eggs that are classed as second-rate eggs. Cages have a 2% rate of dirty eggs (Slack-Smith. 2000) and the egg production has been found more economical (less feed per egg) Researchers are struggling with the question: ‘What’s the best environment or flooring for hens?’ In the environmental preferences studies (Dawkins, 1980), hens were given a choice of cage or an outside run. The hens that were used to living in a garden all chose the outside run. Hens that previously lived in cages tended to choose the cage on the first trial. After a period of time they also


choose the outside run. This means that the choice of environment is strongly influenced by previous experience. The fact that hens prefer an outside run to a cage is not indicative of suffering in a cage. They prefer to be in an outside run. This is not an option in Ethiopia, because of the nearby living predators. The chickens will constantly get scared and this has a negative stress effect on the egg laying (Brak, 2013). This doesn’t mean chickens can’t be held in free-range environments. This means that a chicken can walk over the floor freely, but doesn’t necessary mean that it can go outside. In cages that are too low for the chickens to raise their heads in a threat, aggression is provoked by an approaching chicken rather than by a chicken that is in continuous close proximity (Hughes and Wood-Gush, 1977). A particular problem in barn egg production systems is the fact that mortality, production and behavioural problems are all worse in large group of hens. This implies the formation of unstable social groups (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Peck orders are regarded as highly stable once established and in mixed groups. Roosters and hens have their own peck order (Guhl, 1958). Agnostic pecking begins to occur within a few weeks after hatching. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships (being obedient to a superior) usually don’t become established until the roosters are 6-8 weeks of age and for the pullets at an age of 8-10 weeks (Guhl, 1958). Al-Rawi and Craig (1975) did an experiment, beginning with relatively generous space allowances per hen and decreasing the space. They found out that social interaction rate increased as space decreased, but when the space decreased further the social interaction suddenly fell off. It has been shown that individuals behave less aggressively towards subordinates in the near presence of dominant flock mates. This third-party-effect is associated with a reduction in agnostic behaviour. It may due to the lack of space for threat displays (Ylander and Craig, 1980). The results of this experiment on spacing indicate that selection for productivity traits may cause behavioural changes. Higher ranking hens may have better egg production than the lowest ranking chicken in a cage. This is probably because the highest ranking hen has more access to the feed (Cunningham and van Tienhoven, 1983). Most of the aggression is seen at the feed though. This is a place where there is some competition among the chickens (Mench and Keeling, 2001). When hens are capable of establishing a dominance hierarchy (in small group sizes in cages) the aggression stays relatively low (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Once a social group becomes organised, the incidence of agonistic interactions decreases (Mauldin, 1992). The explanation of the husbandry systems will be given at chapter 3.1 ‘husbandry systems’.


1.5 THE EGG It depends on the breed whether the chicken lays an egg once a day, every other day or once or twice a week. Normal laying routines can be disrupted by the moulting process, winter daylight shortage, extreme temperatures, illness, poor nutrition, stress or the lack of fresh water. When the disrupting factor is resolved the hen will continue with her normal laying process. A hen will lay eggs whether they’ve seen a rooster or not. Roosters are only necessary for the fertilizing of the eggs. The interval between the egg laying is about 25 hours. This means that a hen will lay her eggs an hour later every day. A hen doesn’t lay eggs in the dark, so once a hens laying cycle reaches dusk time; she’ll wait with the laying until the following morning. Eggshell production drains calcium from the hens body. When the feed lacks calcium the comb, wattles, legs and ear lobes will fade in colour. Calcium must be replenished through either feed containing calcium or supplements.

1.5.1 EGG VARIATIONS There are mutable variations in eggs. Some variations in eggs are:

- The first lay of a pullet are smaller than the eggs of older chicken. The eggs of a young pullet can be malformed. After a short period of time the pullet establishes a normal laying routine and they will start to lay normal shaped eggs. Older hens may occasionally lay abnormal eggs due to age, stress or illness.

- Double egg (also known as egg-in-an-egg) is created when an egg with a shell is encased by the next egg in the oviduct and a shell is produced over the outer egg as well. Figure 1.8 ‘Double egg’ shows an example.

Case study 1.4 Ethology

You just bought a flock of hens. This flock lived in a cage for hole their lives. When you arrive with your new stock of hens you are doubting the fact if you would put the hens in a cage

system or in the free-range system. You decided to let the chickens choose which system they prefer. What system will the chickens choose? Explain your answer.

Answer:

The choice of environment is strongly influenced by previous experiences. The hens are used to a live in a cage so this is the option they will prefer at the first pick, but after a while the

curiosity kicks in and the chickens will eventually prefer the free-range system.


Figure 1.8 'Double egg'

- Double yolkers are unusually large eggs which contains two or more yolks in the shell. Yolkless eggs (also known as no-yolkers, dwarf-eggs or wind-eggs) consist only of egg white. Figure 1.9 ‘double yolker’ shows an example.

Figure 1.9 'Double-yolker'

- The size of an egg depends on the breed, age and weight of the hen. Older hens tend to lay larger eggs than younger hens.

- If you aren’t sure how old an egg is, you can submerge it in water. The freshest eggs will remain at the bottom of the container, while old eggs will float. Floaters should be either discarded or opened far from your nose, because of the horrible smell. This test shows the water floaters as shown in figure 1.10 ‘Water floating test’.

-

Figure 1.10 'Water floating test'

1.5.2 REPRODUCTION Chickens develop and hatch with thousands of ova (undeveloped eggs) inside their ovary. Though chickens start out with two ovaries, only the left one develops and becomes active. Figure 1.12 ‘Oviduct’ shows the oviduct of a hen.

Figure 1.11 'Water floating test by day'


Figure 1.12 'Oviduct'

As a pullet matures, her reproductive organs mature as well. The outside shows the growth of the comb and wattles. When a mature ovum is released from the ovary it is called ovulation. The entire reproductive system is called the oviduct and is usually between 25 and 27 inches long in a mature hen. The oviduct has five distinctive parts:

- Infundibulum; when the ovum is released from the ovary, the muscle lining of the infundibulum pulls the ovum into it. The ovum spends about 15 to 18 minutes in this part of the oviduct. If the hen has been mating, the sperm will fertilize the egg here.

- Magnum; this is the longest section of the oviduct at roughly 13 inches in length. This is where the egg white is added to the ovum. The ovum’s trip down the magnum takes about 3 hours.

- Isthmus; this is the part to add the inner and outer shell membranes to the ovum. This takes a period of 75 minutes. The Isthmus has a length of 4 inches

- Shell Gland; The egg will stay in this part for 20 hours to have its shell constructed. The hen's body will pull some calcium from her bones and the rest from her diet to put into the shell. If the hen is of a breed that lays colored eggs, the pigment will also be put into the egg in this section of the oviduct. When the shell is fully added, the egg will move down to the cloacae.

- Cloacae; this is the part where the chicken lays an egg. A rooster will mount a hen to mate with her. Figure 1.13 ‘Mating’ shows the mating. The rooster does this by standing on her back and lowering his cloacae. The hen will invert her own cloacae to meet with the roosters cloacae. There is no penetration, but the sperm packet that is released by the rooster is taken into the hens cloacae. From there the sperm makes its way to the infundibulum where it awaits the release of an ovum. Sperm can live in the infundibulum for more than two weeks.


Figure 1.13 'Mating'

The first lay of a pullet can form shell-less or irregular eggs. This is because of the fact that the pullet has matured, but that the oviduct may not be ready to create an egg all at the same time. If the shell gland isn’t ready or hasn’t been able to produce enough calcium from the hen’s body or diet, it may not be able to form a shell properly. Hens that seem to have a habit of laying eggs with ridged or rough shells likely have an abnormality in their Shell Gland. Generally it is harmless to the hen, and perfectly safe to eat eggs with ridged shells. It can occur that spots of blood or meaty substances are present in the egg. This is caused when some parts of the oviduct shed material or has a broken blood vessel. The shed matter simply gets wrapped inside the egg when the membranes or shell is added. These eggs are perfectly safe to eat when fully cooked.

1.5.3 HATCHING EGGS It’s impossible to separate hatched eggs and consumption eggs in the very beginning. The differences between these eggs are visible after a few days. The term hatching egg comes from the fact that you expect that a rooster has fertilized the egg. Not all collected hatching eggs have the same quality. The quality (A measure of excellence or a state of being free of deviations) of an egg is influenced by the following factors:

- The health and condition of the older chickens - The hereditary predisposition - The quality and measure of feed you give the chickens - The housing (laying nests or do you get the eggs from the ground) - The care taking and keeping (how many times do you collect the eggs/ keeping

temperature) The conclusion of the upper part is that not all eggs are suitable to hatch. There are a few deviations which ensure that the egg is unsuitable. These deviations can be both visible and internally. The eggs with deviations need to be removed from the suitable hatching eggs. This is the reason that there are some terms to guaranty a quality hatching egg. These terms are:

- The shape of the eggs need to be normal (Vormidex, as shown in figure 1.14 ‘quality eggs’)

Figure 1.14 'Quality eggs'


- The egg needs to have a normal size and weight - The egg shell needs to be clean - The egg needs to be fresh (date) - The shell has to be intact (not broken) - The egg shell needs to be smooth (It has to be equally thick) - The inside needs to be good (inspect)

It regularly appears when you sort eggs that they don’t cope with the above terms. Deviations that regularly occur:

- Too long and to round eggs - Too big (double-yolkers), too small or too light - Dirty eggshells by excrements, blood or dirt - An egg older than 3 weeks - Broken eggs and too thin shells - Rough shells, sand or chalk head, ridges on the egg and egg wall

These deviations are being shown in table 1.2 ‘Percentage of deviations’. You can inspect the eggs with an inspecting lamp. This special lamp sends light through the eggs, so that the content becomes visible. The inspecting is one tool to inspect the quality of an egg. The quality of the hatching eggs decrease every time a deviation occurs.

Table 1.2. ‘Percentage of deviations’

Description of the eggs (deviations)

% Unfertile % Result of the fertilized eggs

Brushed shell 25 53

Weight > 64 grams 34 71

Weight < 45 grams 52 80

Different shape 51 49

Poor shell 28 47

Loose air chamber 28 32

Air chamber not on top 22 68 Big blood dot 28 62

Average of all deviations 28 62

Normal eggs 18 87

The table shows the deviations that occur the most by hatching eggs. The occurring deviations are been given a percentage of what the chance is that the deviation will occur. There are some terms for the treatment of hatching eggs:

- Make sure you have an laying nest The laying nest needs to be clean and needs to have enough bedding material in it, so that the chicken can make its nest.

- Collecting the eggs You need to collect the eggs twice a day. For example ones in the morning and ones at the end of the afternoon. This prevents that the eggs will become dirty or that the eggs break. When you collected the eggs, provide them with a date. Write this date with a pencil and not with a pen. The ink of a pen can leak through the egg and this will damage the embryo. After the eggs got a date put them into a


tray with the point down. Don’t turn the eggs around during the storage. This is bad for the resting of the embryo. The hatching egg is living material. So be cautious with it, do not shake it, and don’t threat it roughly. If you ignore these tips the embryo will die as a result.

- Storage of the eggs When you chill the eggs, the embryo development will stop but the embryo will stay alive. This makes it possible to keep hatching eggs. The embryo development will start when the temperature comes above the 26° Celsius. The embryo is very sensitive at this stage and will easily die. When the temperature comes below the 0° Celsius the embryo will also die. The following terms need to be given to the storage room:

o A constant temperature between the 10-13° Celsius o Has to be draught free. Draught can cause a decreasing in temperature. This can lead

to a lesser humidity which causes the eggs to dehydrate. o Humidity between the 75-80%. This prevents the dehydration of the eggs.

- You can store the eggs (if the conditions are as written above) for a max of 3 weeks. The optimal storage duration is 1-2 weeks. A hatching egg needs to be kept in storage for at least 1 day. This promotes the embryo’s resting.

A small conclusion:

- Threat the hatching eggs with caution - Store the hatching eggs at the right conditions - Store the hatching eggs at the right place - Don’t store hatching eggs for longer than three weeks

The breeding of the hatching eggs can be accomplished at 2 ways:

1. At a natural way using the hen or a clucker 2. With a breeding machine

Chickens are Nidfugous, which makes sure that when they hatch they are completely independent. For this reason you can choose which way of breeding you like the most. To make the right decision you need to know a little about the pros and cons of the two breeding ways. Table 1.3 ‘Pros and cons of natural breeding’ describes the pros and cons of breeding in a natural way.

Table 1.3. ‘Pros and cons of natural breeding’

Breeding way Pros Cons

Natural - You let the nature figure everything out

- The breeding will have the optimal conditions

- The chance of success is with this way the greatest.

- You are depending on a broody hen

- The time of breeding can’t be determined accurately

- It’s not a fact that the hens sits on the eggs for the whole time it needs to hatch.

- You can hatch a limited amount of eggs at the same time


When you decide to breed with a clucker, you need to be sure that the clucker is really broody. This is possible if you observe a hen. She’ll show behavioural changes. Some typical behavioural changes are:

- She’ll sit constantly on the same spot, even though there aren’t eggs - When you approach she’ll spread her wings to appear big - She’ll will peck at your hands when you approach - When the hen leaves the nest she’ll make a cluckerend sound. This is the reason you call a

broody hen a clucker - The comb is shrivelled and dry, but the chest will feel warm

When you want to breed with a clucker you’ll need to separate the clucker and her eggs at a quiet, dark en draught free place. As described in chapter ‘1.4.2. Husbandry systems in comparison with ethology’, you can’t keep a chicken outside in Ethiopia. This means that you need to make a nest for the clucker. To make a nest you need a piece of grass (30 x 30 x5 centimetre). Put this at the breeding place and moist it a little. The second step is to put some teff on the moistened grass. The final step is to make a pit with your fist to lay the eggs in. The final stage is to lay the eggs in the pit and let the clucker with the eggs at dawn. Make sure that the feed and water are near the nest. The breeding of the clucker will take 21 days. The hen won’t leave the nest at the last few hatching days. She’ll use up her body reserves (as in vitamins and minerals) and sits really deep over the eggs. After 21 days the eggs will hatch and the clucker will walk away from the nest with the chicks. The broodiness of the hen will disappear after the hatching. The hen will make sure that her chicks are safe from predators and the chicks will use her for heat. When the chicks grow up without a hen, make sure that they can reach for water and feed easily without drowning. A clucker can breed a total between the 8-10 eggs. Figure 1.15 ‘Nest’ shows an example of a nest within a stable, but you need to try to mimic this set up also for the natural way.

Figure 1.15 'Nest'

A breeding machine is a machine that mimics a clucker. When you choose the second way of breeding and use a machine, you need to keep 4 terms in mind:

1. The temperature needs to be regulated. You need to read the temperature of a thermometer that hangs inside the breeding machine. The right temperature needs to be 100° Fahrenheit or 37.7° Celsius.

2. The humidity has to be regulated. This prevents dehydration of the eggs. The humidity needs to be 55% for the first 18 days. After the 18 days you need to raise the humidity to 70%. You can’t raise the humidity by adding more water in the bin, but you can by increasing the surface of the evaporating water.

3. Ventilation is very important, because of the gas exchange between the breeding machine and the outside surroundings. This way the carbon dioxide leaves the breeding machine and will be exchanged for oxygen rich air. This is necessary for the breathing of the embryo.


Ventilation can be regulated (depending on the machine) with openings (that are lockable) in the walls.

4. You need to turn the eggs around to prevent the embryo from growing with the cuticle. The eggs need to be turned around 3 times a day for the first 18 days. The egg will be filled with a growing chick after 18 days.

Make sure to start the breeding machine 24 hours before the hatching eggs go in. This way the breeding machine will create optimal conditions (point 1 -4 of the above terms) for the hatching eggs. There are several breeding stages for a hatching egg. The breeding stages are show in Table 1.4 ‘Breeding stages’ and in figure1.16 ‘Breeding stages’.

Table 1.4. ‘Breeding stages’

Day 1 The embryo starts to grow, because of mitosis. The head, eyes, nerve system and blood islands are present at the end of the day.

Day 2 The embryo grows in strength and length and the hearts start beating, although it beats outside the body for now. A part of the blood vessels are visible over the yolk and protein for the transportation of nutrients.

Day 4 The leg- and wing stubs and the tail are being formed at this day. Most of the organs are at their place, but the heart is still outside of the body.

Day 5-7 Spinnekop stage, This becomes visible when you inspect the eggs with a lamp. The blood vessels on the yolker are clearly visible. The blood will come together in a horizontal ring. This is the so called blood ring.

Day 6 The parts of the legs and wings are being formed.

Day 8 Feather sheets will arise on the skin.

Day 9-15 The chalk process in the bones occurs. The chick uses a proximally 0.15 gram of chalk out of the shell.

Day 13 The fluff is available now.

Day 14 The chick spins in the length direction of the egg. At this day the most deaths occur.

Day 16 The horny parts, like the beak and nails are available, but still need some more developing.

Day 18-20 The beak turns towards the air cell. The yolk sac enters the body cavity; the embryo occupies practically all the space within the egg except the air cell

Day 19 The chick pecks through the egg membrane in the air chamber (oxygen). There is an temporarily phenomenon of 2 kinds of breathing: Amnion- and lung breathing

Day 21 The chick will start to squeak in the egg. The oxygen runs out fast and the chick will get cramped. There will be a moment of rest so that the chick can switch to lung breathing and so that the yolker can wither. The last stage includes hatching. The chick has his legs pulled up and the beak will lay under the right wing. The chick will break the hood of the shell with its egg tooth, after this the chick will stretch and frees himself of the egg.


Figure 1.16 'Breeding stages'

You can conclude with the help of Table 1.4. ‘Breeding stages’ that an embryo needs 2 weeks to grow and need 1 week to gain in weight. This makes the hatching a period of 3 weeks. You can use the following formula for the weight of a chick: the birth weight of a chick is 2/3 of the hatching egg weight. This means that an egg of 60 grams will bring a chick of 40 grams. This formula is being used to make sure that a chick is on weight. The percentage of the eggs that will hatch strongly depends on 3 factors:

1. The quality of the hatching eggs 2. The type of breeding machine 3. The operation of the breeding machine

It’s really good if 70-75% of the eggs that were put in and if 85-90% of the fertilized eggs hatch. A deviated egg decreases the hatching percentage. Poor breeding results aren’t only caused by eggs with a deviation. This is being caused by a lot of causes:

1. Many un-fertile eggs Reasons can be: un-fertile roosters (a lot of times caused by malnutrition), fat roosters (because of ad libium feeding) to many or too few roosters, too young or too old roosters. Another reason can be that the eggs are poorly or too long stored.

2. A lot of embryo’s that died Reasons for this can be: Too cold or too warm stored eggs, deviated temperature in the breeding machine, not enough oxygen by lack of ventilation, inadequate turning of the eggs, Poorly hereditary predisposition, Sickness of the older chickens.

3. The dying of embryo’s in a later stage A reason can be a short of vitamin and or spore elements of the older chickens.

4. Chicks aren’t hatching after pecking Reasons can be: inadequate ventilation, strong temperature changes in short period of times.

5. Moist and sticky chicks Reasons can be: a too low temperature in the breeding machine, that the humidity is too high

6. Chicks that hatch too soon, sometimes with bloody beaks A reason can be that the breeding temperature is too high

7. Too small chicks Reasons can be: small eggs, that the humidity is too low, that the temperature was too high

8. Overweighed chicks Reasons can be: that the temperature was too low, poor ventilation, infected eggs or breeding machine

9. Too slow hatching Reasons can be: to breed new and old hatching eggs at the same time, difference in temperature in breeding machines, big and small eggs, eggs of parental hens of different ages

10. Rough, goluptious beaks Reasons can be: that the temperature isn’t constant or too high, that the humidity is too low

11. Deformed chicks


Reasons can be: hereditary predisposition, breeding errors, short in nutrition (vitamin/mineral), slippery output tray At the final stage you need to sort the chicks. This has to be done when the chicks are dried after hatching, that the fluff is nice and loose. During the sorting you need to pay attention to:

- Weak chicks with pale and wrinkly paws. - Too small chicks - Cross beak, one-eyed chicks and chicks - Sticky and/or bald chicks - Leg abnormalities (chunky heels, rowing feet, curved toes) - Belly button abnormalities (hard, stuffed stomach, open belly button, brown/black plug or

thread on the belly button) To sort the chicks you need to know how to sex the chicks. Chick sexing is the method of separating the roosters from the hens. Chicken sexing is mostly practised by farms that have two different programmes:

- One for the hens, who are destined to lay eggs - One for the roosters which are irrelevant to the egg production. Some roosters may be kept

and fattened for their meat or for new hatchlings. There are two chief methods of sexing chicks: feather sexing and vent sexing. Vent sexing involves squeezing the faeces out of the chick. This opens up the cloacae slightly, allowing the chicken sexer to see if the chicken has a small bump. This bump would indicate that the chick is a rooster. Some females also have bumps, though they are rarely as large as those of rooster chicks. When learning to sex chickens it is best to assume that chickens with small eminences are female. The male eminence is solid and will not disappear upon gentle rubbing with your thumb. The second method is feather sexing. In the slow-feathering males the coverts are either the same length or longer than the primary wing feathers. In the fast-feathering females, the primary wing feathers are longer than the coverts as shown in figure 1.17 ‘Feathers’ and in figure 1.18 ‘Covert and primary feathers’. This is caused by a gene located on the sex chromosome where slow feathering is dominant to rapid feathering and controls the rate of wing and tail feathering in the chicken. The dominant slow-feathering characteristic is passed from mothers to their sons and the rapid feathering characteristic from the fathers to their daughters. Fathers also pass the rapid-feathering gene to their sons but this is not expressed because it is recessive. Figure 1.19 ‘feather sexing’ shows the different between the rooster and hen.


Figure 1.17 'Feathers’

An alternative way to sex the chicks is by looking at their colour. The dark chicks are the hens and the lighter chicks are the roosters. As shown in figure 1.20 ‘Colour sexing’.

Figure 1.20 'Color sexing'

Figure 1.18 'Covert and primary feathers'

Figure 1.19 'Feather sexing'


Case study 1.5 The egg

You have put a lot of hatching eggs in the breeding machine. An employee took care of the breeding machine and the hatching eggs for 21 days. After 21 days you decide to look at your new hatchlings. You noticed that only 45% came out, but the chicks are sticky and moist. The other 55% of the embryo’s died. What could have been a reason for these abnormal results?

Explain your answer.

Answer: Moist and sticky chicks

Reasons can be: a too low temperature in the breeding machine, that the humidity is too high. A lot of embryo’s that died

Reasons for this can be: Too cold or too warm stored eggs, deviated temperature in the breeding machine, not enough oxygen by lack of ventilation, inadequate turning

of the eggs, Poorly hereditary predisposition, Sickness of the older chickens.


1.6 QUESTIONS True or False? (Set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 An broken egg won’t be eaten by another chicken 2 Chickens copy each other’s behaviour 3 You can leave an egg eater in the flock 4 An empty egg shell can be fed back to the chickens 5 An empty egg shell contains protein 6 Roosters that haunt each other are playing 7 Roosters show pseudo-mating to establish a dominant position 8 Feather picking can be a form of redirection from ground pecking 9 Experiences in an early stage of life can’t influence the pecking behaviour

in later life

10 The first lay of an pullet is smaller than the lay of an older chicken 11 Older hens always lay normal size eggs, because of their age 12 The variation double-egg is also known as egg-in-an-egg 13 A Double-Yolker only consist of yolk 14 A wind-egg is only filled with egg white 15 The size of an egg depends on the breed, age, weight of a chicken 16 It’s possible to separate hatchling eggs from consumption eggs 17 A hatchling egg is an fertilized egg 18 All hatchling eggs are suitable to hatch 19 The deviations that ensures that an egg is suitable to hatch is only

internally

20 An inspecting lamp sends light through the egg, so that the content becomes visible

21 You need to collect the eggs ones a day to prevent them from becoming dirty

22 The embryo’s development will start when the temperature rises above the 26° Celsius

23 The storage room for the hatchling eggs need to variate between the 10-13° Celsius

24 A humidity of 75-80% prevents the dehydration of the hatchling eggs 25 You can store the hatchling eggs for a maximum of 3 weeks Subchapter 1.1 1. Is a Chicken an omnivore, carnivore or an herbivore? 2. If the composition of the food changes, will the hen eat it just as easily as normal? 3. On which 2 cues’ is the selection of food based on? Subchapter 1.2 4. Where do the feathers protect the body from?


5. What are the parts of a feather? (fill the right name of the part in at the right number)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

6. What is the difference between a rooster and a hen 7. What is the main function of the respiratory tract? Subchapter 1.3 8. Where does the digestive tract of a chicken consist of? (fill the right name of the part in at the right number)


1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11. Subchapter 1.4 9. When do behavioural problems occur? 10. When does a chicken start to show unnatural behaviour patterns? 11. Why does a hen needs a nest site? 12. How can you make sure that a hen lays in a particularly location?


13. When does a chicken starts cannibalising? (circle the right answer) A) When a chicken sees a dead chicken B) When a chicken has seen blood C) When a chicken sees another chicken cannibalising D) When a chicken has caught a rat 14. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer 15. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters and pullets reach an age of: (Circle the right answer) A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks 16. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer 17. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters and pullets reach an age of: (Circle the right answer) A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks Subchapter 1.5 18. What can disrupt a normal laying routine? Give at least 3 options 19. The interval between the egg laying of an hen is about: (circle the right answer) A) 24 hours B) 20 hours C) 25 hours D) 26 hours 20. How can you make sure if an egg is old ore fresh? 21. Does a chicken give birth to a living youngster? 22. What are the 5 distinctive parts of the oviduct? 23. What influences the quality of an egg? 24. What are the terms to ensure the quality of the hatchling egg? 25. What are the regularly occurring deviations of hatchling eggs? 26. Why do you need to store the hatchling eggs for at least one day?


27. What are the behavioural changes of a broody clucker? 28. Describe the steps of building a nest for a clucker. 29. A clucker will hatch her eggs in: (circle the right answer) A) 21 days B) 14 days C) 28 days D) 35 days 30. What are the 4 terms of using a breeding machine 31. What are the causes of poor breeding results when using a breeding machine?


CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN DISEASES This chapter describes the most common diseases and parasites that can existence by chickens. The diseases are categorized by kind of disease. The parasites are divided in endoparasites and ectoparasites. Subchapter 2.2 describes the prevention of the diseases and how to create immunity.

2.1 DISEASES A farmer wants to see his chickens always healthy and in optimal conditions. This means that the chickens produce as optimal as possible and that the chickens are free of diseases. There are vary diseases known, but the most common diseases are described in this subchapter.

2.1.1 OBSERVATION OF THE CHICKENS Observation is highly important to discover diseases in an early stage, because when the disease is in one of the last stadia, the chicken is possibly not treatable anymore. When observe the chickens at least twice a day, it makes it easier to capture the disease, but also requires a lot of knowledge. Without any knowledge of chickens and diseases, there will be no good observation and essential points will be forgotten. Some symptoms will occur only in one of the last stadia of a disease, which is why prevention is really important. The ways of prevention are described in subchapter 2.2.

2.1.2 KINDS OF DISEASES A disease can be spread in various ways: 1. Infection from animal to animal 2. Infection from the environment 3. People can spread a disease by clothes or by air 4. All sorts of materials can spread a disease 5. Infection by the way of hatching the egg To prevent the chickens from diseases, it’s recommended to vaccinate. It’s also possible to make the chickens immune, but this will take other risks with it. If the disease is immune to the vaccine, it is impossible to prevent the chickens from the disease. The diseases are based on the report: Important Poultry Diseases (Intervet International BV, 2009). The diseases that are most common are categorized below in: 1. Infectory respiratory diseases 2. Diseases causing tumours 3. Avian adenoviral diseases 4. Miscellaneous virus diseases 5. Miscellaneous bacterial diseases 6. Diseases caused by parasites 7. Non-contagious diseases


2.1.3 INFECTORY RESPIRATORY DISEASES Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) Cause The underlaying cause of CRD is the mycoplasma gallisepticum. The diseases is frequently triggered by respiratory viruses, like New Castle Disease and complicated by bacterial invasion. The other agent involved in the infection is E. Coli. Stress caused by moving chickens, overcrowding, poor ventilation, dust, draughts, debeaking or other operations, make the chickens more susceptible. Infected chickens spread the disease by contact or by breathing. Figure 2.1 and 2.2 show some signs of CRD. Signs Young chickens will show respiratory distress. In adult chickens, the most common symptoms are:

Sneezing Coughing General signs of respiratory congestion The number of eggs a chicken produce will decreases as a result

CRD doesn’t normally cause an alarming number of deaths. The effect is more of a chronic nature causing reduced weight gain and feed conversion ratios in broilers and lower egg production in breeders and layers. In this way the overall economic loss can be very great in broilers but less dramatic in breeders and layers. Treatment and control Control and eradication of MG infection is by far the most effective method of combating CRD. Fertile eggs from infected chickens can be treated with antibiotics to eliminate the MG organisms (infection of fertile eggs or egg dipping).

Coryza The bacterium that causes infectious coryza is Hemophilusparagallinarum. The disease spreads from chicken to chicken and flock to flock by contact. It also spreads through airborne infected dust particles and via the drinking water. Equipment and personal can also spread the disease. The

Figure 2.1 'CRD' Figure 2.2 'CRD'


incubation period varies from 1 to 3 days. Figure 2.3 'Infectious Corzya' shows an example of infectious corzya. Signs The main of the disease are inflammation of eyes and nose, with foul-smelling discharges, conjunctivitis, sneezing and facial swellings. Feed and water intake is reduced. The chicken will lose weight and the egg production will decrease. Mortality varies, but is generally low. The symptoms are similar to CRD.

Treatment and control Eradication and prevention are the most desirable means of controlling coryza. Vaccines have been developed but are only used in areas where the disease is endemic and cannot be eradicated. Picture 2.4 ‘Infectious Corzya’ shows an example.

Aspergillosis (fungal pneumonia) The disease is caused by a fungus named Apergillusfumigatus. Transmission is by inhalation of fungus spores from contaminated feed. Hatcheries may also contribute to infection of chicks. Young chicks are very susceptible. Older chicks are more resistant to infection. Signs Infected chicks are depressed and thirsty. Gaping and rapidly breathing can be observed. Mortality varies from 5 to 50%. The lungs and air sacs are affected in the first place. Sometimes all body cavities are filled with small, yellowish-green granular fungus growth. Figure 2.5 and 2.6 shows an example of Aspergillos. Treatment and control There is no treatment for Aspergillosis. Affected chickens should be removed and destroyed. Strict hygiene in breeding and hatchery management is necessary. Choice of bedding material material is important so that no spore-bearing wood shavings are used.

Figure 2.3 'Infectious Corzya' Figure 2.4 'Infectious Corzya


New Castle Disease (ND or NCD) New Castle Disease is a very serious disease that occurs worldwide. Not only chickens got this disease. Other birds may carry this disease too. It is a highly contagious disease and spreads through infected droppings and respiratory discharge between chickens. This disease can spread itself by infected equipment such as trucks, personnel, wild chickens or simply the air. It’s possible to incubate the chickens. Figure 2.7 and 2.8 show some signs of the New Caste Disease. Signs ND causes high mortality, with depression and death in 3 to 5 days as major signs. Difficult breathing, with wheezing and gurgling, accompanied by nervous signs (such as paralysis or twisted necks) are the main indication. Egg production decreases 30- 50% or more. Eggs may have thin shells or have no shells at all. Control and treatment The only thing to do is to vaccinate to prevent the chickens from this disease.

Picture 2.5 'Aspergillos' Figure 2.6 'Aspergillos'

Figure 2.7 'NCD' Figure 2.8 'The eye of a chicken with NCD'


Figure 2.9 'LL' Figure .1 '

2.1.4 DISEASES CAUSING TUMORS Lymphoid Leucosis (LL) This disease is also called big liver disease. Lymphoid leucosis is a virus diseases transmitted by horizontal and vertical infection. It will lead to tumorous growths which especially affect the liver and spleen. An infection with the leucosis virus during the first six weeks of the life of a young chicken will lead to a long incubation period. This incubation period has a period of at least 100 days. After 100 days, the chicken will become ill. Figure 2.9 and 2.10 'LL' shows an example. Signs This disease is a lingering disease. The chickens become sluggish, with combs turning pale and shrivelling; production stops and the chickens become thinner and thinner and eventually they will die. This disease may be confused with the Marek disease, subscribed below, but in LL the nervous system is never involved (there is no paralysis). Control and treatment It’s not possible to effectively control leucosis. The parent stock would have to be made leucosis-free after which the young would have to be reared under very strict hygienic conditions.

Marek disease MD (also known as: neurolymphomatosis) The virus is transmitted through infected premises. The day-old chicks become infected by the oral respiratory route. Susceptibility decreases after the first days of age. The infection is followed by an incubation period after which the chickens may show typical disease symptoms. Figure 2.11 and 2.12 ‘Marek disease’ shows an example. Signs Infected chickens lose weight or may show some form of paralysis. The classic form with leg nerve involvement causes a chicken to lie on its side with one leg stretched forward and the other backward. The presence of tumors in liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, ovary, muscles or other tissues indicates MD but may also point to lymphoid leucosis. Nerve involvement is typical for MD. Control and treatment


Figure .1 ‘Marek disease’

There is a vaccine for MD. This vaccine only prevents the appearance of the tumors and paralysis of Marek`s disease, it does not prevent the chickens from becoming infected with MD virus.

2.1.5 AVIAN ADENOVIRAL DISEASES Inclusion body hepatitis – infectious Anaemia The next two diseases are caused by an avian adenovirus and occur simultaneously. The egg transmission is an important factor, but horizontal transmission also takes place from chicken to chicken by contact with droppings. Signs This disease strikes usually at 5 to 7 weeks. The chickens have a less appetite, have ruffled feathers and appear very pale. Mortality is usually quite severe, up to 25% in the first ten days of the disease. Figure 2.13 and 2.14 shows an example of Inclusion body hepatitis. Control and treatment There is no treatment for this disease. The best method is of control is to ensure adequate immunity against infectious Bursal disease in breeder chickens.

Figure .11 ‘Marek disease’


Figure .15 ‘Egg Drop Syndrome 1976’

Figure .16 ‘Egg Drop Syndrome 1976’

Egg Drop Syndrome 1976(also known as EDS 76) The virus of this disease is transmitted through the egg to a few chickens in a flock; these chickens carry the virus until the flock comes into lay. At this time they begin to excrete the virus and will infect the chickens kept in the same house. Signs EDS 76 affects only layers and breeders at the start of or during their egg production period. Affected chickens fail to reach their egg production peak, or egg production drops and is accompanied by an inferior egg shell quality an loss of shell colour (in the case of brown eggs). There is no mortality. IB will also have to be considered. Figure 2.15 and 2.16 ‘Egg drop syndrome 1976’ shows an example. Control and treatment There is no treatment for EDS 76. The only way to prevent the chickens from this disease is to vaccinate them against this disease

2.1.6 MISCELLANEOUS VIRUS DISEASES Fowl pox (also known as: avian pox, avian diphtheria) Fowl pox is a virus disease. The introduction of infected or ‘’carrier’’ chickens into a susceptible flock will cause an outbreak by direct contact and by water and feed transmission. Biting insects such as most mosquitoes can also transmit the virus from chicken to chicken in the flock and to nearby flocks. Signs

Figure .13 ‘Inclusion body hepatitis’ Figure .14 ‘Inclusion body hepatitis’


The chickens get wart-like lesions on the head, combs and wattles, yellow to dark brown in colour. There are also internal lesions in the mouth, gullet and/or windpipe. They look yellow white and cheesy in appearance. Mortality varies from low to over 40%. Figure 2.17 and 2.18 shows an example of Fowl pox. Control and treatment It’s difficult to treat affected chickens. If an outbreak of fowl pox has been diagnosed, it is advisable to vaccinate the flock immediately, to stop further spread of the infection. Preventive vaccination using a live vaccine is by far the most successful control method.

Infectious bursal disease IBD (also known as Gumboro disease) IBD is caused by a very stable virus which is difficult to eradicate from an infected farm. IBD virus is very infectious and spreads easily from chicken to chicken by their droppings. Infected clothing and equipment are means of transmission between farms. Especially young chickens may be affected. Signs Affected chickens are listless and depressed, pale and huddling and some may die. More important is the subclinical form. The immune system will be affected which will lead to gumboro related diseases, such as infectious anaemia. In growers, this form of the diseases results in poor performance. Figure 2.19and 2.20’Infectious bursal disease’ shows an example. Control and treatment There is no treatment. The best way to control this disease is to vaccinate the parent breeders and/or young chicks.

Figure .17 ‘Fowl pox’ Figure .18 ‘Fowl pox’

Figure .19 ‘Infectious bursal disease’


Viral arthritis/tenosynovitis (VA) The virus may be transmitted by droppings from chicken to chicken. Egg transmission is also a factor when breeder flocks become infected during the egg production. Not all strains of the virus are pathogenic; the virus may be transmitted by dropping from chicken to chicken. Egg transmission is also a factor when breeding. Flocks become infected during the egg production. Not all strains of the virus are pathogenic. Signs The first signs of VA/tenosynovitis are usually observed in grower chickens between 6 and 10 weeks of age. The chickens are reluctant to walk and, when forced, have a painful and trembling gait. A distinct swelling of the tendons of the shank and above the hock joint can be observed. Leg problems in grower or grower breeders associated with swelling of shank tendons or tendons above the hock joint, sometimes accompanied by ruptures tendons, are indicative of VA/tenosynovitis. Figure 2.21 and 2.22 shows an example of viral arthritis. Control and treatment Tenosynovitis cannot be treated successfully.

Figure . 1 ‘Viral arthritis’

Figure . ‘Viral arthritis’

Figure . ‘Infectious bursal disease’


Malarbsorption syndrome This disease has been reported under various names such as helicopter disease, femoral head necrosis, brittle bone disease, infectious proventiculcus, pale chicken syndrome, runting disease and stunting disease. Signs The disease is mainly observed in grower flocks. Many affected grower flocks have a history of diarrhoea, beginning as early as a few days of age and lasting until 10 to 14 days of age. Light or dark brown, foamy dropping can be found with undigested feed particles. Several affected growers in a flock may show malpositioned feathers, especially on the wings. Early rickets with extreme paleness of legs and heads can be observed. At a later age, 5 or 6 weeks, osteoporosis becomes evident, often causing the chickens to limp. Later, an important effect is the delayed growth of affected chickens. Mortality varies. Figure 2.23 and 2.24 ‘malarbsorption syndrome shows an example. Control and treatment There is no treatment against this disease. Strict hygiene and sanitation will reduce the incidence of this disease.

2.1.7 MISCELLANEOUS BACTERIAL DISEASES Infectious Synovitis This disease is caused by Mycoplasma Synoviae. Also known as MS. Vertical transmission from MS-infected breeder hens is most common. Horizontal transmission from chicken to chicken and transmission by infected equipment, clothing, shoes and egg boxes also occur. Signs The symptoms vary from mild respiratory signs to synovitis and inflammation of the sternal bursa. Creamy exudate in joints extending into tendon tissues is indicative. A bacteria (called

Figure . 3 ‘Malarbsorption syndrome’ Figure . 4’ Malarbsorption syndrome’


staphylococcus arthritis) can also cause swollen joints with a creamy exudates, sometimes extending into the tendon cheaths, but the exudate is more watery or blood-tinged unless secondary staphylococcus infection occurs. Figure 2.25 and 2.26 shows an example of infectious Synovitis. Control and treatment MS infection can be treated with antibiotics with greater or lesser success. Blood testing of breeder chickens and the elimination of positive MS reactors is a much better way of controlling infectious synovitis.

Fowl cholera (also known as Pasteurellosis) Fowl cholera is caused by a bacterium (Pasteurellamultocida) and is a pox virus. Transmission of fowl cholera is mainly from chicken to chicken, by water or by feed contamination. Rats and mice also appear to play a role in the contamination of water and feed. Signs Affected chickens are depressed and have less appetite. Egg production drops and mortality is high in acute fowl cholera. Chickens that die from acute fowl cholera often have bluish combs and wattles. Chronic fowl cholera does not cause high mortality. Swollen wattles are a feature of chronic fowl cholera. Control and treatment Treatment with the proper antibiotics or medicines can be successful in stopping mortality and restoring egg production. If clinical fowl cholera with mortality reappears, one must treat again.

Figure . 5 ‘Infectious Synovitis’ Figure . 6 ‘Infectious Synovitis’


Rodent control is also very important to prevent the infection from appearing again. Vaccines are available. Fowl Typhoid This is a disease caused by Salmonella Gallinarum and causes a high mortality. Fowl Typhoid is similar to Pullorum disease. Signs In young chickens, there is an acute infection with sudden death, other symptoms by young chickens are:

Weakness Somnolence Anorexia Poor growth Pasting of vent with chalky white excreta Death in up to 90% of the cases

Symptoms by older chickens are (older than 3 weeks):

Lethargy Huddling under brooders Wing droop Dyspnoea Poor feathering of survivors Decreased egg production

Liver, spleen and kidneys may be enlarged and congested.

Control and treatment Tissue and faeces samples can be submitted for bacteria identification through culture or genetic techniques. Live and inactivated vaccines are available in different countries. Figure 2.27 shows the salmonella bacteria.

Figure 2.27 Salmonella bacteria


Pullorum Disease (Bacillary White Diarrhea) Disease caused by one of the two poultry-adapted strains of Salmonella bacteria, Salmonella Pullorum, this usually only causes mortality in birds up to 3 weeks of age. Occasionally it can cause losses in adult birds, usually brown-shell egg layers. It affects chickens most commonly, but also infects turkeys, game birds, guinea fowls, sparrows, parrots, ring doves, ostriches and peafowl. It still occurs worldwide in non-commercial poultry but is now rare in most commercial systems. Morbidity is 10-80%; mortality is increased in stressed or immunocompromised flocks and may be up to 100%. The route of infection is oral or via the navel/yolk. Transmission may be transovarian or horizontal mainly in young birds and may sometimes be associated with cannibalism. The bacterium is fairly resistant to normal climate, surviving months but is susceptible to normal disinfectants. Signs

Inappetance Depression Ruffled feathers Closed eyes Loud chirping White diarrhoea Vent pasting Gasping Lameness Grey nodules in lungs, liver, gizzard wall and heart Intestinal or caecal inflammation Splenomegaly Caecal cores Urate crystals in ureters

Control and treatment Eradication from breeder flocks. As with other salmonellae, recovered birds are resistant to the effects of infection but may remain carriers. Vaccines are not normally used as they interfere with serological testing and elimination of carriers. Antibiotics will help to treat the chicken. Figure 2.28 shows the Pullorum Disease by young chickens.

Figure . 8 ’Pullorum Disease’


2.1.8 DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES Coccidiosis Coccidiosis has always been a very common poultry disease. It also infects other domestic animals such as goats when they are kept indoors. Coccidiosis is caused by protozoa, a one-celled parasite. Chickens have their own specific coccidiosis types which do not cross–infect other chicken species. In chickens there are nine different species of coccidian, of which the main five are eimeria sp. As with all intestines parasites, the infection takes place via the mouth. Infectious droppings containing sporulatedoocysts (spores) of coccidiaare the main means of transmission between chickens. Infection takes place when chickens walk on bedding material. After an incubation period of 4 to 5 days the disease will manifest itself. The life cycle is showed in figure 2.29.When the chickens are kept on a wire floor, there is no longer contact between chicken and manure and this largely prevents infection.


Signs There are two types of coccidiosis. One with the small intestine involved and one with the large intestine involved. The chickens are listless, got bloody droppings and a pale comb. There is also a lack of appetite and a loss in weight. Bleedings in the intestinal wall may also occur. The egg production will drop and the mortality can be high. Figure 2.28 ‘Coccidiosis’ shows an example. Control and treatment There is no disease group in poultry where both control and treatment are employed more. However, good management and good husbandry are of basic importance. It is common practice to add medicines to the feed of the chickens. They keep the development of the parasites in control. However, coccidia of develop resistance to all chemicals so far used for this purpose, and for its reason it is necessary to change from one chemical to another from time to time. There are certain products available specifically designed for treatment and which are not satisfactory for prevention. Figure 2. 8 ‘Coccidiosis’

Figure . 9 ‘ ife cycle of coccidia’


Blackhead (also known as histomoniasis or entherohepatitis) This disease is also caused by a protozoan parasite. There is direct transmission by infected water, feed or droppings. Indirectly, the parasite may be transmitted via infected eggs or intestinal worms. The natural hosts to blackhead infection are turkeys and chickens. Signs Affected chickens are depressed, stand or sit with ruffled feathers and have yellowish diarrhea the darkening of head parts, especially in turkeys, gave the name to this disease(blackhead). Gross lesions in the liver. In chickens the mortality is usually limited, young chickens being the most susceptible. Figure 2.30 and2.31 shows an example of Blackhead. Control and treatment Medicines against protozoa can be effective. Drugs can also be given at preventive levels in chicken starter and grower feed. Growing chickens on wire and indoors can reduce the incidence of blackbeard to a large extend, but strict hygiene and elimination of intestinal worms remain important control measures.

2.1.9 ENDOPARASITES Chickens run the risk of a worm infection if they are kept for too long on the same ground, or when the wet patches develop in bedding material houses. In the search for feed, the chickens may ingest the eggs of worms which all hatch in the intestines. There are a lot of different worms. The most common worm types are subscribed in this subchapter. Roundworms Those worms look like spaghetti. They live in the intestine of the bird. They can affect chickens, turkeys, ducks and goose. There are several types of roundworm e.g. hairworms, threadworms, but the most common is the Large Roundworm. The most birds can live with some infestations. Figure 2.32 shows the roundworm.

Figure .31 ‘Blackhead’ Figure .3 ‘Blackhead’


Signs It can result in drop of egg production and weight loss.

Gapeworms Gapeworms are a type of roundworm. They attach themselves to the trachea (throat) of chickens where they impair breathing resulting in the birds gasping (gaping). Young birds are particularly susceptible and can become infected by sharing space with wild birds such as pheasants. Figure 2.33 shows the gapeworm. Signs Egg production drops together with a less appetite. Fatal for the chicken if it’s not treated. Tapeworms Tapeworms are less common and are segmented, ribbon-like, worms. They attach themselves to the wall of the intestine by burying their heads in the lining of the intestine. Their eggs are carried by slugs and snails so free-ranging birds are more susceptible than indoor birds figure 2.34 shows the tapeworm. Signs and treatment of worms Heavy infestations can reduce the birds’ ability to fight other infections. The most common way of checking your chickens on parasites is to control their faeces. Healthy chicken droppings should be fairly firm and rounded with two distinct sections. The largest darker portion should be black, brown and/or grey in colour and the smaller portion should be white (this is the urine) and it will form a cap at one end. Figure 2.36 ‘normal faeces’ shows an example. Yellow coloured - loose yellow droppings which will normally stick to the feathers of the birds’ bottom are most often a sign of internal worms. It can also be that the birds have a diet rich in corn or maize but in our experience it is usually worms. Figure 2.35 will show an example. It could also point to a respiratory infection but there would be other signs with this kind of problem. This is not to be confused with faecal droppings which are brown and foamy and expelled roughly every 7-10

Figure .3 ‘Roundworms’ Figure .33 ‘Gapeworms

Figure .34 ‘tapeworms’


droppings - perfectly normal. Black, runny and sticky faeces can point to nutritional deficiency. Revisit their diet and feed only layers pellets ad lib with treats of corn twice a day for two weeks to see if this improves their droppings. Stop all other treats for this period. Other signs are: worms visible in the droppings, mucky bottoms, dishevelled, depressed appearance, weight loss, drop in egg production and a pale comb. The best way to prevent the chickens from worms it to keep them on a wire floor. It’s always better top prevent than to cure your chickens.

2.1.10 ECTOPARASITES Parasites on chickens are called ectoparasites. They can cause problems in chicken farming everywhere. Unlike endoparasites, ectoparasites can also be a problem in houses with wire/slatted floors or battery cages. In hot climates, ectoparasites are more common and the infections more severe than in temperate climates. An explanation for this is the higher environmental temperature which shortens the life-cycle of the ectoparasites. Ectoparasites multiply faster on weak animals than on healthy and strong animals. The ectoparasites that are most common are: 1. Lice 2. Mites and ticks 3. Fleas Lice Lice are insects without wings. Lice on chickens are not blood-sucking but they bite in the skin for feed. Normally the entire life cycle is spending on the same chicken and lasts for about three weeks (from egg to adult). The lifespan of lice is several months on the host. Away from the host they can

Figure .35 ‘worms in feaces’ Figure .36 ‘normal feaces’

Figure .37 ‘A louse’


live for about one week. Lice are easily transmitted through equipment, crates, etc. or through direct contact from chicken to chicken. There are a lot of different kinds of lice such as the body louse, head louse, wing louse fluff louse, etc. Figure 2.37 shows a louse. Mites Mites are by far the most important ectoparasites of chickens, in terms of economic losses. Mites are mainly transmitted by contaminated houses, objects, and persons or by direct contact and they are not host-specific. There is a difference between a few mites. There are mites that live permanently on the body of chickens and there are mites that are visiting the host. The difference will be subscribed below. Figure 2.38 shows red mites. Mites that are visiting the host The red mite is well known all over the world. The eggs are laid in crevices and cracks of the house. The nymphs take one blood meal on a chicken and return to the crevices to mould. The adult mites are taking blood meals during the night and hide away from the chickens in dark places during daytime. The red mite hates light. Adults can live up to six months without a blood meal. Red mites suck much blood and can cause anaemia and even death in brooding young chickens. Mites staying permanently on the host The tropical fowl feather mite is a very common parasite in warm climates and is harmful by sucking blood. Most eggs are laid in bedding material, especially in the bedding material of nests. The nymphs and the adults feed on the chicken. They have a brownish colour when filled with blood. They are mainly located on the hind part of the back of the chicken. The control of blood-sucking mites is very difficult and should concern the chicken, the bedding material and the equipment. There are other species of feather mites but they are less common and less harmful. Other mites are the shaft mite and the scaly leg mite.

Ticks The fowl tick is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical countries. Its size is 5 mm for males and 10 mm for females. Fowl ticks also suck blood during the night. Larvae, nymphs and adults hide in crevices and cracks. Adult females may live away from a host without a blood meal during more than four years. Figure 2.39 shows a tick with eggs.

Figure .38 ’mites’ Figure .39 ‘Tick’


Fleas Fleas are wingless insects with compressed bodies. They have long legs for jumping. Fleas are not very host specific. When not on the host, they live in crevices, cracks of boarded floors, in dirt and in debris. Unfed fleas do not survive in dry places, but they can survive for several months in moist places. Fleas are troublesome, especially to laying hens. They breed in bedding material and in nests. Ectoparasite control A wide-ranging control of ectoparasites is needed to prevent the chickens. The following rules are required to prevent the chickens from ectoparasites: Cleaning and disinfection of chicken house immediately after the evacuation of a flock Buying chickens from a reliable supplier Farm and house hygiene Routine checks every four weeks Treatment(preventive and when ectoparasites are present) Treatment There are 3 factors that will be important to prevent the chickens against ectoparasites. The 3 factors are safety precautions for the personnel, for the chickens and for the environment. The 3 factors are briefly described below. Safety precautions for personal: The inhalation of dust or mist drops can be very dangerous. Use preferably rubber or plastic

hand/arm protective cover and wear raincoat. Not all nose masks provide proper protection. For all drugs, there is a waiting period before meat or eggs can be safely consumed. Never treat chickens before slaughter. For the chickens Buy only reliable products, well labeled and with precise instructions with regard to use. Read and follow the instructions carefully. Store the products safely, dry, cool and dark. Do not combine with other drugs. Try to prevent treatment of sick, weak or stressed chickens and young chickens. Treat during the cool part of the day, layers always late in the afternoon. Mix thoroughly to get the finest emulsion or suspension. Mix again if there is a resting period in

the course of the treatment. Only use freshly prepared solutions. During spraying, remove feeders and drinkers or have them closed. For the environment Treat preferably with bio gradable products. Discard remains carefully or better, try to use them to treat the animal environment to support

the actual treatment of the chickens. Prevent contamination of fish water and the environment of other animals including insects. The environment must be treated too to be sure that all parasites are gone. You can apply the following rules. Spraying the house and all the equipment,


Mixing drugs in the bedding material, Painting the perches, Disinfection of empty houses, A combination is also possible (chickens + environment). There are also several ways to treat chickens. Spraying the chickens, Submerging/dipping, Dusting, Localized treatment. Chemical treatment It’s possible to use chemical treatment, especially to control mites. High power spraying is highly recommended to reach the hiding spaces. There are a lot of parasitic ides available. You can ask the local drug store for the right parasitic ide. Choice of treatment and treatment interval A proper diagnosis is important. You must know which parasite or often which parasites are causing health- or production problems. All treatments are mainly effective against active parasites. Eggs and moulting stages are not completely killed. This means that generally speaking at least two treatments are necessary to kill all parasites. The duration of the life-cycle (time between egg and egg-producing adult stage) should determine the interval between two treatments. This interval should be a little shorter than the life-cycle. The duration of the life-cycle is influenced by the environmental temperature. The higher the temperature, the shorter the life-cycle. This partly explains the greater importance of ectoparasites in warm climates. The humidity plays also a role in the duration of the life-cycle. In general, the interval between two treatments should be 7 to 10 days. Re-infection is also determined by the time period ectoparasites can live away from the host. Ticks and mites are notorious in this respect. The period plays an important role in the transmission of parasites from the flock to the next flock through infested houses and surroundings. When deciding about treatment, the future of the farm and the coming flocks should play an important role.


2.1.11 NON-CONTAGIOUS DISEASES Vitamin E deficiency A deficiency of vitamin E will cause different problems that can occur. The problems are listed below.

Affecting the brain, causing degeneration, oedema and haemorrhage. Affected young chickens appear unable to walk; they fall on their sides or stand with their heads

between their legs. It may also be found in adult chickens.

Vitamin B deficiency A deficiency of vitamin B will cause the curly toe disease. The young chicks fewer than one week old, shows curling of their toes, inability to walk and sometimes diarrhoea. Figure 2.40 and 2.41 shows an example of vitamin B deficiency. Vitamin D deficiency Young chickens with vitamin D deficiency are unable to stand and have very soft, pliable legs and beaks. The rib joints are swollen like beads and curved inward. They also called it rickets. The breast bone is often twisted. In older chickens, vitamin D deficiency causes soft-shelled eggs and a drop in production. An incorrect calcium/phosperus balance in the feed also leads to rickets. Especially young growing animals are affected by vitamin deficiencies in the feed. The daily provision of sufficient amounts of green fodder is one insurance against vitamin deficiency diseases.

2.1.12 DISEASE PREVENTION They always say, prevention is better than curing the chickens from the disease. Practically, it is not possible to vaccinate the chicken for all the diseases that have been known. The chickens are vaccinated against the most common diseases. Vaccination The most chickens are standard vaccinated against several diseases. The standard vaccinations are listed below. Table 2.7 ‘Standard vaccinations’ shows an example of a vaccination schema.

Figure .4 ‘sign of deficiency’ Figure .41 ‘sign of deficiency’


These vaccinations will cost 0.50 birr each. There is a vaccination for almost every disease. It is free for the farmer to decide which diseases are important. The vaccinations above are required. These vaccinations must be given by a local veterinarian.

Table .7 ‘Standard vaccinations’

Disease Number of vaccinations ( at an age of 20 weeks)

New castle disease 3 times, 4 times for perfect vaccination

Gumboro 2 times

Fowl typhoid 2 times

Fowl pox 2 times

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part one

Mary walks through the barn for an observation. The first thing she sees is that there are a few chickens with twisted necks and paralyzed legs. The eggs that the chickens produce have thin shells or have no shell at all. What kind of disease got those symptoms?

Answer:

Newcastle diseases, also known as ND or NCD

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part two

Marcus got a barn with young chicks. He controls the chicks every morning. A few dead chicks are found every day. The dead chicks are sucked out of blood. What kind of insect will

occur this problem?

Answer: It could be red mites or fleas, especially when they are in large numbers.

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part three Peeta and Gary are collecting the eggs. While collecting, they got a lot of eggs with fungus. The chickens are rapidly breathing and gaping a lot. What kind of disease shows these symptoms?

Answer:

Aspergillos, also known as fungal pneumonia.


2.2 PREVENTION By poultry are some diseases known where no specific treatment possible is, like viral diseases. That’s why prevent a disease is better than curing a disease. It also is uneconomical, it causes a lot of time and it costs money when an animal dies. Hygiene is an important role in the prevention of diseases. You can think about refreshing the water (at least once a day) and cleaning your feeders and drinkers. This subchapter describe the ways of prevention diseases.

2.2.1 VACCINATIONS Activity of the vaccine The activity of the vaccine is influenced by:

1. Storage conditions a. Temperature b. Expiring date c. Period between the time of creating the vaccine and time of vaccinating the animal

2. Doses 3. The way of intake

a. Spray b. Drinking water c. Injection d. Eye drop

4. The age of the animal 5. Immunity status of the animal

a. Vaccinating older animals b. Previous vaccines

6. Pressure of the infection 7. Climate of the stable

a. Temperature b. Ammoniac c. Ventilation

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part four

Susan goes to the market to buy some food for her chickens. She checks the ingredients of the food she sees. The food Susan got at this moment is not the quality she wants. The chickens

from Susan are producing bad eggs. They got thin shells. His old food contains: vitamins, energy, protein and a little bit water. What is the ingredient that the food of Susan misses?

Answer

Minerals. Without minerals, the eggs got thin shells.


Methods of vaccination Spray: The spray method is used by viral infections who are active in respiratory tract. The

spray is entering the body of the chicken through the lungs and will be eliminated with the body slime. The disadvantage of the spray method is that there is also a great loss of the vaccine. It could be dosed by hand spray, back spray and automatic nebulizer.

Drinkwater methods: This method is used to vaccinate a large flock at one time. The disadvantage is that there is a less uniformity of the vaccine quantity. This method is cheap and easy to use.

Wing web method: This method is only used by the vaccination against pocks, diphtheria or the combined vaccination against pocks-diphtheria/vibration disease. The vaccine is injected in the wing of the chicken. Make sure that you do not prick in the muscle, because the vaccination will be eliminated by the blood stream, otherwise the vaccination will rebound.

Injection method: The injection method contains two types of vaccines: active (life vaccines) and passive vaccines (with antibodies). De treatment of the animals is individual and is expensive. The injection has to be injected into the muscle. This means that there be no loss of the vaccine.

Eye-drop method: Is used to give individual vaccinations without loss. This method is used to give an active vaccine for the respiratory tract. This creates an uniformity, strong and long-lasting immunity.

Immunity Taking proper care of chickens is the most important thing to do in order to prevent diseases. It will strengthen the resistance of the chickens to diseases in general. Important signs of good resistance are:

Proper condition, Healthy mucous membranes, Proper functioning of the stomach.

Resistance protects the animal from all diseases and unfavourable environmental conditions. Immunity protects the animal from one specific disease. For that reason resistance is more important than immunity. When an animal has suffered (and recovered from) an infection, it has built a specific protection against this infection, for a longer or shorter period. The specific protection is called immunity. Vaccination schedule To prevent the chickens from NCD, FP and FC there can be given some vaccinations. The vaccinations are showed in table 2.1 ‘Vaccination schedule for chickens’ and figure 2.42 and 2.43. Table 2.1 ‘Vaccination schedule for chickens’ Disease First dose Second dose Third dose New Castel Disease 7-11 days old

(eye- or nose drops) Week 4 (in drinking water or in the muscle)

Before onset of laying (in the muscle)

Fowl Pox 8-10 weeks (subcutaneous injection (under the

12-14 weeks (subcutaneous injection)


skin)) Fowl Cholera 3-4 week

(wing web method)

Figure .4 ‘Basic broiler vaccination program’


Figure 2.43 'Vaccination schedule by higher risks'

2.2.2 OTHER METHODS OF PREVENTION Hygiene of the living area of the chickens It is important to have a good hygiene in the living space of the chickens to prevent diseases unwelcome guests like mice or rats.

Clean and disinfect the housing of the chickens when other chickens come in the flock or when the chickens become ill. By cleaning must be making use of cleaning.

The drinking and water systems must be cleaned at least once a day. Refresh the water also at least once a day.

Chapter 5.2 describes the hygiene in the housing of the chickens. Stocking rate The maximum stocking rate of chickens is 6 chickens per one square metre. When more chickens are hold on one square metre, there will be risen a bigger risk on diseases. The diseases will spread easer, so there is a bigger risk that all chickens be infected. Prevent predators come in the housing The predators are described in chapter 5.2.2.


2.7 QUESTIONS True or False (Set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 When the disease is in one of the last stadia, the chicken is still treatable 2 Observing the chickens at least once a day, makes it easier to capture the

disease

3 Prevention is important, because some symptoms will only occur in one of the last stadia

4 Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) is triggered by bacteria’s 5 The bacterium that causes infectious Coryza is emophilusparagallinarum 6 New Castle Disease is a worldwide disease 7 Lymphoid leucosis is a virus disease 8 Marek disease is a bacterial disease 9 Egg Drop Syndrome 1976 is a viral disease 10 Coccidiosis is caused by a one-celled parasite 11 Good hygiene in the stable prevents unwelcome guests 12 The drinking and water systems must be cleaned at least once a week 13 The maximum stocking rate of chickens is 8 chickens per one square

metre

Subchapter 2.1 1. When is a chicken healthy and in optimal condition 2. A disease can be spread in various ways. Name at least 3 options 3. Write the 7 most common diseases down 4. Write down the treatment and control of Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) 5. How does the Coryza disease spread? 6. What are the signs of Coryza? 7. Write down the treatment and control of Coryza 8. How does the New Castle Disease spread? 9. What are the signs of the New Castle Disease 10. How do you treat the New Castle Disease? 11. What are the signs of the Marek Disease?


12. How can you treat the Marek Disease? 13. What are the signs of Gumborro? 14. What is the treatment for Gumborro? 15. Which three types of worms are there 16. What are the signs and treatment of worms? 17. Which ectoparasites are most common? 18. Fill the vaccination schedule in:

Subchapter 2.2 19. What influences the activity of the vaccinations? 20. What are the 5 methods of vaccination? 21. What are the signs of good resistance? 22. What is the difference between resistance and immunity?



3 times, 4 times for perfect vaccination

2 times

2 times

2 times


CHAPTER 3 – HOUSING The housing of chickens has a big influence on the well-being of chickens. In housings were the area is not what it should be, the chickens will be sooner getting diseases or have a lower egg production. It is also possible that the chickens do not produce eggs anymore. Especially young chickens are sensitive for changing circumstances. It is important to build a house with optimal conditions before starting business. This will be improving the well-being of the chickens. This chapter describes how you can equip housing for your chickens.

3.1 HUSBANDRY SYSTEMS This subchapter describes the way of keeping chickens. There are three global systems of husbandry, but they can also be combined with each other:

Battery system Slatted floor system Free range system

All systems have advantages and problems that are explained in the following texts.

3.1.1 MAIN FORMS Although chickens can be kept in many different ways, there are two main forms:

Extensive: The level of capital and labour investment in the farm is low. The best known example of this type of farming is free-range chicken farming, in which the chickens are free to roam on the farm grounds.

Intensive: More capital and labour are invested in housing and extra facilities. All housing systems with special poultry houses (with or without roaming facilities) belong to this category.

3.1.2 BATTERY SYSTEM The chickens are housed in small cages above and next to each other. There are various battery systems:

Flat deck battery California battery Compact battery Pyramid battery Tier battery

Flat deck battery There is only one tier of cages. This means only a small number of chickens per unit of housing area. This is the main reason why the flat deck is not popular anymore. Figure 3.1 shows the flat deck battery for chicks.

Fig. 3.1 Flat deck battery


California battery The California battery is also called as a stair-step battery. This system is popular in open-sided houses in tropical countries, because it allows proper ventilation without (extra) fans. The two top rows are fixed together and the droppings fall directly into the dropping pit. Figure 3.2 ‘California battery 1’ and figure 3.3 ‘California battery 2’ show a California battery.

Figure 3. ‘California battery 1’

Figure 3.3 ‘California battery ’

Compact battery


There are dropping boards or plates between the different tiers to collect the manure. The manure has to be removed by hand or automatically from these boards into the dropping pit. Pyramid battery Here the droppings fall into the sheeting without help from plastic sheeting. Picture 3.4 ‘Pyramid battery’ shows an example of the pyramid battery.

Figure 3.4 'Pyramid battery’

Tier battery There are 2-5 tiers. The cages of all tears are fixed together. Between the different tiers there is a manure belt to collect the manure and move it to a pit in the front or the back of the house. Figure 3.5 ‘Tier battery’ shows an example of the tier battery.

Figure 3.5 ‘Tier battery’


There are some general advantages and problem off the battery system. The advantages of the battery system are:

Highest stocking rate Less risk on diseases Higher egg weight Lower feed intake Better feed conversion rate Labour saving Easier supervision, culling and selection No eggs on the floor No hens which are brooding

Problems of the battery system are:

Relatively high investment costs per chicken The system is not flexible Technical problems Percentage second class eggs is higher There have to be pay more attention to ventilation Debeaking and light intensity control are necessary

3.1.3 SLATTED FLOOR SYSTEM The floor is made of a wire of wooden slats. The space below the slats is used for collecting chicken droppings. The construction of the floor is important, it pays extra attention. The floor should be constructed in sections, so that it can be removed to clean. The floor is expensive, but the problems with wet bedding material are avoided.

3.1.4 FLOOR SYSTEM HOUSES Floor systems houses can distinguish the following types:

Free range Poultry run Bedding material floor system Partly bedding material

Free range This system has a free range with only shelter for the night. It is a simple and cheap way of keeping chickens. The chickens get their own feed and water, but the risk that the chickens get diseases is way higher than other systems. There is also a big chance that the chickens be apprehended by predators, traffic or theft. The chickens scavenge and may damage cultivated plants from others. Very little supervision is possible on egg production and the hens can hide the eggs. Figure 3.6 ‘Free range system’ on the next page shows an example of free range chickens.


Figure 3.6 ‘Free range system'

Poultry run This system has a night shelter and is a semi-sensitive system. The chickens are confined in a wired-in run. There is a small stable build in which the chickens can be locked up at the night. The owner takes care of the chickens by feeding them and gives them water. The feedings costs can be reduced by about 20% if the run is well managed, with a good growth of grass. This regularly requires a moving to fresh ground. The poultry run exercise and outdoor life produce a tasteful chicken that some people prefer over a house-produced chicken. There are some problems which could arise. It is difficult to keep the run mud-free in areas with a long rain season. The second problem is when the owner of the chickens does not move the run frequently to fresh ground, there is a big risk of a worm infection. If other chickens can enter the run, there is a bigger chance on diseases. Birds of prey can catch the chickens and eat them. When there are a lot of chickens of prey, the chickens have a lot of stress. This level of stress influences the egg production of the chickens. Figure 3.7 'Poultry run' shows an example of a poultry run.

Figure 3.7 'Poultry run'


Litter system By litter systems, the floor is covered with 5-10 cm. bedding material, like teff. The bedding material absorbs moisture from the droppings. Good bedding material absorbs relatively moisture, is cheap, free of moulds and is continue available. Figure 3.8 ‘litter floor system’ shows an example of housing with a litter floor system. The following bedding material systems are possible:

Litter floor system Partly slatted floor system

1/3 Litter and 2/3 slats (1/3 of the floor is bedding material and 2/3 are slats) 1/2 Litter and 1/2 slats (1/2 of the floor is bedding material and 1/2 are slats) 2/3 Litter and 1/3 slats (2/3 of the floor is bedding material and 1/3 are slats)

Figure 3.8 ‘ itter floor system’

Figure 3.9 ‘Slatted floor system in combination with the litter floor system’ shows an example of a slatted floor system, in combination with the litter system (2/3 litter system) and figure 3.10 ‘Slatted floor system’ shows an example of a slatted floor system.

Figure 3.9 ‘Slatted floor system in combination with

litter floor system’ Figure 3.10 'Slatted floor system


3.1.5 OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEMS Table 3.1‘Overview of advantages and problems’ shows an overview of advantages and problems within the systems

Table 3.1‘Overview of advantages and problems’

System Advantages Problems

Battery systems

Highest stocking rate Less risk on diseases Higher egg weight Lower feed intake Better feed conversion rate Labour saving Easier supervision, culling and

selection No eggs on the floor No hens which are brooding

Relatively high investment costs per chicken

The system is not flexible Technical problems Percentage second class eggs

is higher There have to be pay more

attention to ventilation Debeaking and light intensity

control are necessary

Slatted floor Lower risk on diseases Expensive

Free range Cheap Simple

Higher risk on infections and diseases

The chickens could damage crops

Risk on predators, traffic and theft

Hided eggs

Poultry run Cheap variant Simple

Difficult to keep the run mud-free in rain seasons

Higher level of stress Frequently moving of the run Higher risk on infections and

diseases

Litter systems Absorbs much moisture Wet bedding material has a bigger risk on diseases


3.1.6 STANDARDS Table 3.2 ‘General standard of chickens per floor area’ shows the standards of rates per floor area (over the whole house). These are general standards (STOAS (1992)).

Table 3.2‘General standard of chickens per floor area’

Type of chicken Housing system Stocking rate(chickens/m²)

Layers Poultry run About 25 Litter systems: 1/3 bedding material – 2/3 slats 1/2 bedding material – 1/2 slats 2/3 bedding material – 1/3 slats

4-5 7-8 6-7 5-6

Fully slatted floor 8-10

Battery: Flat deck California Compact Pyramid Tier

8-10 10-12 15-20 15-20 18-25

Rearing Litter system 7-8

Combination bedding material/slats

8-10

Fully slatted floor 10-20

Batteries 15-30

Growers Litter system 10-20 Fully slatted floor 10-20

B.P.S. (basis point system) Litter system 4-5

Combination bedding material/slats

5-7

Chickens cannot be transferred from the battery system to any other housing systems. The other way around is possible. Chickens reared indoors cannot be kept outdoors later.

3.1.7 HOUSING IN ETHIOPIA As written in the table, the battery system can hold the most chickens per one square meter. But this system is not the most optimal system for the chickens’ well-being. In the Netherlands, cages for chickens may become outlawed. In Ethiopia the most friendly and effective way of keeping the chickens is the use of free range system (inside the stable). Outside the stable is possible, but will give a higher stress level, because the high amount of predators (like birds that fly around the stable). The level of stress can influence the production level of the chickens. There are more problems that occur when you keep the chickens outside:

Feed consumption drops Water consumption drops The chickens become less active, so the egg production drops


The chickens start panting and spreading their wings in order to increase their body surface, because of the heat

The chickens are looking for cooler places, like a concrete floor Egg weight drops Eggshell quality and strength decreases The fertility and hatchability of the eggs will decrease.

3.2 BUILDING CHICKEN HOUSING In this subchapter is the way to build the housing for the chickens described.

3.2.1 CONDITIONS IN THE CHICKEN HOUSE It is not always easy to influence the conditions into a chicken house. Sometimes it may even not be possible. The following conditions of the chicken house stimulate the well behaviour of the chickens. Climate Factors which influence the climate in a chicken house are:

Temperature Humidity Ventilation and fresh air The volume of the house Light

Temperature The optimal temperature for the housing is between 20 and 25 degrees for adult chickens (layers). For starters the temperature must be higher, between 20 and 32 degrees. This temperature depends on the age of the starters. The optimal temperature of pullets is between 15 and 32 degrees, this also depend on age. Table 3.3‘Temperature by different ages’ shows the temperature of the area of the housing by different ages of the chickens.

Table 3.3 ‘Temperature by different ages’

Age in days Temperature in C

1-7 33 29

Case study 3.1 Husbandry systems

Mr. Baydar lives bordered a small city in middle Ethiopia on his farm with a lot of other animals. Mr. Baydar has recently started a small-scale poultry farm with 100 chickens for egg producing. He built a beautiful stable for his chickens where the chickens can walk in and out.

Strange enough the chickens would not go outside the stable and the egg producing gets lower. The chickens seem to be very stressful. Discuss why this husbandry system is not optimal.

Answer:

There is big chance that there are a lot of predators in the neighbourhood which causes a lot of stress. The chickens know that the predators live outside the stable. Another reason could be

that the climate outside is too hot for the chickens.


7-14 29 26

14-21 26 23

21-28 23 21

28-35 21 20

> 35 Around 20

When layers exposed to higher temperatures you can expect the following to happen:

Feed consumptions stops or drops Water consumptions stops or drops Egg production stops or the egg weight stops or drops The activity of chickens become low The chickens start panting and spreading their wings They are looking for colder places (cold floor) Having a lower fertility and hatchability of the eggs

In tropics you can take the certain measures to restrict the negative effects of heat:

Prevent sunshine in the housing to have an east-west orientation of the building. (place the housing vertical of sunrise and sundown)

Keep the heat production as low as possible by keeping the chickens quiet during daytime Good ventilation The use of a screen or sail

Humidity Ethiopia has a dry and hot climate, which means that the humidity is relativity low. The humidity in the housing does not exceed 70%. The optimal humidity for chicks is between 75% and 80%; they need it to not dry out. Ventilation and fresh air In tropics proper ventilation is necessary. In general there can be started with ventilation in the second week of the chicks. Gradually there can be more ventilation applied (in needs). The ventilation has to be ranged by:

Temperature Relative humidity Composition of the air in the stable

Damaging, toxic gasses 1. Carbon dioxide (=CO2) Carbon dioxide arises by burning of a fuel and by breathing of animals and humans. It is a gas with no smell, which is heavier than the air. The composition of CO2 can to be measured to be informed about the moving of air (ventilation). 2. Carbon monoxide (=CO) This is also a gas with no smell, but a very toxic gas. It releases when a fuel does not burn like the way it has to burn. It causes a short of oxygen. When regularly cleaning and replacing when needed, it will prevent that carbon monoxide releases.


3. Ammoniac (=NH3) This will be formed by the rubbish of faces by microorganism. Ammoniac has a lower weight than air, which means that ammoniac levitates. The quantity of ammoniac depends on the mate of ventilation, temperature, relative humidity, condition of the bedding and stocking density. By a too high concentration of ammoniac, the fibrils in the airways of the chickens paralyse, whereby pieces of material can enter the longs. The risk off an infection is much higher. The cornea of the chickens can be infected too; this causes a higher level of stress and stuck the growing of the animals. 4. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) This is a gas that seldom arises. It will be formed by the rubbish process of proteins in faces and is very toxic in high concentrations. It will be in a high concentration by whirling in the faces (for example in fertilize basements. Table 3.4‘Norms of air composition’ shows the norms of air composition.

Table 3.4‘Norms of air composition’

Kind of gas Air outside the stable (In vol. %)

Air inside the stable

O2 Oxygen 21 % Min. 15 vol. %

N2 Nitrogen 78 % Max. 84 vol. %

CO2 Carbon dioxide 0.03 % Max. 0.25 vol. %

CO Carbon monoxide Max. 40 ppm

NH3 Ammoniac Max. 25 ppm H2S Hydrogen sulfide Max. 10 ppm Explanation table: Ppm = parts per million = milligram (mg) per kilogram (kg) 1 ppm = 1 gram per 1,000,000 gram = 1 gram per 1,000 kg 1 gram per 1,000 kg = 1 mg per kg Vol. = volume percent 1 volume percent = 1 vol. % = 10,000 ppm 1 ppm = 0.0001 vol. %

3.2.2 LIGHTNING Chickens rest during the hot times of day and eat when the environment become cooler. With a good light system you can make de day longer and the egg production higher. It is a pity that it becomes dark early. There are normally around 12 hours of daylight in Ethiopia, but when the chickens have around 14 hour’s daylight, the production becomes higher. With artificial light you can create a longer day. Light affects the start of sexual activities, which also is the laying of eggs and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of rest. It influences the production intensity. So it is important to have enough and good light in the housing. The lightning in the chicken housing must not be too bright, because there is a chance the chicken start fighting. The light into the housing must be less brightness than daylight outside the building. Rearing period


The rearing period of a hen is very important. At very young age the hens are insensitive to changes off daylight. In the second half of the rearing period it is important to create a constant day (8-10 hours a day). Long days in the rearing period lead to an earlier maturity than short days (7-10 days earlier). It is a funny fact that hens with no light also come into lay on right time, it probable has to do with the maturation process. The effect of a lighting program to delay maturation depends very much on the moment when short-day treatments starts. Until 12 weeks of age one can say: the later the short-days starts, the bigger delay in the onset of egg production. If you want to delay the onset of production even more, we have to start the short-day treatment later instead of earlier. Laying period The lighting program in the laying period is an extension of the program in the rearing period. Tests have shown that hens, which start production late, will not produce better towards the end of the period of laying. A layer that starts production with a longer length of day (increasing day-length) hardly ever produces the maximum amount off eggs (in kg). They produce too many small eggs and the chance on a prolapse is quite common. Layers that start production with a smaller length of day (decreasing day-light) need a strong light stimulus to reach a high production peak. The loss of eggs in the beginning is the cause of a lower production (in kg). The best way is to find a way between these day-lengths: Rearing with short day-lengths (the chickens start producing on time, but not extremely young)

TIPS FOR BUILDING AN OWN STABLE 1. The materials that are used for the stable should be:

Durable Easy to handle, easy to clean and easy to repair if damaged As cheap as possible and reliable

2. The width of the house should do not exceed 9 meters, because of the ventilation (when only natural ventilation is used).The length depends on the number and age of the chickens in the stable. The height of the poultry house should not be less than 2 meters anywhere in order to make the house easily accessible everywhere. It provides more volume to the house, which results in a better air quality. 3. The floor should be made of concrete or other easy cleaning materials (concrete is the ideal floor for a chicken house because it is easy to clean) or be filled with 50 cm sand. 4. In hot climates at least 2 sides should be open with wire netting, in order to have enough ventilation for the chickens. Boards or sails could be closed for the night, to keep a constant temperature. The other side should be closed (because of direct sunlight). 5. The roof protects the chickens against direct sunlight and rain. The roof also protects the chickens against predators, like other chickens.


6. The chickens should be protected against heat during the whole day. Materials which insulate rather well are cotton fibre board, PVC and certain plant materials such as palm leaves and banana leaves. The shades of trees prevent that the stable get too warm. 7. Besides space for the chickens, the chicken house should have:

An entrance room, where people can change footwear and clothing, disinfect their shoes and wash their hands before entering the stable. Disinfection must also take place here.

A feed store with enough space for the feed that is needed for the chickens for one week.

3.3 BUILDING AN OWN STABLE Animal safety and welfare is very important in the design and construction of the chicken housing. The materials that are used in the construction should be locally available and strong enough, which will result in a long lasting structure. The construction of this stable does not have to be complicated or expensive. A properly constructed chicken house has the following essential features (except climate):

Proper ventilation system Constructions that are easy to clean Predator proof Optimal located Strongly built and durable Waterproof

3.3.1 LOCATION OF THE BUILDING

Case study 3.2 Building chicken housing Mr. Piri wants to build a stable for his chickens. He has bought 50 chickens, but he has no stable

and no financial materials. He wants to build the stable, but need some help from you. Brainstorm what the best option is for Mr. Piri. Recognize that Mr. Piri needs a stable for his

chickens in short time.

Answer: Mr. Piri has already 50 chickens and no stable. The best option in this case is to create a free

range system inside his house with: Optimal temperature Optimal humidity Ventilation and fresh air A minimum of 9 m₂ Enough light No predators

When he has enough money, he can build a new stable for his chickens. Another option is to get a micro credit.


The temperature in Ethiopia can be called as tropical (around 30 degrees). Because of this temperature it is better to house chickens in amounts of 6 chickens on 1 square meter. This prevents that it become too warm inside the stable. The stable should also be built in a way that natural ventilation is possible. To keep direct sunlight out of the stable, the stable should be built in a west-east position. The sunshine can be minimized by an east-west orientation of the building. This means that the short sides of the stable should be orientated to west and east. If these sides are also shaded, sunlight cannot enter the stable. Figure 3.10 ‘East-West orientation’ shows the right position of the stable.

3.3.2 FLOOR The floor is very important by building a chicken stable. Through the floor can predators entering the stable. There are a few options for the floor: Concrete The best option is to use concrete, but it is quite expensive. Concrete is waterproof, easy to clean and also isolate from hot and cold. Lava stone The second option is to use lave stone. This is a very strong sort of stone, which is used for streets and floors into stables. Lava stone has a red colour and is cheaper than concrete. Figure 3.11 ‘Lava stone’ shows an example of lava stones.

Figure 3.1 ‘East-west orientation’


Figure 3.11 ‘ ava stone’

Original floor The third and last option is to keep the original floor, this is the cheapest floor. The original floor means that the chickens live on the natural floor. Water can be absorbed by this floor, but it is very dusty and difficult to clean. Figure 3.12 ‘Original floor with teff’ shows an example.

Figure 3.1 ‘Original floor with teff’

3.3.3 WALL The wall should not be completely solid, this to allow air movement through the stable (ventilation). Good air movement is essential to remove moisture, excess heat in hot weather and odor and gasses from animal waste. Air movement makes sure that animals stay cool, dry and clean. Good ventilation is essential for chicken’s health. Air circulation should be placed above the animals’ heads and ventilation openings should be placed high enough so that air does not blow directly past the animals. Air movement can be effected through mechanical (ventilator) or natural means. Providing openings or low built walls, about 1 meter height (with a max of 1.5 meter), will provide sufficient ventilation without infecting the chickens.


If there are enough financial sources, you can make the use of brick stones. Brick stones keep the warmth for a big part away and are easy to clean. It will quickly dry when it became wet. The second option is the use hollow bricks 6 -10 birr (local prices). A second option is the use of a mix of earthen, cow excrements and teff. First of all, you have to build a fundament for the stable with stones (around the first 20 centimetres above the ground) and wood of the eucalyptus tree. Eucalyptus is very strong when it is dry and goes around three years with. Eucalyptus wood is available in tree trunks of 3-8 meters long and the prices are between 20 and 70 birr. The wall of eucalyptus trees should discontinue for the ventilation, there arises a gap around 40-50 centimetres in length. Because of the open space, there is a possibility that predators enter the chicken stable. The problem will be solved with the using of gaze. Figure 3.13 ‘Wall of Eucalyptus wood and earthen’ and 3.14 ‘Wall of earthen’ shows an example of a wall, made of Eucalyptus and a mix of earthen.

3.3.4 THE ROOF The roof provides protection from the sun and rain, so it should be waterproof. A half open roof encourages air movement but is more likely to be damaged by strong winds. The roof can be constructed from irons sheets and wood. Iron sheets also reflect the sun; this will keep the heat out of the stable. The best way to build a roof is the use of corrugated metal. When building the stable sloping, the corrugated metal attends that the water will be eliminated in the right direction. The water can be moderated into a water barrel for own using. Another option is a grass roof; it is cheaper, but less durable (6-10 years). A grass roof with a length of 6 metres costs around 10.000 birr. Picture 3.15 ‘Roof’ shows an example of a roof and 3.16 ‘Inside of an own built stable’ shows an example of the inside of an own built stable from a local farmer.

Figure 3.13 ‘Wall of Eucalyptus wood and earthen’ Figure 3.14 ’Wall of earthen’


3.4 TUKUL STABLE The traditional tukul stable is a round building with walls made of manure (or bricks) and a roof made of reed. With the use of manure, the walls get a smooth surface. This smooth surface prevents insects nestling in the wall. The best material for the floor is concrete. This stony floor prevents the chickens for diseases like Coxidiose. It is also easier to clean and remains dry when water is spoiled by the animals. Figure 3.17 ‘View of the tukul stable’ shows the tukul stable.

Case study 3.3 Building a own stable

Mr. Baydar has built the beautiful stable by his own. He built the stable with a completely concrete floor. The walls are made of eucalyptus wood and a mix of earthen. The roof is made

of corrugated metal and is placed one meter longer than the walls. The four walls are completely closed to keep the warmth and cold outside the stable. The stable is around 1.5 meters high, 9 meters in the length and 2 meters in width. Discuss the stable of Mr. Baydar,

what has he done well? And wrong?

Answer: The materials that are used are available for the climates in middle Ethiopia. But the warmth will be kept inside the stable, because of the closed walls. There is no ventilation in the stable.

The chickens will reduce in their egg production. Mr. Baydar has built a very good roof, because all the materials of the stable are protected to the sun and rain.

The stable has a square of (9*2 = 18 m₂) 18 square meters. The space for 100 chickens should be around 17 square meters (100/6=16.6 m₂), which means that there is enough space for all

the chickens. But the height of the stable is not very handy for Mr. Baydar, because it is 1.5 meters high. When he is working into the stable, it is not very practical.

Figure 3.15 ‘Roof’ Figure 3.16 ‘Inside of an own built stable‘


Fig. 3.17 ‘View of the tukul stable’

3.4.1 SIZE AND MATERIAL The size of this tukul formed stable will be around 30 square meters, with an average length of 6 meters. 30 Square meters is enough for 200 chickens (6 chickens per 1m₂). The heights of the walls are around one meter. Above this wall there should be one meter made of wind-braking-gaze and plastic. The wind-breaking-gaze aloud fresh air to come in, but when it is cold, the plastic can be shut or opened to keep the warmth inside or to ventilate. The ventilation must proper so that air does not blow directly into the stable. The side walls have a length of 3.5 meters. The pointed roof in the middle of the stable has a height of 4 meter. The roof can be made out of corrugated metal. A corrugated sheet ensures that sunlight can reflecting and keeps the temperature optimal inside the stable.

3.4.2 FACILITIES In the middle of the stable there are boxes in two lines, with several layer nests inside it. One line with boxes can contain ten layer nests with a size of 30 by 40 centimetres. This has a total length of 150 centimetres. There could be placed a second box against the back side of this box. Two sides of the boxes are available so that the chickens can lay eggs on both sides. There will be a total four boxes inside this stable. Two feeding trough can be placed beside the layer boxes. Between the box and the trough, there can be placed water buckets, specially made for poultry. These buckets will be placed within one meter in one straight line. Figure 3.18 ‘The tukul stable’ shows a map of this stable.


Legend: Water buckets

Feeding trough

Boxes

Door Against the end of each box can be placed boxes in one row of six meters. There are eight boxes and 80 layer nests in total inside this stable. Two feeding troughs can be placed besides the layer boxes, two at the left side and two at the right side of de boxes. Between the boxes and the feeding troughs can be place some water buckets, specially made for poultry. These buckets can be hanged on the ceiling and be placed in one straight line. At each side there will be placed five water buckets.

3.4.3 FINANCIAL The floor is built with a concrete floor, the walls out of bricks and wind-braking-gaze. The roof will be made out of corrugated metal. The price of one square meter with the use of these materials will be between 1,000 birr and 1,400 birr. The minimum price will be between 30,000 birr and 42,000 birr for the entire stable.

Case study 3.4 Tukul stable Mr. John, the neighbour of Mr. Baydar, has built a traditional tukul stable for his 250 chickens.

He had some help from the government and friends to build the stable. But there is one problem: How can Mr. John furnish his tukul stable? He needs some water buckets, feeding

troughs and laying nest. Pencil a map of the tukul stable with the equipment for 250 chickens. Pay attention to the square and place of the materials.

Answer: Variable

Figure 3.18 ‘The tukul stable’


3.5 REQUIREMENTS This subchapter describes the legal way of starting up a poultry business.

3.5.1 THE LEASE OF LAND Before start building, you have to buy or lease enough land if you do not have it. The problem in Ethiopia is that all the land is from the government of Ethiopia. This means that you have to lease some land from the government. The price of the ground depends on the area where the ground is establishing, but leasing some land is not cheap. The most effective way is to rent it from your neighbour or friend. The lease of land depends on the side of the land. The leasing period is mostly 45 years, and you must own a bank account with a minimum of 12.000.000 birr. You lease the land directly from the government. You get a license that you are leasing that piece of land.

3.5.2 LICENSES FOR POULTRY Next to the license of leasing the land, you need a license to build a stable. The license for building a poultry stable is also for keeping the chickens. Procedure The procedure to get a legal poultry farm is very easy. When you want to start poultry farm, you have to go to the area authorized bureau of the parish where you live in. You have to improve that you have some ground and say that you want to start a poultry farm. You get some papers to fill in. A license is around 200 birr. You get a license when you can improve that you have a living place, working place and some ground. If you want to start a poultry farm with a higher investment than 500.000 birr, you need a VAT number. The VAT number is written in chapter 8 ‘Extending your company’.

3.6 EQUIPMENT OF THE HOUSING This subchapter describes the equipment of the housing, assumed from a free range system.

3.6.1 BEDDING MATERIAL Good bedding material materials absorbing relativity much moisture from the droppings. Because of the financial resources and climate is ‘teff’ the best bedding material material. The seeds of teff are used for the dish injera, but the stem of the teff is a good bedding material material (when it is dry).

Case study 3.5 Requirements Mr. John has rent a piece of ground from his other neighbour: Mr. Quosa. The ground is rented

for a period of 20 years. The contract is orally agreed. Mr. Quosa has leased the ground from the government for 54 years; he has a license for it. Discus this situation, is it legal or illegal?

Answer:

Mr. John has an illegal way of renting, because there is no official procedure with the government. Mr. Quosa is leasing the ground on a legal way, but is not handling legal. He

knows the right procedure, but is renting the ground to Mr. John, which is illegal.


Functions:

Absorbs droppings of the chickens and promotes drying, which is more hygienically Thins out the faecal material, so it reduces the contact between birds and manure Isolates chicks from the cooling effects of the floor

3.6.2 ROOSTS The natural behaviour of the chicken is to sleep above the ground, so it is important to create a sleeping place. Meat producing chickens do not need roosts, because of their weight. But layers like to sleep on roosts. If roosts are not provided, they sleep in or on the nests and other places and dirty them. It also influences the level of stress of the chickens, which can influence the egg production. Roosts should be about 50 cm above the ground (Wethli, E. (1999)) and all at the same height. Otherwise the chickens start to fight every night for the best and highest place on de roosts. The timber used for the roosts should be about 5 by 5 centimetres with the upper corners rounded off. The chickens cannot damage their feet. The length of the roosts can be defined based on the length of the stable. Figure 3.19 ‘Roosts’ shows an example roosts for the chickens. De roosts should be placed in a straight line. As you can see in picture 3.19, the roosts should be placed on same length and distance. The roosts could be fastening at the walls and floor.

Figure 3.19 'Roosts'

3.6.3 LAYING NESTS Chickens that are not housed into cages need laying nests where they can lay their eggs. Proper nests are important aspects of a layer project. You need one laying nest for every five layers in your housing. The most common size for a laying nest is around 35 cm long by 35 cm wide by 35 cm high. The nests should be placed into a dark and quit part of the housing. If there are no laying nests (or not placed on the right way), the hens lay the eggs on the floor, which results in dirty and damaged eggs. The laying nests could be made of wood or other local materials.


The minimum price for one nest costs around 10 birr and the maximum price for one nest costs around 20 birr. The total costs for laying nests are between 421 birr and 632 birr. Figure 3.20 shows an example of laying nests.

Figure 3.20 'Laying nests'

3.6.4 WATER AND FEEDING EQUIPMENT This subsection describes the water- and feeding systems. Different ages and types of chickens need different kinds of feeders and drinkers. It is important that chickens can eat or drink from either sides (or all sides) of the systems. The water and feed systems should always be placed so that a chicken do not have to walk more than two meters. For chicks is the distance around 50 centimetres. Drinkers and water systems Water is an important aspect for chickens, because:

The chickens’ body consists around 55-75% of water. An egg has water content around 65%. The body temperature of a chicken is for a big part regulated by water. Water is indispensable for feed digestion and excretion of wastes. Water is very often used for administering vaccines and drugs.

Poultry farmers use the words fountains, founts, waterers or drinkers for the equipment to give the chickens water. Fresh, clear and cool water is very important for chickens and their production. You should refresh the water at least once a day. Commercial producers use expensive systems to make sure that the water is fresh and clear and there is enough water for the chickens. The following waters systems are available: Round drinkers One round drinker is enough for thirty chickens. For example: for 200 chickens you need seven drinkers. The minimum price for one drinker is 110 birr (total of 770 birr) and the maximum price is 115 birr (total of 805 birr). You have to make sure that there is always enough fresh water for the chickens.


Chick founts This system is used by chicks, because of the height of the system. These are 3-4 litre plastic containers upside down over a kind of plastic saucer, a small hole in the water container, at the right position, allows that water can flow into the saucer. You can make this system by your own with a plastic bucket or tin can. Homemade drinkers often work not very properly. There are larger sizes available for older chickens (12-30 litres). You need a 12-litre found for every 100 layers. Linear drinkers A linear drinker is the simplest system. It means that there is placed a right-angled drinker on the ground. Mostly this is a half open system so that the chickens cannot sit in the water. It is a fine system for chicks, older chickens shall soil the system. You need around 3 cm per chicken for a good linear drinker. Nipple system This is the system what is used by commercial producers. There is always fresh, clear and cool water available for the chickens. The chickens learn to push the nipple to get some water. Feeders and feeding systems Tube feeders This is a cylindrical tube with a pan below. The feed can be put into the tube and falls into the pan when needed. This is the most common and effective feeding system for adult chickens. Tube feeders should be raised with the bottom of the feeders when the chickens grow older. Figure 3.21 and 3.21 show an example of a tube feeder.

Figure 3.20 'Tube feeder'


Figure 3.21 Hanging metal feeder. A feeder with a tray of 40 cm. in diameter (for 10 chickens) 1. hanging wire, 2. Cover: sheet metal cone, 3. Tray: sheet metal.

Linear feeders This is the same system as the linear water system, used for chicks. For each chicken you have to calculate 10centimeters of the feeding system. Figure 3.22 shows an example of a linear feeder. .

Figure 3. ‘Through feeder on platform’

Tray feeders This system is also used for chicks. It is just a round vat placed on the ground. This is a cheap and easy way of feeding, but not very hygienic. Chickens can walk in the feeder and will manure in it. Egg trays You can use new egg trays as feeding system for young chicks. It is a cheap solution, but not the most ideal solution because of hygienic reasons. Space per bird Table 3.5 ‘Minimum space per bird’ shows the minimum space for linear and round feeders.


Table 3.5’ Minimum space per bird’

Age (in weeks) Space (in cm)

Linear feeder (on one side) Round feeder

0-16 4 1.5

6-18 8 3

>18 10 4

The minimum price per feeder is 120 birr and maximum costs 140 birr. The average price is around 130 birr.

3.7 TOTAL COSTS OF EQUIPMENT This section gives an overview of the total costs of the housing of chickens. The example that are used for the own built stable, is for a housing of 250 chickens. The costs that are used for the examples are estimated costs, based on the average local prices. For 250 chickens you need a minimum area of 42 square meters (250 chickens amongst to 6 square meters).

3.7.1 COSTS OF THE MATERIALS As written before, you need 42 square meters for housing of 250 chickens. Next to the costs of the stable, you have the materials that will be used inside the stable. One round drinker is enough for thirty chickens, so for 250 chickens you need 9 drinkers. The minimum price for one drinker is 110 birr and the maximum price is 115 birr. The total costs of the drinkers are around 1017 birr (9 drinkers x 113 birr). 10 centimetres of a linear feeder is enough for one chicken, 25 feeders are enough for 250 chickens. The minimum price per feeder is 120 Birr and maximum 140 Birr. The total costs of feeder would be around 3250 birr (25 feeders x 130 birr). The minimum price for one nest costs around 10 birr and the maximum price for one nest costs around 20 birr. You need at least 50 nests for 250 chickens (at least one nest for five chickens).The total costs of nest would be around 750 birr (50 nests x 15 birr).

Case study 3.6 Furnish of the housing

Mr. John has built another stable for 500 chickens. He built the stable like Mr. Baydar, because the chickens from Mr. Baydar producing much better than the chickens from Mr. John. There is only one problem: Mr. John cannot enter the chickens’ stable of Mr. Baydar, because of hygienic

rules. That’s a pity. Can you help Mr. John to furnish his housing for the chickens?

Answer: Variable


You need around 12.5 meters Eucalyptus wood for the roosts (250 chickens / 20 cm Eucalyptus wood). One meter Eucalyptus wood is around 10 birr, this is a total of 125 birr for the Eucalyptus wood. The roosts should be fixed on the walls and floor, these costs depends on the local prices. The total costs of the equipment of the housing are 1017 + 3250 + 750 + 125 = 5142 birr. The costs of the building depend on the situation and local prices. Chapter 7 describes the total costs of chicken farming. Table 3.5 ‘The costs of chicken housing’

Table 3.6 ‘The costs of chicken housing’

Part of housing Costs

Building Depending on local prices

Equipment 5142

3.7.2 TOTAL COSTS OF THE TUKUL STABLE The minimum price for one square meter stable (bricks, wood and other materials) is 1,000 birr. The maximum price for one square metre is 1,400 birr. The entrance has a size of 9 square meters. The minimum price for building one square metre is 1,700 birr and the maximum price for one square metre is 2,100 birr. The total costs for the tukul stable and materials will be between 34,900 birr and 48,400 birr. The equipment of the stable is already told in the last subsection. The total price for this stable and the materials will have a minimum 49,991 birr and a maximum of 67,297 birr. Table 3.6 ‘The total costs of the tukul stable’ shows the average total costs of the tukul stable.

Table 3.7 ‘The total costs of the tukul stable’

Part of housing Costs

Stable 41,650

Equipment 5142

Total costs 46,272 birr

Case study 3.7 Total costs Calculate the total costs of furnish from the last case.

Answer: Variable


3.8 QUESTIONS True or false? (Set a cross at the right answer) True or false? True False 1 A party bedding material system is an example of a slatted floor system. 2 There are three main forms of husbandry systems. 3 A poultry run is not very stressful for the chickens. 4 The maximum amount of chickens per square meter is 8. 5 Free range systems are one of the cheapest systems. 6 Chickens reared indoors cannot be kept outdoors later. 7 The optimal temperature of pullets is between 25 and 35 degrees. 8 The optimal humidity for chicks is between 75% and 80%. 9 Ammoniac is one of the damaging gasses into a stable. 10 N₂ is oxygen. 11 Light affects the start of sexual activities, which is also the laying of eggs

and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of activity.

12 The light during the rearing period should be very short. 13 A properly constructed chicken house has proper ventilation and

constructions that are easy to clean.

14 The best position of a stable is the East-West orientation. 15 Concrete is the best material for the floor of the stable. 16 Walls should be at least 3 meters high. 17 The tukul stable is one of the cheapest stables. 18 When starting a company, you should have some ground, a living place and

licenses.

19 Roosts are required for the well-being of the chickens. 20 A linear drinker is the most difficult water system. Subchapter 3.1 1. What kind of global husbandry systems are available for chickens? 2. What are the advantages and problems of a battery system? 3. What is the advantage and problem of the slatted floor system? 4. What are the advantages and problems of floor system houses? 5. How many (adult laying) chickens can be hold on one square meter? Subchapter 3.2 6. Factors which influence the climate in a chicken house are: (6 factors) 7. Which 7 things can happen when layers exposed to higher temperatures? 8. Why is the climate in the stable important?


9. How is it possible that light influences the egg production? 10. What are the requirements of materials for the housing? Subchapter 3.3 11. Which position of the stable is the best position? 12. Which material is the best option for the floor and why? 13. What is a problem of an original floor? 14. How can you build your own stable?

Subchapter 3.4 15. What is a tukul stable? 16. What kind of stable is the most easiest to build? The tukul stable or an own built stable? Motivate you answer. Subchapter 3.5 17. What are the requirements to build a stable?

Subchapter 3.6 18 What kind of equipment is not needed into chickens’ housing?

Subchapter 3.7 19. How can you reduce the costs of equipment?


Theme 2 – Business

Week 4 – Inflow Week 5 – Maintenance Week 6 – Outflow Week 7 – Business


CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW This chapter describes the inflow of chickens, the breeding and selection of chickens and the selection of a good farmer.

4.1 CHICKEN BREEDS There are more than 300 chicken breed all over the world (STOAS (1997)). Most of them being so called land races or local breeds. The commercial breeds can be divided into three groups:

Egg producers Meat and egg producers Meat producers

4.1.1 EGG PRODUCERS These are the lightweight laying breeds. One breed of this group is the Leghorn (W.L.) chicken. Figure 4.1 ‘White Leghorn’ shows a picture of a hen and a rooster. Characteristics of these chickens are:

High egg production Little broodiness Low feed consumption White eggs The value as meat producer is limited

Usually white eggs fetch a lower price than brown eggs.

Figure 4.1 ‘White eghorn’

4.1.2 MEAT AND EGG PRODUCERS Important representatives of this group are Rhode Island Red (R.I.R.), New Hampshire, Plymouth Rock and Australorp. Figure 4.2 ‘Rhode Island Red (RID)’ shows a picture if the Rhode Island Red chickens. The characteristics of these chickens are:

Brown eggs Broodiness Higher feed consumption than the Leghorn Better meat production than the Leghorn


Less nervous

4.1.3 MEAT PRODUCERS Important representatives of the meat producers are the Cornish and Cornish Rock. The characteristics of these chickens are:

Low egg production. Much broodiness. Fast-growing chicks. High weight at maturity.

Figure 4.3 shows an example of a Cornish Rock hen.

Figure 4.3 'Cornish Rock hen'

Figure 4. ’Rhode Island Red (R.I.D.)


4.2 BREEDING AND MULTIPLICATION Actual breeding is the work of different large companies which are operating internationally. What are they doing?

Development of (new) lines or strains in chicken breeds. Testing of crosses to find the best combination. Some aspects of chicken biology. Delivery of parent stocks.

Multiplication is a difficult subject, that why this subject is not specific explained in this manual. This is the job of experts.

4.3 HIGH-BREEDS The most common poultry high-breeds are Lowman, High-Line, Bovans, ISA-Brown and dual purpose chickens (these chickens are held for their eggs and meat, but are not recommended by poultry experts, because of the fact that the egg production is very low and the meat is too expensive to sell at markets). All of these breeds are high-breeds.

4.4 SELECTION PROCEDURE This section explains the procedure of selection of farmers and healthy and good producing chickens. All the things you have to know by this selection procedure are described.

4.2.1 THE SELECTION OF A FARMER The first and most important aspect is the selection of a good company. When you buy chickens by a farmer who has unhealthy chickens, there is a big risk that the production of the chickens is very low. There is also a risk on high mortality.

Case study 4.1 Chicken breeds

Mr. Johnson just started as chicken farmer. He has built a big stable, so that he can expand to 400 chickens. The stable with a combined system of slats and bedding material has an optimal

climate, have drinking and water systems, laying nests and roosts. Mr. Johnson selected 50 Cornirock chickens to start with, they are very healthy and in an optimal condition. The chickens

are around 25 weeks old, they should produce around one egg a day, but they do not. Discuss what Mr. Johnson did wrong.

Answer:

The chickens have the wrong breed; Cornirock is a meat producing chicken.

Case study 4.3 Local breeds Mr. Johnson wants to buy new chickens for egg production. The last time he has the wrong

breed. Advise him which breed is the best for Mr. Johnson.

Answer: A hybrid breed, they produce eggs.


The following things are important by the selection of a good farmer:

Make sure the farmer is reliable. Make sure that the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care. The building and environment of the chickens is clean and hygienic. The farmer is producing for a correct price The farmer can tell when the chickens are vaccinated

4.2.1 SELECTION OF CHICKENS This subsection describes the selection of the better chickens for use in the production or breeding program. The selection is based on the weight at 8 weeks. Good hens have the following characteristics:

Are lively. Interested in their environment. Yellow skinned breeds have yellow coloured beaks and shanks. Smooth and nice-looking feathers in the colours of the breed. Red and fully grown combs and wattles The right bodyweight The hens are vaccinated Have a good water and feed consumption When they are old enough, they produce around one egg a day

Several changes occur in the hen during the laying period. After two months of laying, the good and the poor layers can be distinguished from each other.


4.5 BUYING THE CHICKENS If you have selected a good farmer and good chickens, you can make a written contract with the farmer. Most of the farmers have already edited a kind of contact with all the agreements. Take your time to read these agreements and point out when you disagree with the contract. It is important to know what happens if the farmer delivers the wrong chickens (or maybe chickens with diseases) and know your guaranty. Make clear agreements about the price of the chickens, also in a written contract. Ask to the possibilities of a micro-credit. This is possible (for example) by Maranatha Farm in Debre Zeyt. Let the farmer show his papers and licenses (also vaccinations) to make sure that the chickens are grown up in good and legal circumstances.

Case study 4.4 Selection procedure Mr. Quosa wants to start small-scale poultry farming. He already has a good stable and some investors for the financial aspects. He wants to buy the chickens from his old friend ‘Mr. Aia’,

he has not seen his friend for years. Ten years ago was Mr. Aia one of the best farmers of middle Ethiopia. He had a big farm with cows, goats, chickens, plants and flowers. Mr. Quosa has made an agreement with Mr. Aia that he can buy 250 chickens at the age of 20 weeks. Mr. Aia delivers the chickens by himself. Mr. Quosa thinks that is a good idea, it cuts a right with

the car.

There are some things that can go wrong when the chickens are delivered, discus which things could happen.

Answer:

There could be a lot of things wrong after delivering. Times are changed and Mr. Aia could be a bad farmer after that ten years. In this subsection is described which things are important during the selection procedure. If you do not look to these things, the following things could

happen: Mr. Aia is not reliable, so he won’t deliver the chickens or is not keeping on the

agreements Mr. Aia does not care for the chickens, so the chickens become ill

The price is too high The chickens are not vaccinated

The chickens are not in good condition The chickens are not producing


4.6 AFTER BUYING This subsection describes the procedure when the chickens are bought. This period is very important for as well the chickens as the farmers. There could be arisen a lot of problems.

4.4.1 TRANSPORT OF CHICKENS Mostly the chickens are delivered by car into boxes, but small chicken farmers carry it by themselves. The following aspects are important by the transport of chickens:

Catch the chickens by both feet and do not carry too many chickens at a time Do not overcrowd the crates used for transporting the chickens; 20 chickens per crate of 0.2

cubic meter (87 × 63 × 35 cm), depending on the age of the chickens Load the crates into the transport truck with care Make sure that there is enough ventilation in between the transport crates (15 cm between

rows) Be careful with the chickens and pay attention to the well-being of the chickens Pay attention to the level of stress

Transport by truck Make sure that the truck is cleaned and disinfected and avoid waiting periods at petrol stations by making sure that the fuel tank is filled. Prevent the boxes from direct sunlight, heat and cold and take care of proper ventilation. Make sure that the time of transport is as short as possible and instruct the truck driver to driver straightly to the deliver place, without delays. Try to avoid rush-hours, breaks for lunch, tea etc. and off-duty time. The loading and unloading period should be also as short as possible. The boxes must stand stable in the truck and so that the boxes cannot fall.

Case study 4.5 Buying the chickens

Mr. Johnson has picked up your advice for the breeding of the chickens. This time he wants to make sure that he has the right chickens. He went to different farmers and has seen a lot of

chickens. Mr. Johnson selected a farmer who has a written contract with very good conditions. For example: Mr. Johnson has guaranty on his chickens for a period of 4 weeks, he will get his

money back. The chickens were born last week, so they are one week old. They are healthy and in good condition and housed in a clean area. The contract starts after making the contract, so

the condition also starts. The contract is directly made. Mr. Johnson picks up the chickens when they are 20 weeks. Advice Mr. Johnson about his selection procedure.

Answer:

The chickens seem to be healthy, so there is a little chance on problems, but the contract is very smart edited by the farmer. The contract is made on the moment of paying, which is not very

smart of Mr. Johnson. He does not know what happens in the weeks between buying and picking up of the chickens. Maybe the chickens are not healthy anymore or are not alive? Mr. Johnson’s

guaranty is over after 4 weeks, so he cannot get his money back.


Transport by air If possible, book a flight with a direct connection with the place of delivery. How shorter the time of transport, how lower the level of stress and a lower mortality. Transfers and route are very risky for the chicks. Probably more chicks die or are damage at the airport than in the plane. The following actions must be taken:

The captain of the airplane should be informed about the chicks Try to keep the chicks in shade while waiting Keep the chicks away from draught Do not allow the chicks outside in cold of hot weather Pay attention to proper ventilation Do not stack more than 8 boxes, because of the heat Do not allow that the boxes become wet Have all documents ready before the chicks arrive at the airport (export license, veterinary

certificate, bill of loading, etc.) Label the chick boxes

Animal friendly transport Many boxes are sold on the market. Some call for the use of staples to hold them together; others have intricate corner folds that can be snapped together without stapling. There are a few methods to transport the chickens friendly by hand:

Chick boxes, used by trucks and airplanes Carrying crates

Chick boxes Chick boxes are made from cardboard or plastic. The plastic boxes can be re-used after cleaning and disinfection, cardboard can be uses on time. The cardboard should be burnt because they are a source of infections. The chick boxes vary in sizes and the number of chickens, placed in the boxes, depends on the temperature outside and the distance of transport. Each box can hold around 100 day-old chicks, divided into four of six compartments. The chicks need something to prevent them from slipping around in the boxes, like wood-wool. These materials should be fresh. Carrying crates A well-ventilated crate with an opening and flap in the top to put the chickens in is useful for moving the chickens to the local market. Do not put to many chickens in a crate and pay attention to the temperature and ventilation. Figure 4.4 Carrying crate 1’ and 4.5 ‘Carrying crate 2’ show examples of carrying crates.


Figure 4.4 ‘Carrying crate 1’

4.4.2 CULLING Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens that are inferior in appearance or production, that are sick of become sick, have to be removed from the flock. Culling starts when the chickens arrive at the farm. One-day old chick can show the following defects:

Crooked legs (curly toes), only one eye or a crossed beak Unhealed navels Dehydration, because too much body moisture has been lost. This condition is difficult to

correct. The colours are not representative for the breed, it could be a disease The chickens are not lively, with sunken head and drooping wings. This indicates that the

chick does not feel well and may already be sick During the growing period, we select and remove any chicken that does not keep pace with the others. For example: if they are too light in weight, have crooked legs or are damaged by cannibalism. When a chicken shows a sign of illness, you have to place them in quarantine. Those chickens have to be removed immediately, because one chicken can become a danger to the health of the whole flock. You can make a selection of the hens just before the laying period to select the hens which are good enough for laying. This is more important by the selection of breeder chickens, than by the selection of laying hens.

Figure 4.5 ‘Carrying crate 2’


4.7 REARERS If you want a good quality and quantity of production of the chickens, you need first rate pullets. During the rearing period, the chicken is preparing for laying. An excellent rearing period is conditional for first class egg production. The chickens needs to be controlled in health, condition and protected to diseases. This section describes how to manage the rearing period.

4.5.1 FIRST TEN DAYS The first ten days are the most important days of chicken’s life. The chickens are vulnerable and experienced hatching, have been graded, vaccinated, sexed, handled, placed on transport and other environments, this all in a few hours or days. Comfort during this period is essential and will prevent a high mortality. Hygiene Chicks have to be received into a clean and disinfected environment (described in chapter two), to prevent that the chicks get infected immediately. To keep the environment as much as possible free from pathogens, you have to do the following things:

Anything and anyone who is entering the housing of the chicks has to be clean and disinfected as much as possible. Pay attention to that there is always a vat with disinfection available for disinfect shoes. When possible, use rubber boots or slippers near the entrance and wear those only into the housing of the chicks.

Clean drinkers daily. Only a limited number of people are allowed to enter the housing and only enter the

housing when needed. Before enter the housing of the chicks, clean and disinfect your hands. Wear an overall when possible, only used for the housing of the chicks. Make sure that other chickens or predators cannot enter the housing.

Expanding the chickens Picture 4.6 ‘Expanding the chickens’ shows an example of expanding the chicks. Be careful with the chicks and pay attention to chicks that are stuck in the cages.

Case study 4.6 After buying

Mr. Johnson’s chickens have to be sold as meat chicken, because they do not lay anymore. The chickens are older than 90 weeks, so they are quite old. It is time for new chickens if the others

are gone. He transports the chickens every day to the local market by bus. The chickens are placed into a carrying crate. Mr. Johnson has an own place on the market, a place in the middle

of a public square. Everyone can see him, so he can promote his chickens very good.

Discuss about the transport method

Answer: The carrying crate is a very good method of transport, but there is no protection written in the case. The bus is very hot, even as the local market, especially in the middle of a public square. The sun is burning on the chickens. This is not good for the well-being of the chickens, even if

they have to be slaughtered.


Picture 4.6 ‘Expanding the chickens’

Brooder Construct a ring for the reception of chicks with water, feed, heat and light. This is mostly more comfortable for chicks and farmer. A ring should not have more than 500 chicks. Five square meters is enough for 500 chicks. After a week the ring should be extended to ten square meters. Figure 4.7 ‘Brooder for chickens’ shows a brooder.

Figure 4.7 ‘Brooder for chickens’

Water and feeding Place feeders and drinkers in a circle like the spokes of a wheel. It is important that the chickens can easily find water and feed in the first days. The feeders and drinkers should not be placed under the


heats. The quality of the feeding and water will become lower if they are placed directly under the heats. The drinkers should be placed on a higher level to prevent that bedding material come into the drinker and prevent wet bedding material. At arrival, chicks are thirsty, so they should able to find clean, fresh water with ease. This means that you have to make sure that the water is available for the chicks. Refresh the water several times a day, if possible (at least one time a day). Even though chicks can survive a few days without feed, they quickly need a good quality of feed for their development, the feed need to be high in protein and recommended for hot climates. Place at least one chick found of plate per 75 chickens. If egg trays are used as feeder, use one egg tray for 50 chickens. Change the feed from Starter to Grower at the age of five weeks. Chickens tend to have a peak of feed consumption at 2-3 hours before dark. Table 4.1 ‘Kind of feeding per age’ shows the kind of feeding per age (Maranatha Farm).

Table 4.1 ‘Kind of feeding per age’

Diet type Starter Grower Pullet Pre-layer

0-5 weeks 5-10 weeks 11-16 weeks 17 – 2% lay

Metabolic Energy kcal 2950 2850-2875 2750 2750

Crude protein (%) >22 20 16.8 17.5

Before releasing the chicks from the brooder, you have to make sure that the chicks already used eating from bigger drinkers and feeders. Temperature The temperature of the housing has to be between 32 and 34 degrees at the level of the chicks. Before the chicks are delivered, you have to make sure that the floor and area are on the right temperature. Table 4.2 ‘Temperature of the housing of chicks’ shows the temperature of the area of the chicks per age (Maranatha Farm). You have to remove the brooders after 22 days.

Table 4. ‘Temperature of the housing of chicks’

Age in days Brooding temperature in C˚ Temperature of the room At the edge of the

brooders At 2-3m from the brooders

0-3 35 29-28 33-31

4-7 34 28-27 32-31

8-14 32 27-26 30-28 15-21 29 26-25 28-26

22-24 Remove the brooder 25-23 25-23

25-28 - 23-21 23-21

29-35 - 21-19 21-19

After 35 - 19-17 19-17

Also when the chicks are placed in special brooders, the behaviour of the chicks is the best way to check the correct temperature. Picture 4.7 ‘Too hot or too cold?’ shows the behaviour of the chicks in comparing with the brooder.


Too high: Chicks make no noise, chicks pant, head and wigs droop and get away from the heater.

Too cold: Chicks crowd to the brooder and are noisy, distress calling Draught: This distribution requires investigation, influenced by draught, uneven light

distribution or external noises. Correct temperature: Chicks evenly spread and the noise level signifies contentment.

Picture 4.8 ‘Too hot or too cold?’

Light To give the chicks all the opportunity to feed and drink, you have to give 23 hours of daylight on the first day. Every two days afterwards, the period of darkness could be extended with one hour. If the chicks are 8 weeks old, they get around 12 hours daylight. Recording Recording data and processing it into technical parameters, this is an excellent tool to assess.

1. What is going on? 2. How does the flock compare to previous flocks? 3. How does the flock compare to published parameters for this hybrid? 4. How does the flock compare to my neighbour’s flock? 5. What is the result of the change that I made in husbandry? 6. What are the weak points and what are the strong points?

Daily

Number of chickens that died Amount of feed supplied

Weekly

Average weight of the chickens (around 2% of the flock) Periodically

Arrival date Initial weight Number of chickens arrived Vaccinated dates Delivery date Number of chickens delivered

Table 4.3 ‘Example of weekly recording’ shows an example of weekly recording.


4.5.2 HEALTH Observe the chicks a few times a day to know the situation and condition of the chicks. You can check the behaviour of the chicks in short time and pick out the unhealthy chicks. Pay attention to the sound that they produce their droppings, water and feed consumption, hygiene of the area and the quality of their feather. If vaccinations, hygiene and housing conditions are optimal, there is a lower risk on diseases. The vaccinations are already described in chapter two. Beak trimming

Table 4.4 ‘Example of weekly recording’

Week number: …………………

Number of chickens at the start of this week:

Day Date Feed in kgs AM + PM = total

Dead chickens

Calculations

1 Mon

Average bodyweight at the end of the week

2 Tue

3 Wed

Target weight

4 Thu

5 Fri

Mortality % cumulative

6 Sat

7 Sun

Feed/chicken/day

Total this week

Previous total

Feed chicken cumulative

New cumulative (Transport to next week)

Remarks:


Beak trimming can be done at all ages of the chicken, but the younger the beak trimming; the less stress is causes to the animal, but also the less effect of beak trimming. The better options are to prevent cannibalism by giving alfalfa or maize and an optimal housing for the chickens. Just beak trimming at the age of 10 days may be enough, if not; beak trimming at the age of 8-10 weeks may be practiced. Figure 4.9 'Debeaking a bird' shows how to debeak a chicken’s beak.

Figure 4.9 'Debeaking a bird'


4.8 GROWERS The modern hybrids have an incredible potential to grow. These chickens are very vulnerable and any hampering in their condition can influence the growth, mortality, production and feed consumption. Just as rearers, every day is an important day in grower production. When chickens reach the age of 7 weeks, they represents every day 2% of their life. The first week is the most important.

4.6.1 HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT The maximum stocking rate of growers is around 6 chickens per 1m² (in tropics) when they get older. The housing should have proper ventilation, prevent draught, etc. (already described in chapter three). In tropical conditions where the temperature rises above 30C˚, the maximum stocking rate depends on the weight of the chickens. If chickens are marketed at 1.4 kg (final weight), then 18-20 growers can be placed at one square meter, but if the chickens are to be marketed at 2.2 kg, 11-13 chickens is enough. Equipment for growers is limited to feeders and drinkers. The other circumstances of the housing are already described in chapter three.

4.6.2 HEALTH The hygiene, vaccinations, recoding and health care are the same as the rearers. You can find it in chapter 1-3. Water and feed consumption The water and feed equipment depends from a big part (or the whole part) of human’s care. The chickens mostly do not have the possibility to find water and feed for themselves.

Case study 4.7 Rearers

Mr. Johnson decided to buy some chicks and raise them up. He has prepared the stable for the chicks with the following things:

He has a constructed a brooder ring for 500 chicks with water, feed, heat and light. The ring is 5 square meters

The temperature is around 35 degrees at the edge of the brooders and around 28 degrees away from the brooders (2-3 meters)

The chicks get 23 hours daylight Someone is observe six times a day

Discus which things are good and which things are not good

Answer:

All things are good prepared


Water consumption In the tropics an adult chicken needs around0.5 litre of water per day, which depends on the temperature and the laying intensity. Table 4.5‘Consumption of water per 500 chickens’ shows the consumption of water per 500 chickens a day, at an environmental temperature of about 30 °C (Gietema, Bart (2005)).

Table 4.5 ’Consumption of water per 5 chickens’

Growers (8 wks) 200 litres 0,2 litre a chicken

Layers 300 litres 0,3 litre a chicken

The importance of water consumption is already explained in chapter two. Especially for growers is the water equipment very important and big part of chickens’ health. Weight Table 4.6 ‘Example of grower performance’ shows an example of growers’ performance.

Table 4.6’ Example of grower performance’

Age (weeks) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Bodyweight (g) 105 270 510 800 1100 1410 1720 2040

Feed cons. g/day 12 38 59 79 90 103 115 125

Feed conv. (cum) 0.8 1.3 1.5 1.65 1.77 1.89 2.0 2.1

4.9 LAYERS Layers may produce many marketable eggs for an extended period of time. But when problems enter the stable, the production may not reach its high level or will stop. Even when the problem is solved, the production level could be lower. This section describes the care of the layers.

4.7.1 HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT The maximum stocking rate of growers is around 6 chickens per 1m² (in tropics) when slats are not used. The housing should have proper ventilation, prevent draught, etc. (already described in chapter three).

4.7.2 HEALTH Vaccinations

Case study 4.8 Growers

The chicks of Mr. Johnson are now around 8 weeks old. They are in very good condition and very actively. Discuss what kind of circumstances there must be changed, like the space of the

chickens.

Answer: (See subchapter 4.8)


The vaccinations should be completed during the rearing period to avoid that they have to be vaccinated during the laying period. It will lead to some amount of stress and reduced egg production. If the layer is not vaccinated there will be a big risk on diseases. Health Just as the other ages, the layers should be observing a few times a day. Pay attention to the production of eggs and their behaviour in comparing to their feed and water consumption. Water and feed Clean, cool and fresh drinking water is necessary for all type of chickens. The water is required for their metabolism, but also maintains their body temperature. 500 Layers can drink about 105 litres a day when it is 20C˚, but when the temperature is 25C˚ they will drink around 120 litres, when the temperature is 30C˚ the chickens will drink around 180 litres a day. If the water is not cold enough or dirty, the chickens drink a less as possible, which can influence the production. When they drink less, they also eat less. The temperature of the water should be between 20 and 25 degrees. Check the water at least twice a day during hot days. The feed consumption will be around 125 gram a day (for one layer). When the feed composition is of poor condition, the chicken will try to eat more of the poor quality feed, they may not be able to eat up to the requirements of egg production. If you have a good quality of feed, you can feed the chickens ad libitum, but make sure they eat all the ingredients of the feed. Layers need feed with enough energy, correct proteins and vitamins and minerals. Recording The way of recording is different than rearers and growers. Table 4.7‘ Recording of layers’ on the next page shows the way of recording by layers. Clarification table:MOR = Loss of eggs / AFT = Normal eggs


Table 4.7 ‘Recording of layers’

Pen number Number of hens housed

Age in weeks Initial number of hen this week

Weeks in production Final number of hens this week

Day Date Total eggs collected 2nd Grade eggs Dead + culls

Feeds Remarks

MOR AFT Total MOR AFT Total Mash Cereal Ca

Total + + =

Sample weight eggs:………………… kg per …………… eggs Live weight hen: ……………………. Gram

Real delivered Number of eggs: …………. Second grade eggs: ………

Kg eggs: ……………….

Cumulative

Total of eggs: …………. Second grade eggs: ……… Kg eggs: ………………. Kg feed: …………………..


4.10 MEAT CHICKENS The equipment and care for the meat chickens is almost the same as laying chickens. But meat chickens grow faster than laying chickens, so the space and kind of materials that are used are different. In very good conditions can a chicken reach the weight of 2.5 kg in less than 6 weeks. Housing Meat chickens cannot be housed at a slatted floor system because of their weight. At the end of their life, they cannot walk over the slats, they are too heavy. 4 Chickens per square meter can be hold in case of a bedding material system. Feeding and watering The watering space for meat chickens is around 2.5 centimetres. The water consumption is higher than laying hens, meat chickens drink around 350-400 ml a day (by a temperature of 27C˚). Meat chickens need 10-13 cm of space by straight feeders and around 7 cm by round feeders. They also need a different kind of feed. Weight A correct body weight is very important by laying, but also by the producing of meat. In particular, meat-type and medium-size breeds tend to become too heavy during their growing period of life. The meat chickens should be weighted weekly, starting at the age of 4 weeks. Selection The following things are important by the selection of a fast growing chicken:

Early feathering Superior breast fleshing Good body size

Case study 4.9 Layers

The chickens of Mr. Johnson are around 19 weeks, so they start to produce some eggs. A few weeks later, almost every chicken is producing one egg a day (around 80%). That is a very good production for Mr. Johnson, especially for the first time from rearers to broilers. Gosa, one of the

employees of Mr. Johnson, is telling that a lot off eggs are damaged or hided. Mr. Johnson does not know what is happening, can you help him?

Answer:

There are a few possibilities: There are no laying nests

The feed of the chickens is not good enough, what influences the egg The chickens damage the eggs by their own


4.11 CHECKLIST FOR THE GROWING PERIOD

Date Actions

Week before the chicks arrive

- The housing should be cleaned en disinfected. - The disinfection room for hands, feet and clothes should be prepared - The housing should be in good condition (proper ventilation, free of rats and predators etc.)

24 hours before the chicks arrive

- Temperature should be about 35C˚ (near the heat) and not lower than 28C˚ in the whole stable. - The light intensity must be correct - The bedding material must be having a minimum depth of 5 cm.

Arrival of the chicks - Put filled drinkers with fresh, clean and cool water in position (a several hours before arrival) - Make sure of strict hygiene during the unloading job - Remove chicks from the boxes and put the chicks near to the heaters. -When immediate unboxing is impossible, prevent chicks from warmth and cold. - Provide the right light intensity

Day 1 - Check the brooding temperature (the behaviour of the chicks) - Check frequently if there is enough fresh, clean drinking water and feed. - Prevent chicks from tumbling into the feeder plates of holes in the bedding material. - Recording the day

Day 2-7 - Gradually reduce the temperature of the brooders and room - The relative humidity may range from 60-80% - Expand the brooder area gradually - Check the health and vitality of the chicks - Remove dead chicks

Second week - Gradually reduce room temperature - Remove the completely brooder guard - Start with ventilation at very low - Use additional feeders and locate the chicks a little further away from the heat source

Case study 4.10 Meat chickens The production of chicken meat is different from the production of eggs. The egg price is very

low at the moment, so Mr. Johnson decides to keep chickens for the meat production. He bought some meat chicks to let them grow as meat chickens. He is wondering what he has to

do before the chicks come. Is the stable suitable? Which other changes has to be done?

Answer: The slats should be removed; the rest is explained in subchapter 4.10


- Turn of heating (if need be) - If the morality is higher than expected, call in a specialist

Fourth week - Lower brooder temperature, if possible and necessary. - Keep humidity at the level by ventilation - Reduce the light intensity to 2.8 watt/m2 of floor area - Care for fresh, cool and clean drinking water - Check the condition of the materials and bedding material - Eliminate all chicks with deformities

Week 5-10 - Reduce the light intensity to 2.0 watt/m2 of floor area. - Check the weight of the chicks - Debeaking the chickens when cannibalism starts - Switch from chick-size to grower size grit - Start an established feeding program - Make the switch from Starter to Grower - Select breeder chickens for meat-producing chickens at week 6-8

Week 10-18 - Debeaking - Re-debeak when necessary - Be care of stresses, like debeaking, vaccination and changes in feeding - Weight the chickens


4.12 QUESTIONS True or false? (Set a cross at the right answer) True or false? True False 1 New Hampshire is an example of an meat and egg producing chicken 2 The commercial breeds can be divided into two groups 3 Usually brown eggs fetch a lower price than white eggs 4 When you buy chickens by a farmer who has unhealthy chickens, there is a

big risk that the production of the chickens is very low

5 After two weeks of laying, the good and the poor layers can be distinguished from each other.

6 One of the important thing of the selection of a farmer is: ‘Make sure that the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care’

7 Good hens are lively, interested in their environment and have the right body weight

8 Transport by truck is the best way of transport for the chickens 9 Chicks should be protected to heat during transport 10 Chick boxes are especially for chicks 11 Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens

that are inferior in appearance or production, that are sick of become sick, have to be removed from the flock

12 If you want a good quality and quantity of production of the chickens, you need first rate turkeys

13 The chicks must be cleaned and disinfected when entering the housing 14 A brooder ring with a diameter of 5 meters should not have more than 500

chicks

15 Growers feed has more metabolic energy than Starters feed 16 The temperature of the housing has to be between 32 and 34 degrees at the

level of the chicks

17 Recording should be a daily activity 18 The modern hybrids have an incredible potential to grow 19 A broiler drinks around 200 ml a day 20 Early feathering is one of the characteristics of a good egg producing

chicken

Subchapter 4.1 1. The commercial breeds can be divided into three groups, which groups are that? 2. What are experts doing with breeding and multiplication? 3. What kind of breed is not a local breed?

Subchapter 4.2 4. What kind of things are important by the selection of a farmer?


5. Mention 5 characteristics of a good hen? 6. Where can you buy good producing chickens? 7. Why is it important to make a written contract? Subchapter 4.4 8. What kind of transports are available? And what kind of transport would you choose for local transport? 9. What is culling? And what are the most common defects?

Subchapter 4.5 10. Why are the first ten days of a chicken the most important days? 11. Is it handy to buy chicks when you want to keep chickens for egg producing? Explain you motivation. 12. Why does a rearer need more metabolic energy and crude protein in their food? (In comparing to a layer) 13. Explain this picture.

Subchapter 4.6 14. When is a chicken called a ‘broiler’? (based on age) Subchapter 4.7 15. When start a layer to produce eggs?

Subchapter 4.8 16. Why can meat chickens not be hold on slatted floor systems?


CHAPTER 5 - MAINTENANCE This chapter will describe the maintenance of the materials, the hygiene of the stable, equipment and daily routines and the last subchapter will describe the ordering of food.

5.1 MAINTENANCE OF THE MATERIALS This subchapter will describe the maintenance of the materials described in chapter 3 Housing. These materials are:

- Feeding bin - Plastic bucket - Perche - Eucalyptus tree - Corrugated metal - Concrete - The mix of earth, cow excrements and teff

You can buy a feeding bin made of two different materials: plastic and metal. The plastic feeding bins will last around the 20 years, but you need to handle them with care. This means that you can’t step on them or fill them up to the edge. A metal bin lasts almost a life time, but they are really expensive to buy. This is why a plastic bin is preferred by small-scale farmers. Plastic buckets or bins can be used to provide the chickens with water. A plastic bucket will last for two weeks if you constantly fill the bucket up to the edge or when you step on it. If you handle the bucket or bin with care it can last for 20 years. This will only count when you fill the bucket for 70% and not to the edge. If you see that 70% of the bucket or bin isn’t enough to satisfy the water needs of the chickens you can do two things:

- You can buy another bin or bucket and place this one in the stable - You can fill the bucket several times a day

Both of the options are good solutions. A con is that buying a new bin cost more money than to refill the bin. A pro for buying a new bin is that it decreases the time management. Normally you would lose a lot of time filling the bin with water constantly. This time gives you room to do other stuff for the farm. A perch can last for years, but it needs to stay dry. A perch will rot when it gets wet. Make sure that the perch is placed on top of a stone so that the stick won’t touch the ground. This will help to keep the perch dry in times that the ground will get wet. A dry eucalyptus tree doesn’t rot away. If it gets wet it will only last for 1 year, because the eucalyptus tree starts to rot. To prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet, you can extend your roof. If you let your roof stick out for at least one metre. the eucalyptus tree won’t get wet. This extends the lifetime of the eucalyptus tree. The second option to prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet is to nail some corrugated metal against them. These corrugated metals are made of metal which is waterproof.


The corrugated metal that you can buy from the local markets will last between the 6-7 years. After this time the corrugated metal will starts to burst at several places which makes the corrugated metal unusable. Concrete is really expensive, but will last 100 years. This is a great solution for a good foundation, but the costs are 220 birr for 100 kilograms for a bag of concrete. You still need to mix this concrete with sand and stones to create an optimal foundation. If you don’t have the money to buy yourself concrete you can also use Red Ash (lava stones) as a foundation. These stones are cheap, strong and known for their ability to absorb moist. The last thing to lay a foundation is to put some plastic over the ground of the stable. You can put the Red Ash upon the plastic. Ground water can come up and this wets the stable. The plastic prevents this. Red Ash also absorbs moist. This helps you to prevent your stable from getting wet. You can use teff as bedding material. If you don’t have enough money to fill up the stable with teff, you can also use the soil which the stable is built on as bedding material and throw a little bit of teff on it. This promotes the natural scratching behaviour of the chicken The cheapest way to build the walls of a stable is to make a mix of earth, cow excrements and teff. You can make you stable draught free with this mix, but this mix is also incapable of standing rain. When this mix gets wet it will wash away. You can prevent this by extending you roof. If your roof sticks out for one metre the rain will drop off it without touching the walls. The roof will also protect the stable against the sunlight. Chickens don’t like to have sunlight in the stables. When the roof is extended the sunlight won’t shine into the stable. You’re creating a constantly shadow stable with this solution. The chickens prefer this. The walls also work as isolation against the heat of the sun. The walls stay cool at the inside of the stable. The heat that enters the stable can escape through the open windows in the walls. This is a cheap method to regulate the temperature in the stable.

5.2 HYGIENE On small-scale chicken farms young and old birds will be kept together. As old birds pass on diseases to younger chicks, it will be difficult to get rid of contagious diseases. For more commercial-oriented farms it is advisable to break each cycle of infection by applying the all-in-all-out principle. This means that after every period of production, all chickens need to get rid of and be replaced, after thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting everything.

Case study 5.1 Maintenance of the materials

You got a great stable build of eucalyptus tree, corrugated metal and a mix of earth, cow excrements and teff. Every time that it rains the stable gets completely wet. Is this good or

bad? How can you prevent it?

Answer: If your roof sticks out for 1 metre the rain will drip of it without touching the walls. The roof

will also protect the stable against the sunlight. Chickens don’t like to have sunlight in the stables. When the roof is extended the sunlight won’t shine into the stable. You’re creating a

constantly shadow stable with this solution. The chickens prefer this.


Refresh the water several times a day, if possible (at least once a day).. This is to keep high quality water for the chickens. If you look at the water and you wouldn’t want to drink it yourself because it’s so dirty, than the water is of a poor quality and it needs to be refreshed. You can put a drop of chloride in the water. This drop terminates bacteria’s and parasites that live in the water. This means that the water is now sterile. Don’t use this method every time you refresh the water. If you use this method every time the chickens will be incapable of developing an immune system. Use this method not more than once every two weeks. You can determine the quality of the drinking water in a laboratory. The criteria of quality water are:

- It needs to be clear (limpid), without smell, colour or sediment - pH needs to be between the 5 and 8 - Hardness: hard water contains various calcium and magnesium salts. In itself hard water is

not harmful for chickens, but it may influence the functioning of the water equipment. Hard water in combination with a high sulphate level can cause diarrhoea.

- Iron: maximum 1 mg/litre. High levels may affect drugs such as tetracycline and sulpha drugs and may affect the functioning of valves and nipple drinkers. The problem with high levels of iron, calcium and magnesium, in particular for vaccinations and drug supply, may be overcome by adding dried skim milk to the water.

The bedding material of the stable is recyclable. It’s not necessary to clean up the bedding material before the chickens reach an age of 90 weeks. You need to clean the bedding material after the 90 weeks (when you sold all the chickens), but don’t throw the bedding material away. Clean up the bedding material and disinfection it. After you’ve done that the bedding material can be fed as concentrate to the horses, cows and donkeys. You can only use this bedding material as long as all the chickens were healthy for the full 90 weeks. If a chicken got a disease and you feed the bedding material to your horse, cow or donkey you can transport that disease to them. This will make them sick and not suitable for work for a period of time. This period will end when the animals recover of the sickness. The second option for the bedding material is to use it as a fertilizer for your soil. You can make your soil fertile by fertilizing it with the bedding material.

5.2.1 HYGIENE PLANS It’s very important to keep the chance of infection by contacts with sources of infection to a minimum. Germs can be spread via animals and via people. Infection is also possible through contact with infected objects such as crates or cars. Remember that feed and dirty drinking water can also carry germs. A thorough cleaning out and disinfection of the stable and equipment is very important parts of your disease control (prevention) programme. There are a few terms that need to be followed:

- As soon as the last bird is sold, clean the stables. Don’t leave them dirty, even if you aren’t putting in new birds straight away. This helps to avoid a build-up of disease, which could transfer to other houses.

- Take out all the feeders, drinker and other equipment. Wash and disinfect them. Let the feeders and drinkers lie in the disinfectant for a few hours.

- Remove all old bedding material from the floor. You can either give it as concentrate for your horses, cows or donkeys or you can use it as a fertilizer for your soil. /don’t leave it near the chicken houses.

- Then use a good disinfectant to clean the whole house. Make sure that the disinfectant gets into the cracks. Check with your poultry supplier which is the best disinfectant to use as these changes from time to time.


- Leave the stable empty for at least 7-10 days after the cleaning. This gives time to the organisms that kill the diseases.

By cleaning thoroughly, we can remove 99% of all pathogens. When we do it poorly, the usefulness of our work is low; there is little difference between poor cleaning and not cleaning at all, hence is poor cleaning is a waste of effort. After cleaning comes disinfection; disinfection without perfection has generally little sense. If you want to place new, bought stock with your own hens, it’s a good idea to keep the new bird separated for some time. If a contagious disease appears, the change of infection will be less than if you immediately place the new birds with the old stock.

5.2.2 CONTROL OF PESTS Be aware of pests. Pests can eat your natural materials. To prevent the pests form eating you can impregnate the materials with gasoil or insecticide. Some predators eat chickens and eggs. These animals can transfer mutable diseases. Some examples of these predators are:

- Hawks - Owls - Cats - Hyena’s - Rats - Snakes - Etcetera

A way to protect you stable against the entering of the predators is to cover all openings with 13 mm wire mesh. Rat and mice eat the chicken feed in the stables. You might not notice them, because they mainly eat at night. There are a few ways to get rid of rats and mice:

- You can bait them with poison and trap them - Or you can lock a cat up in the stable to catch them, but be aware with cats. A cat is a

predator and can also hunt and catch your chickens

5.2.3 ROUTINE CHECK Daily health control You need to inspect the flock of chickens at least twice a day. When you inspect the flock it is necessary to observe them:

- At behaviour, appearance of flock and individual birds, if necessary examination - You need to control the intake (feed and water) - You need to control the output (production, excrements, dead birds)

Animal care (daily) Below is a check-list for the daily routine check upon the health of the flock:

- Clean water - Clean feed (no old feed rests)


- Temperature, ventilation, air composition - Bedding, manure disposal, fly control - Immediate separation of weak and sick birds - Execution of treatments - Reporting abnormalities immediately

Routine administration (daily) You need to keep your administration up-to-date. This means that you need to register daily:

- Feed consumption (including grit, shell, green plants) - Water consumption (a change in water consumption is often a warning) - Production - Mortality - Incidents

You can make an easy table like table 5.1 ‘Administration’. This table is an example of an administration table for feed consumption. You can use this table for all the administration points, but you need to make one table per point. Table 5.1 ‘Administration’

Chicken stable Measure Deviation + explanation

1 1 kg No

2 1 kg No

3 500 grams Yes, too little feed is being consumed

You also need to register periodical activities such as:

- Vaccinations - Preparation related to reception, delivery and transport of the birds - Routine checks of (ecto)parasites once a month

Every four weeks Of each flock a minimum of five birds should be inspected. If a bird is found positive, inspection can stop and treatment has to start as soon as possible. Inspect the chickens preferably outside and in broad daylight. Op the feathers cover by blowing and by fingers. Birds with ectoparasites often have much dirt and dust inside their feather cover. Look everywhere and give special attention to the hind part of the back, the surrounding of the vent, under the wings and to places with broken or rough feathers. Look for quick- and slow moving lice and mites and for their eggs, deposited singly or in clusters on the feathers or on their base. Mites can be found moving on collected eggs.


Case study 5.2 Hygiene

You just sold out your last chicken yesterday. Today is the day that you would like to clean your stable. The chickens have been in perfect health for the last 10 weeks, but were sick in

the first weeks when they arrived. What should you do with the bedding material?

Answer: You can only use this bedding material as long as all the chickens were healthy for the full 90

weeks. If a chicken got a disease and you feed the bedding material to your horse, cow or donkey you can transport that disease to them. This will make them sick and not suitable for

work for a period of time. This period will end when the animals recover of the sickness.


5.3 FEED Feed is one of the most important subjects of treatment of chickens. Feed consists mainly at:

Vitamins Minerals Energy Protein Water

5.6.1 VITAMINS Chickens need small quantities of vitamins to have a long and healthy life. Vitamins are important for the chickens to defend itself from diseases. The overdosed vitamins will leave the body with the faeces so it won’t harm the chicken. Vitamins can be found in all types of fresh fruits, seeds and plants. To give the chicken all the vitamins he needed, variation in seeds and fruit is required. Vitamin and mineral supplements are added to the complete feed.

5.6.2 MINERALS The chicken needs a small amount of minerals. In the first stadia of the chick, it’s important to get enough minerals for the construction of bones and feathers. Getting enough minerals is essential when the chicken starts to produce eggs. Enough minerals will result in good shells and strong eggs. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorus for the producing of eggs. These minerals can be found in eggshells, bones and lime. Another way to collect minerals is to collect bones from slaughtered animals. Burn them above the fire until they become soft. It makes it easier to crush them. The created powder can be fed to the chickens. Feed it in small quantities. Never mix more than 1 tin of kimbo to 25 tons of other feed. A laying hen needs 3 g Ca. per day. This means that the feed should contain about 2.2% of Ca. generally speaking, to be on the safe side, the Ca. content of the feed of laying hens should be about 3.3%.

5.6.3 ENERGY The most important source is energy. Without energy the chicken can’t produce anything. There are a lot of products that contains energy. Energy can be found in all kind of grains: maize, sorghum, wheat, rice, etc. Energy and can also be found in crop by-products like maize bran, rice bran, millet bran etc. Another big energy source is all kind of root crops like cassava, potatoes, yams and the kitchen left-overs. Fats have a high energy value. Fat can be added to the grower rations, to improve the feed conversation rate.

5.6.4 PROTEIN Chickens need a highly protein in their ration, because chickens cannot make amino-acids themselves. Protein is made up of about 20 different amino-acids. Of this acids, 10 should always be present in poultry feed. Protein can also be found in natural ingredients. The natural ingredients are certain kind of seeds like beans, cow peas, grams, etc. some plants are also useful for protein. Cowpea leaves, cassava leaves and leuceanna leaves. There are another ways to get protein for your


chickens. The collected blood from a slaughtered animal contains a lot of protein. Mix the blood with a teaspoon of salt and cook it for 5 minutes. Let it dry-up in the sun after cooking, or example on an iron-sheet. Never mix more than 1/21 with mixture. The chickens don’t like the taste of blood. Stock it for 14 days at max, no longer! Insect also contain a lot of protein. Collect insects like termites, worms, and ants. The chickens like it a lot. Another way of getting bugs is to produce a compost heap. This will attract them.

5.6.5 WATER The water consumption varies per type of chicken. The range is between the 0.25-0.75 litres a day. An important factor is the temperature; the water should be clean, fresh and clear. Be sure that you provide your chickens with enough water. Table 5.2 ‘Water consumption’ shows the amount of water a chicken need for one day.

Table 5.2 ‘Water consumption’

Type of chicken and sex Water consumption/chicken/day

Temperature of the housing 16 degrees 27 degrees 38 degrees

Leghorn pullet and roosters 0.22 litre 0.28 litre 0.56 litre

Medium size pullet 0.24 litre 0.30 litre 0.60 litre

Medium size roosters 0.25 litre 0.32 litre 0.63 litre

Meat-type pullet 0.27 litre 0.34 litre 0.67 litre

Meat-type roosters 0.31 litre 0.38 litre 0.75 litre

To make sure that the water is suitable, you can add 1 ml chlorine for each 10 litres water. It won’t harm your chickens and the water will stay clean of diseases. The egg of a chicken consists for 60% of water. Clean water will give better eggs. You must refresh the water at least once a day or if it’s possible, twice a day. This will keep your chickens healthy.

5.4 ORDERING FEED After a period of time you need to order some food. The easiest way to buy food is at the AKF factory in Debre Zeyt. This is a quality factory which provides you of quality food for your animals. AKF delivers the food from an amount of 100.000 kilograms. If you want an amount that is lesser than 100.000 kilograms, you can go to the Alema sales centre located in Debre Zeyt. You can get any amount of food you want. AKF and the Alema sales centre sell the food for exactly the same price. 100 kilograms of layer phase 2 feed will cost around the 820 birr. This means that 1 kilogram of food costs 8.20 birr.

Case study 5.3 Feed

Jerry gets some water from the lake. He gives this water directly to his chickens. One week later, the chickens become ill. What makes the chickens ill?”

Answer:

The water from the lake could be the reason that the chickens become ill. He can add a little bit of chloride to the water to prevent the chickens from becoming ill.


A chicken eats around the 125 grams a day and drinks around the 250 millilitre water a day. So if you have 100 chickens the chickens will eat 12,500 grams of food a day, which is the same as 12.5 kilograms of food a day. This means that you will need to buy 100 kilograms of food every 8 days (12.5 kilogram a day / 100 kilogram of food = 8 days). Make sure that when you get your order of food that you immediately make another order at the factory. At this way you can never have a shortage in feed at your farm. It can occur that the factory can’t deliver your order at time. This can create the fact that you’re short in food. A shortage in food at your farm has a negative effect on the production of the animals. Every village has its own advice centre. This is a centre where you can ask for advice when you don’t know what to do anymore with you chickens and the feeding of them. So when a disease, parasites or even a shortage in food occurs you can ask the advice centre for help and they will provide you of help. This is an extra tip to maintain your business at all times.

Case study 5.3 Husbandry systems

You just started your farm and you are wondering how much food your chickens will eat. You have a saving that is enough to buy 150 chickens. A chicken eats 125 grams a day. 100

kilograms of feed costs 820 birr. This means that 1 kilogram costs 8.20 birr. How much food do you need to buy at a monthly basis? How much does the monthly feeding costs? One

month contains 30 days.

Answer: 125 grams x 150 chickens = 18.750 gram of food a day. 18.750 grams = 18.75 kilograms of

feed a day. One month contains 30 days. 18.75 kilogram x 30 days = 562.5 kilograms of food a month.

100 kilogram of feed costs 820 birr.

562.5 kilograms / 100 kilograms a bag = 5.625 bags, this means that we need 6 bags of feed. 6 x 820 birr = 4.920 birr a month.


5.5 QUESTIONS

True or False? (Set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 A wet perch doesn’t rot away X 2 The pH for quality water needs to be between the 5 and 8 X 3 Quality water needs to contain sediment X 4 Controlling the intake is a example of the animal care routine X Subchapter 5.1 1. How long does a plastic water bucket or bin last? 2. How can you make sure that a perch is kept dry? 3. How can you prevent eucalyptus tree from getting wet? Subchapter 5.2 4. How can you maintain a high quality of water? 5. What can you do with the bedding material that’s collected by the cleaning of the stable? 6. Why is a thorough cleaning so important? 7. What do you need to do when you want to place a new bought rooster to the flock? 8. How can you protect your stable from the entering of predators? 9. What are the daily routine tasks? 10. What are the tasks that the daily routines consist of? Subchapter 5.3 11. What does feed mainly consists of? 12. Where can you find vitamins? 13. Why is it important to get enough minerals? Subchapter 5.4 14. What amount does a chicken eat and drink a day? 15. When do you need to order new feed? 16. Where do you go if you don’t know what to do anymore?


CHAPTER 6 - OUTFLOW This chapter will contain the information about selling the eggs and chickens. In the end, this is what it’s all about. Doing business and make money out of your poultry.

6.1 THE EGG This subchapter will describe how to check the eggs, how to sort them, how to reflect on the health of the chicken, how to store the eggs and how to sell them.

6.1.1 CHECK THE EGGS As a local farmer, you can collect the eggs with a plastic basket. You can buy these baskets for a low price at every street corner. It’s best to pick a strong one without any bursts. Figure 6.1 shows an example of a plastic basket. It’s very important to have good feed with at least 10% chalk in it. When you collect the eggs, it’s important they don’t break and you are able to fill the basket to the edge. That means the eggs are strong enough and they have a strong shell. When you doubt about an egg, whether it’s rotten or not, you can check this by filling a cup of water and put the egg in it. When it will flow to the edge, it’s rotten. This effect is caused by the accumulation of gas in the egg itself.

Figure 6.1 Plastic basket

6.1.2 SORT THE EGGS When you have broken or rotten eggs, it’s necessary to collect these eggs separately and destroy these eggs immediately. At this way you can prevent good eggs mixed with broken or rotten eggs and you will keep your customers satisfied. You can sort the eggs at colour and seize (eggs native of young or older chickens), but it’s not necessary. For example, you can do this by using boxes for bigger eggs and boxes for smaller eggs. This is shown in figure 6.2 ‘Bigger and smaller eggs’. (on the next page).


Figure 6.2 Bigger and smaller eggs

6.1.3 REFLECT ON THE HEALTH OF THE CHICKEN When a chicken is bold and don’t have many feathers, this means the chicken is a good laying hen, as shown in figure 6.4. All of its energy goes to its eggs. This is a good sign. When you will see a beautiful, good feathered chicken (shown in figure 6.3), you know it’s not laying eggs. These chickens will not produce something for your company. You can decide to sell these chickens for their flesh. Table 6.1 will tell more about the differences between productive and unproductive chickens.

Table 6.1 A productive or an unproductive chicken?

Trait Productive chicken Unproductive chicken

General condition Lively Dull Weight Good Usually fairly light

Wattle and comb Soft; bright red Pale and rough

Eyes Lively Dull; yellow rims

Pigment ( yellow breeds) Disappears Stays longer

Cloacae Large, soft, moist Shrivelled, dry

Distance between lay bones Large ( 5 cm) Small ( 2 cm)

Distance between breastbone and lay bones

Large ( 8 cm) Small ( 4 cm)

Skin Soft, loose Skin

Figure 6.3 Young, not laying hens

Figure 6.4 Older, egg laying hens


6.1.4 STORE THE EGGS When eggs are stored right, you can be sure that your eggs are of good quality. Temperature The best way to store the eggs is by storing them in proper egg trays at an average temperature of 24 degrees. It’s important to keep them cool, but it’s not recommended to cool them in a refrigerator. This is because when transporting the eggs, they will sweat of the high temperatures outside. At this way the eggs will rot more quickly and will be sticky. Other circumstances Beside the right temperature, it’s important to store the eggs at a sun free, dry place. Sunlight isn’t good for the chickens, but it isn’t good for the eggs either. Under the right circumstances, you can store the eggs up to three or four weeks. After this period of time they have to be sold.

6.1.5 SELL THE EGGS For selling eggs or chickens it’s important to have some interested personal contacts. When you are registered, you can sell the eggs to personal contacts, the market, hotels, restaurants, local shops or at your own shop. Hotels, shops and restaurants often need a receive with a VAT number and other data of your business. When you are not registered, you can sell the eggs at your own shop, the local market or to personal contacts. Price The price of eggs is variable. It’s important to check the prices at your local concurrent or to go check the market. At some periods of time people are fasting. For example; orthodox people fast in the time before eastern. There are more eggs available than the people of the district want. There is more to offer than needed. You will have to respond on the supply and demand and adapt the price on it.

Case study 6.1 Sell the eggs

As a fresh started local farmer, you are ready to sell your first eggs. Some family and friends recommend selling your eggs on the market. You decide to sell the eggs for 2,5 birr an egg.

When you’ve had your first day at the market, you notice that you didn’t sell all of your eggs. In fact, you didn’t even sell 50% of them. What went wrong?

Answer:

The reason why you didn’t sell as much eggs as possible is because you should’ve checked the market prices first. You have to adapt the prices of the eggs on the market and your concurrent, because you are not the only one who is selling eggs. The prices of eggs are

variable. So you can’t decide the prices of your eggs before you have checked the market.


6.2 THE CHICKEN This subchapter will describe when a chicken is ready for selling, how much money you can ask for a non- producing chicken, how to sell it and what to do when the old chickens are gone and new chickens arrive.

6.2.1 A NON- PRODUCING CHICKEN When a chicken is about 90 weeks old, it’s not laying eggs anymore. They are now useless for your business. When they have arrived to this stage, it’s time to sell them for their flesh, for example for eastern, Christmas or New Year. Price For one non- producing chicken, you can ask up to 70 birr, as shown in figure 6.5 on the next page. This will depend on your customer and the personal relationship with this particular person. It also depends on the market. You will have to respond on the supply and demand and adapt the price on it.

6.2.2. SELL A NON- PRODUCING CHICKEN For selling chickens it’s most important to have some interested personal contacts like family, neighbours or friends. You could also try to sell them on the market. Most chickens are sold alive.

6.2.3 HYGIENIC During the support of the chicken, you don’t have to refresh the ground cover. Faeces of the chicken dry very quick and bacteria have no chance to grow. Because of that it’s not necessary to clean the ground cover. But when the old chickens are sold and the new chickens arrive, you will have to refresh the whole ground cover, considering hygienic matters. For cleaning water stations, feed stations and egg stations you can easily use some chloride mixed with water. Figure 6.6 shows an example of cleaning.

Figure 6.5 Price of a chicken


Figure 6.6 Cleaning

Case study 6.2 Buy new chickens

You’re going to buy some new laying hens (over 20 weeks old) at a local farmer. Your friend is going with you. When he sees the hens, he recommends you to pick the best looking ones. They

look like good feathered and beautiful chickens. Will you take his advice? Why (not)?

Answer: No, because good looking, beautiful and good feathered laying hens don’t lay any eggs. They are beautiful because their energy is going to their feathers and appearance, and not to their

eggs. Normally, good laying hens are a little bit bold and don’t look much feathered. All of their energy should be going to their eggs. So it’s best to pick healthy looking, but not too beautiful

and good feathered hens.


6.3 QUESTIONS Subchapter 6.1 The egg

1. Is the egg in the glass above rotten or not? (Circle the right answer and explain your answer) A) Yes B) No

2. This basket is filled to the edge. Why is this a good sign?


3. Can you store the eggs (as shown in the picture above) like this for a longer period of time? Explain your answer ? 4. Write down 3 different options to sell your eggs

4. The picture above is an example of: A) Sorting the eggs B) Checking the eggs C) Reflect on the health of the chicken 5. Fill in the right circumstances to store the eggs: Temperature: Surrounding: Light: Storing period:


Subchapter 6.2 The chicken

6. Is this chicken (as shown in the picture above) producing eggs? Explain your answer.

7. Fill in the right price on the 8. Write down 3 different options to sell your chickens to


9. Fill in the right terms at the right colom by using the 18 characteristics below.

Trait Unproductive Productive General condition Weight Wattle and comb Eyes Pigment ( yellow breeds) Cloacae Distance between lay bones Distance between breastbone and lay bones

Skin

1. Lively 2. Dull 3. Good 4. Usually fairly light 5. Soft; bright red 6. Pale and rough 7. Lively 8. Dull; yellow rims 9. Disappears 10. Stays longer 11. Large, soft moist

12. Shrivelled, dry 13. Large ( 5 cm) 14. Small ( 2 cm) 15. Large ( 8 cm) 16. Small ( 4 cm) 17. Soft, loose 18. Skin


CHAPTER 7 - BUSINESS This chapter will contain information about the aspects of doing business and how to make your poultry successful. This means there will be information about the egg production, the marketing, the registration and identification of the eggs and chickens, networking and working together, customer friendliness, the logistics and last but not least; the financial aspects.

7.1 EGG PRODUCTION This subchapter will describe the egg production of a chicken. How many eggs will be produced on one day, week or month? And how much eggs can one chicken produce in its life? A chicken starts laying eggs when it’s about 20 weeks old. It’s recommended to buy a chicken at that age, so you don’t have to wait until it will lay eggs. When a chicken is about 90 weeks old, it will stop laying eggs. The total time a chicken lays eggs is about 70 weeks. A chicken will lay about 300 eggs a lifetime, with the average of one egg a day, or 80 %, as shown in figure 7.1 ‘A quick overview’.

Table 7.1 ‘A quick overview’

Starts laying eggs About 20 weeks

Stops laying eggs About 90 weeks

Total of weeks About 70 weeks

Eggs a lifetime About 300 eggs Average a day One egg or 80%

For example, you have a poultry farm of 250 egg laying hens. A hen lays about one egg a day, but the average percentage is about 80%. Not every hen will lay one egg a day, so 80% is an average number to calculate with. 250/100 x 80 = 200 eggs. Every day you are able to collect about 200 eggs. This will be 7 x 200 = 1,400 eggs a week. One month contains 30 days, so you are able to collect 200x 30 = 6,000 eggs a month. Table 7.2 ‘A short overview’ shows a short overview of the calculation steps. Figure 7.1 ‘One egg a day’’ on the next page shows an example of a saying.

Table 7.2 ‘A short overview’

Egg laying hens 250

Average a day About one egg a chicken

Average percentage a day 80 %

Eggs able to collect a day 250 hens / 100 % x 80 % = 200 eggs

Eggs able to collect a week 200 eggs x 7 days = 1,400 eggs

Eggs able to collect a month 200 eggs x 30 days = 6,000 eggs

Eggs able to collect a year 200 eggs x 365 days = 73,000 eggs


7.2 MARKETING This subchapter will describe the marketing. What is marketing? How do you know if there is market for your products? How can you get customers to buy your eggs and not your neighbours’? And how do you earn your place into the market?

7.2.1 WHAT IS MARKETING? What is marketing? It is a broad concept. Marketing means: all of the activities that will bring the seller and the buyer together. The ultimate goal of market focused businesses is to adapt on the wishes and needs of their customers. They are constantly trying to place their self’s into their customers, instead of focussing on the products. They are used to think back from the market itself. Marketing creates a bridge between production and consumption. You can see the market position of eggs and chickens in the Bostonmatrix. The Bostonmatrix is a matrix where you can place the product in. There are four different levels. These levels are based on the market share of the product (the percentage of the sale on the market which the business is responsible for) and the yearly growth of the market.

Case study 7.1 Fill in the right terms

A chicken ….. laying eggs when it’s about ….. weeks old. It’s recommended to buy a chicken at that age, so you don’t have to wait until it will lay eggs. When a chicken is about ….. weeks old, it will ….. laying eggs. The total time a chicken lays eggs is about ….. weeks. A chicken will lay about ….. eggs

a lifetime, with the average of …… egg a day, or ….. %.

Answer: A chicken starts laying eggs when it’s about 20 weeks old. It’s recommended to buy a chicken at that age, so you don’t have to wait until it will lay eggs. When a chicken is about 90 weeks old, it

will stop laying eggs. The total time a chicken lays eggs is about 70 weeks. A chicken will lay about 300 eggs a lifetime, with the average of one egg a day, or 80 %.

Figure 7.1 One egg a day


Cash Cow The product has a relatively high market share and the market is growing less than 10 percent each year. The product doesn’t need much investment anymore. Stars The product has a relatively high market share and the market is growing fast. The product will ensure fast money, but does need much marketing compared with cash cows, dogs and question marks. Dogs The product has a relatively low market share and the market hardly grows. Dogs don’t really bring much money into the business, but they also don’t need much investment. Question marks The product has a relativity low market share in a fast growing market. Sometimes they are also called ‘problem child’ or ‘wildcats’. These products need a lot of investment and won’t bring much money into the business. Organisations will have to question themselves if they want to support these products much longer. Figure 7.2 ‘The Bostonmatrix’ on the next page shows an example of the Bostonmatrix.

Figure 7.2 The Bostonmatrix

Table 7.3 ‘Market form’ shows the characteristics of the market form of chickens and eggs.


When there are for example many suppliers and also much demand, the market form is a polypoly. Everyone is selling your product.

7.2.2 MARKETING IN ETHIOPIA Personal contacts are also very important with marketing. Especially because you will mostly be selling to local customers. Make sure you have local contacts and get to know your market. If you want to know if there is market for your eggs, you can start with something simple, like testing the market.

Wethli (1999 p. 15) says this about testing the market:

You buy 6 weeks old chickens and try to resell them as quick as possible. Try this with personal contacts, a roadside stall or taxi rank, any place where people are passing. Once you bought the six week old chickens, you are ready to sell to your first customers. The best time to do this is at the end of the month, when people have the most money. Tell your customers exactly when the chickens will be coming and try to find enough customers to place orders for all your chickens before they even arrive. You must be able to sell them quickly. After selling, you must answer these questions:

Where you able to get the price you wanted? If not, why not? How many chickens did you sell? Do you think you’d be able to sell more? Where there extra costs in selling, things you hadn’t thought of when you worked out the

feasibility costs? How much money did you spend on buying the chickens, including the transport? How much money did you receive from sales? Did you make a profit? How much was it?

You can do the same marketing test with eggs. Once you have answered these questions, and you have noticed there is a market for it in your area; you are able to start your business. Now you have to earn your place into the market and people will have to get to know your business. Then, the most important things to do are:

Know your customers. Who are you selling to? Who else is selling the same products? Get to know your concurrent Know your market. What are the prices? Respond on it. Be honest and true to your customers. Don’t mix good eggs with bad eggs.

Table 7.3 ‘Market form’

Characteristics Monopoly Oligopoly Polypoly

Supplier One Some Many

Demand Many Many Many


Make sure you deliver quality. When people are satisfied with the quality of your eggs, they will tell it to other people and your eggs will be noticed

Pick a name. When your eggs are being noticed, the people must know that are your eggs. For example: people in local shops will ask for ‘Maranatha eggs’ or ‘Genesis eggs’

Build a reputation. Now that you have named your eggs and they are being noticed, it’s important to keep the good reputation and to ensure the quality of your eggs.

Make sure you show the certificate of the training you followed. This is another advantage against your concurrent. Trough this, your customers will notice you are qualified and you know what you are talking about.

Of course it’s also possible to make some advertisement, for example posters. You can hang them in local shops or crowded places. You could also use a board with ‘ for sale: eggs’ and put it in front of your farm, so people notice you have a shop, this is shown in figure 7.3 ‘Advertisement’. Everything is possible when you have a budget for it, but you have to compare the price with the effects. When it’s not effective enough, then it’s not worth your money to go through with it.

Figure 7.3 Advertisement


7.3 REGISTRATION AND IDENTIFICATION This subchapter will describe the registration and identification of chickens and eggs. How can you register new coming chickens? And how do you manage the outflow of eggs and non- producing chickens?

7.3.1 REGISTRATION OF EGGS It’s important to register the eggs. You can do this as easy as possible. When you are not registered, there is no control on it. But for you it’s useful to know the egg production a day. At this way you are able to control the egg production, the egg laying hens and maybe you will notice changes or diseases. The easiest way to register the eggs is by using a chalk board or egg calendar. It’s important to think very logical. Note the egg production a day, the number of hens you have, feed consumption per hen and deaths or other disasters (Twinch, p. 47) At the end of one month you can compare the different findings and maybe you will notice some changes. You can also note the date you’ve bought new food, how much green food is available, some reparations that still have to be done and other findings. When selling the eggs, you can note in a separate book to who you sold them and in what numbers. At this way you are able to register your biggest and most important customers and you can manage the inflow and outflow of eggs yourself in an easy, logical way.

Case study 7.2 Marketing

Keta has just started a poultry farm and is ready to sell his first eggs. He doesn’t have much money to spend, so he decides to make his own chicken food. He can’t store his eggs for too long, because he

doesn’t have enough storing space, but he doesn’t think this will be a problem. After 2 months, Keta starts noticing that his eggs are not of very good quality. Some hens produce good eggs, but some

produce eggs without a shell. He doesn’t have enough eggs to keep up with the demand. Keta decides to mix the good eggs with some half rotten eggs he has left from earlier weeks. Because he hasn’t have

enough storing space, he can’t store the eggs properly. Do you think Keta will keep his customers? And do you think he will build a good reputation? Why

(not)?

Answer: Keta has to make things in order first. He needs more storing space, so he can store the eggs properly. At this way, he can’t store enough eggs and he can’t keep them from rotting. On the other hand, he has to check the quality of the food he makes. Because his hens aren’t doing very well on it. When the food is not good, the hens will produce less eggs or eggs of lower quality. When he will mix good eggs with

bad or rotten eggs, his customers will notice and will not be satisfied. At this way he will lose customers and will not getting new one, because people will tell other people about the bad quality of

his eggs. He will not build a good reputation. He has to stay honest and true about his products and only sell good eggs. Maybe he can’t keep up with the demand, but in this case, selling ‘no’ is better that

giving customers bad or rotten eggs.


7.3.2 REGISTRATION OF CHICKENS When new chickens are arriving, it can be useful to also note this. Again, it’s important to think logical. You can use for example a notebook. You can note where they came from, the number of them, on which date they arrived and the age of the chickens. In small businesses, it’s not necessary to identificate chickens, like shown in figure 7.4 ‘Identification of chickens is not necessary’. Overall, it’s also not common on bigger farm too. When chickens leave, you can do exactly the same. You can note the date they left, their age and the number of chickens you’ve sold. You could also note to who you sold them and in what numbers. At this way you can manage the inflow and outflow of chickens yourself in an easy, logical way.

Figure 7.4 Identification of chickens is not necessary


7.4 NETWORKING AND WORKING TOGETHER This subchapter will describe the advantage of working together with another business, how to create a win- win situation and to how to create a healthy relationship with your concurrent.

7.4.1 NETWORKING What is networking? Networking is making contacts with other companies and build your own contact list. These contacts will help you with fixing problems at your company, and maybe they will even become a partner. It will help you and it will simplify your life. Networking has a lot of advantages. The five most important advantages are:

1. It’s easier to have access to knowledge and expertise. The threshold to call someone for advice who is in your network is lower

2. You will learn to work more effective and more efficient. The time to get the right person by yourself is much shorter

3. You are reaching your goal faster. People who are networking will make promotion more early and will make more profit

4. It gives less stress. You are helping people and they are helping you more quickly 5. It will give you a good feeling. People will know you are helping them and will ask for your

advice more often.

7.4.2 WORKING TOGETHER What is the definition of working together? Working together is balancing between the advantages and the risks. For example, when you can’t do something alone, you can get more innovative or more accomplished by working with someone else. On the other side you are building a dependency with that other party. Together you must search to the optimal balance between the advantages and the risks of working together. Together you are stronger. You will create a synergetic effect by working together. Maybe it doesn’t seem like it, but it’s very important to have some good contacts you can always count on. Table 7.4 ‘Overview of advantages and risks’ on the next page shows an overview of the possible advantages and risks of working together.

Case study 7.3 Rats?

Keta now has his things in order. After 2 more months, he notices that much food is disappearing. He

thinks maybe there are rats in the food storage. How can he make sure that it’s really a rat problem?

Answer: By recording the grams in food a day and the egg production a day, he can make sure it’s not another

problem, like diseases or low quality food. At this way he can see how much food the chickens eat and how much eggs they produce. He can register this on a chalk board or egg calendar, for example.


Some examples of advantages in Ethiopia: Making price ranges with partners; like with the supplier of your chickens, Trade your goods with goods you need from your partner, create a win- win situation, Categorize; like doing different researches and exchange the information, Discuss marketing strategies, make sure you’re doing something else and make sure you

compete, Explore the market together, together you will notice more than alone.

7.4.3 DEFINITION OF A WIN- WIN SITUATION Creating a win- win situation means; you are creating a situation that creates a win for both partners. You both have something to offer that the other one needs. You both have an advantage of it. This definition is also explained in figure 7.5 ‘A win- win situation’ on the next page.

7.4.4 RISKS OF WORKING TOGETHER Of course, there are always risks. Some examples of risks:

Problems with communication, Different point of view, Bankruptcy of your partner/ suddenly standing alone, Sometimes you will be depending on the progress of your partner.

Table 7.4 Overview of advantages and risks

Aspect Advantages Risks

Education Learning from each other Sharing own knowledge with the risk of losing it

Responsibility More people or parties are carrying the responsibility

People or companies are hiding behind each other, abdicate of responsibility

Synergy Consummate of each other’s capacity Dependency from both parties and the possibility to lose speed

Conflicts Source of ideas for improvement Losing time or running away from problems to keep the peace

Movement Through combinations will commence new dynamics and movement and there will commence ways to avoid the weak chains.

There will commence new weak chains that will influence the speed

Volume of work

You can quarter the work and avoid double work.

Extra communication and control is needed, considering the volume of work

Harmony Group feeling and the accessory energy Loss of autonoom handling


7.5 CUSTOMER FOCUS AND CUSTOMER FRIENDLINESS This subchapter will describe how to treat your customers. What is customer friendliness and how can you apply this? You can relate this subchapter mostly with subchapter 7.2 Marketing. In that subchapter it’s described how to earn your place into the market and how you can get customers to buy your eggs and not your neighbours’. This is very relatable to customer friendliness and customer focus. Without customers, you won’t be able to sell anything. It’s the most important part of your business.

7.5.1 WHAT IS CUSTOMER FRIENDLINESS? The Dutch encyclopaedia says that definition of customer focus is: ‘Giving a high priority to the

satisfaction of your customers or intern employees, and to give service or help and to act on it.’

Case study 7.4 Partnership

A friend of yours is also starting a poultry farm. You’ve know him for a very long time and you fully trust him. Because of the training, you know how to make good food. Your friend doesn’t know as much about food as you and has trouble to make his own quality food. On the other

hand, he knows a lot about housing and is able to make a good housing for his chickens. You are having trouble with building a good housing for your chickens. Do you think you could create a

win- win situation? Why (not)?

Answer: The situation in this case is the perfect example of creating a win- win situation. You should trade your knowledge about food with your friend’s knowledge of housing. Maybe you could

make an arrangement: you deliver him food and he will build your stable/ housing. At this way you both have an advantage of it.

Figure 7.5 A win- win situation


According to Patrick Schriel (2012), there are several tips you can follow to keep your customer satisfaction high: Tip 1 It’s not about you; it’s about your customer. If you talk about yourself and your product a lot, you will miss the essence of the conversation. It’s important to ask the right questions, so the customer will notice you understand what he or she is saying and you can provide the best possible solution. Tip 2 Give your customer the best possible service. Treat your customers like you want to be treated. Give your customers the best possible service and attention they deserve. Giving them attention, listening to them, a smile and understanding are the key words. Tip 3 Can you provide in your customers needs? Everyone has their own character, personality and personal style. Try to replace yourself in the experience your customer. In that way your customer feels that he or she is taken seriously and will be triggered to do business with you the next time. Tip 4 Call your customer by their name. When it’s possible, note your customers’ name and use theirs in a conversation. At this way you make the conversation way more personal. Tip 5 Be honest. You can be friendly to your consumers, but when you don’t mean it, it disturbs the communication. Make sure you mean what you say. Tip 6 Speak clearly. This is mostly important when you have a phone conversation. You want to make sure that your customers understand what you are saying. Clear talk will help you with that. Tip 7 Go for a win- win situation. You make the best deals when you both have the feeling you have an advantage of it. Tip 8 Invest in a long term relationship. Don’t go for the quick profit. By making the contact with the customer smooth you will invest in a long term relationship. Tip 9 The customer is not always right. You have to be assertive and you have to draw a line. Sometimes a customer asks something you can’t give or what against your own norms and values. In that case you have to draw the line for yourself; even it can be hard sometimes. You have to stand up for yourself but you also have to be respectful for the other. You have to find the balance between that. Tip 10 Be satisfied with the feedback you get from your customer. You can learn a lot from the feedback and improvements your customers suggest. Take them seriously, because they will help you to do things different or better. Maybe they will attend you on something you didn’t know about yourself. On the other hand they take the time and courage to tell you. Feedback from your customers will help you to test your customer satisfaction.


Tip 11 Selling ‘no’ sometimes is the best answer. Sometimes it is better to sell ‘no’, than to suggest a solution the customer won’t help. Customers want to be taken seriously. Tip 12 Be yourself. Just be you. It’s always better to be yourself than to play a role of someone you’re not. It will cost you a lot of energy and besides that, it’s not necessary at all. Besides customer satisfaction, customer focus plays an important role in your organisation. You can be nice and helpful to your customers, but what do they actually need? Get to know your customer. If you want to test the customer focus of your business, you can ask the customer the next four questions:

1. Would you choose my product again? 2. What would you do if you were me? 3. What makes you enthusiastic? 4. Would you recommend my business to someone else? If so, why? And do you know

someone else who would? (Houden van Klanten B.V, 2010).

7.6 LOGISTICS This subchapter will describe how to manage the export of the eggs and the import and export of chickens. What is logistics? The definition of logistics is everything what is needed to run something smoothly, like preparing and transporting products. It’s the structured link between all of the traffic subjects, so it creates an efficient transport.

Case study 7.5 Customer satisfaction

Keta has built a good reputation and his eggs are of good quality. All of his food problems are solved too. He is satisfied, but wants more. He wants to know what the customer actually thinks of his company.

Maybe he can improve himself just a little bit more. What kind of questions should he ask to his customers?

Answer:

If you want to test the customer focus of your business, you can ask the customer the next four questions:

Would you choose my business again? What would you do if you were me?

What makes you enthusiastic? Would you recommend my business to someone else?

If so, why? And do you know someone else who would?


7.6.1 TRANSPORT OF EGGS

Wethli (1999 p. 11) says this about transporting eggs:

It is helpful to have proper egg trays (that usually hold two- and a half dozen eggs) or egg boxes (that hold six or 12 eggs), as shown in figure 7.6 ‘Egg trays’. This will mean less egg breakages. You can buy cardboard trays or boxes from your poultry supplier. An example of a poultry supplier is Alema Farm. Some producers sell boiled eggs when there is a demand (bus or train passengers, for example). Make sure you manage your transport carefully to collect your input as well as you do your marketing. Figure 7.7 ‘Transport egg trays’ shows an example of the transport of egg trays at your own business.

For the transport, you can decide to hire or buy a car or other vehicle. But when you mostly are selling at home, this is not necessary. Besides that, it’s expensive. When you are selling at the local market, you can decide to buy a horse or mule to transport the eggs by gari. Maybe you already have one. Horses are very hard working animals and you could also use them to work on your land or as your own transport. Mules are stronger than horses or donkeys and will work more in your advantage. Another option is to transport the eggs yourself, by carrying them with you while you are travelling to the local market. You can use the little blue- and white busses which are used as public transport.

7.6.2 TRANSPORT OF CHICKENS

Wethli (1999 p. 11) says this about transporting chickens:

If you are going to transport broilers or old hens alive, you will need something in which to carry them. You could use a plastic crate or just a big cardboard box with holes cut in the sides so that the chickens can breathe. A plastic crate will last for a long time, but you have to clean and disinfect it after selling each batch. For the transport, you could do the same as with the eggs. Choose the vehicle that fits best at your company and works best in your advantage. Don’t spend money on things you don’t necessarily need.

Figure 7.6 Egg trays Figure 7.7 Transport egg trays


7.7 FINANCIAL ASPECTS This subchapter will describe the costs and benefits of your poultry. It will contain an overview of the financial aspect of your business. It is mostly based on local prices.

7.7.1 COSTS Authorization A trade license will cost you 204 birr. You can start a procedure for this license when you have less than 1000 chickens. They will ask you where you are working. As authorization, they will visit you at home to get the proof they need. After that you will get you trade license. Land If you are starting a poultry farm, you need some land first. When you already have some land there is no problem, but sometimes you start with nothing. This could be a problem, because all of the Ethiopian land is owned by the government. You have to lease the land from the government. To do this, you have to go through a procedure. This procedure will include visiting the local authority and by filling in the needed forms. One big issue is the money. The rule is that you own a lot of money on your bank account, but this depends on the size of the land. Considering this, it’s very hard to lease the land from the government. The recommend solution is to hire the land from your neighbours, friends or family. When they have land, it’s legal to hire this to you. Make sure you make honest price ranges. For example, you lease 25m land for 100 birr a month. Another option is to make use of a micro-credit, which is possible in every town. You have to rent it with at least two persons, who are not family of you. The government has some plans for micro-credits. Housing For the housing of 250 chickens, you will have to spend about 12,000 birr for the stable. This calculation is based on the fact that housing for 1000 chickens will cost around 40,000 birr. The roof plates are the most expensive parts of the stable, they will cost you 170 birr a sheet. These sheets are about 1m2. The stable will be good for a lifetime of about 5 years and it will cost about 2,400 a year. This means: 10 birr a chicken a year. Electricity The electricity in this area costs about 100 birr a month. This means it will cost you about 1200 birr a year for the electricity.

Case study 7.6 Horse or mule?

As a starter, you don’t have much money to spend on the transport. A mule costs about 5000 birr, while

a horse will cost you about 3000 birr. What would you choose?

Answer: It’s best to choose the mule. Maybe the mule is more expensive than a horse, but on the long term you have more advantage of it. A mule is stronger and will probably have less health problems. They are

produced for doing heavier work.


Transport Public transport When travelling by bus, it will cost you about 3.50 birr a zone. These costs are based on the fact that one person costs 1.75 a zone, but with the eggs they will calculate it as two person and not just one. For example, you’re travelling to the market twice a week. It will cost you about 28 birr a month. Mule and horse A mule will cost about 5000 birr. A horse will cost about 3000-6000 birr. Gari A gari will cost about 4000 birr. These gari’s are made in Selam Vocational Center, Addis Abeba. Table 7.7 shows a quick overview of the transport costs. Table 7.7 ‘Quick overview of the transport cost’s’

Transport

Costs

Public transport 3.50 birr a zone

Mule 5000 birr

Horse 3000-6000 birr

Gari 4000 birr

Mule and gari total 9000 birr

Chickens When you want to sell eggs, you will need some chickens first. You will have to decide how much chickens you want. In this paragraph we will presume 250 chickens. One hen, ready to produce eggs, costs about 125 birr. When you will buy 250 of them, without discount, it will cost you about 31,250 birr. Support One chicken eats about 125 gram feed a day. This means 250 chickens eat about 31,250 gram feed a day. This is 31.25 kilogram a day. 100 Kilogram feed costs about 820 birr. One kilogram feed costs about 8.2 birr. 31.25 Kilogram feed costs about 256.25. So the feed will cost about 256.25 birr a day. An example is shown in table 7.8. ‘Example of the total costs a day’. Table 7.9 ‘Example of the total costs for 250 chickens’ on the next page shows an example of the total costs for 250 chickens.


Table 7.8 ‘Example of the total costs a day’

Data Calculating Result

How many chickens 250 250 chickens

Gram a day a chicken 125 125 gram Kilogram a day in total 125 gram x 250 chickens 31,250 gram or 31.25

kilogram

Price of the feed 820 820 birr a 100 kilogram

Price a kilogram 820 birr / 100 kilogram 8.2 birr

Total costs a day 8,2 birr x 31.25 kilogram 256.25 birr

Table 7.9 ‘Example of the total costs for 5 chickens’

Data Calculating Result Age of arriving 20 20 weeks

Age of leaving 90 90 weeks

Total of weeks at the farm 90 weeks – 20 weeks 70 weeks

Total of days at the farm 70 weeks x 7 days 490 days

Total of gram a chicken 490 days x 125 gram a day 61,250 gram or 61.25 kilogram

Total of costs a chicken ( 70 days) 61.25 kilogram x 8,2 birr 502.25 birr

Total of costs for 250 chickens ( 70 days)

502.25 birr x 250 chickens

125,562.5 birr

For the water costs you can calculate about 100 birr a month. This means it will cost you about

1200 birr a year.

7.7.2 PROFIT What is profit? Profit is the money that will be left when you calculate the income minus the costs. This is different than turn- over. Turn- over means: what is sold in shop or business, mostly described as the amount of money. When you calculate the turn- over, you know what you have sold that day. When you calculate the profit, you know how much money you have made that day.

Eggs When a chicken will produce about one egg a day, you can collect about 200 eggs a day. The price of eggs is variable, but for this example the eggs are sellable for 2 birr per egg. That day the eggs can give you an afford of 400 birr. When the egg prices stay the same all week, that week can give you an afford of 2,800 birr. Because the price is variable, you can hold on to easy calculating steps, an example is shown in table 7.10 ‘Income a year’ on the next page.


Table 7.10 ‘Income a year’


Number of egg laying chickens 250 250 chickens

Number of eggs a day 200 200 eggs Average number of eggs sold a day ( personal contacts, market, own shop)

200 200 eggs

Price of one egg 2 birr 2 birr

Income a day 2 birr x 200 eggs 400 birr

Income a week ( 7 days) 400 birr x 7 days 2,800 birr

Income a month (30 days) 400 birr x 30 days 12,000 birr Income a year ( 365 days) 400 birr x 365 days 146,000 birr

Chickens A chicken is non-producing when it’s about 90 weeks old. A non- producing chicken can be sold for 70 birr a chicken. When for example 200 chickens are not laying eggs anymore, you can sell them for their flesh. 70 birr x 200 chickens = 14,000 birr. It will be afford of 14,000 birr if you can sell them all. If the chickens are all the same age, you can sell them once in 1, 5 year. When you have different ages, you can sell them for example once or twice a year. Example: you have two different ages of chicken in your poultry. One group reached the age of 90 weeks. The calculation is shown in table 7.11 ‘Afford’.

Table 7.11 ‘Afford’


Number of non- producing chicken

125 125 chickens

Price a chicken 70 70 birr

Afford 125 chickens x 70 birr 8,750 birr

The other group of 125 chickens reached the 90 weeks half a year later. You can earn 8,750 birr twice a year. So in total: 8,750 birr x 2 = 17,500 birr a year. The total income of this example poultry farm is 17,500 birr for the chicken a year, and 146,000 birr for the eggs a year. This makes a total income of 163,500 birr a year.

7.1.3 COSTS AND ADVANCES CALCULATION What is a cost and advances analyse? The costs and advances analyse is a monetary evaluation method, where the expected costs will be weight against the expected advances for one or many subjects, so the best possible solution can be chosen. It includes, for example, calculations for initial and expected profits. A product manager can compare the costs for production and marketing in relation to a particular product. Based on this comparing, the acceptance of a product will be accepted in the assortment.


Before starting, it’s important to make a total cost of your company. To do this, you can use a excel calculation to calculate your afford. Figure 7.8 ‘Calculation 1’ shows an example of a calculation in excel, even as figure 7.9 ‘Calculation 2’.

Case study 7.7 Total afford

At the end of the year, Keta calculates the afford he has made during the year. He sees that the total afford of that year is 36,609.29 birr. His costs are 114.140,71 birr and his total income is 150.750,00 birr. What do you think of this cost- afford? Is he able to keep his company? Is he heading to the right direction or do

things have to change?

Answer: Keta has a great afford. His costs are much lower than his advantage, which is a very good sign. Keta has

to keep up the good work.


Figure 7.8 ‘Calculation 1’


As you can see, the total profit of this poultry farm is 36,609.29 birr a yea

Figure 7.9 ‘Calculation ’


7.8 QUESTIONS True or false (set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 A hen will begin to lay eggs at the age of 15 weeks 2 A hen lays about 1 egg a day, but the percentage is 80 % 3 The total of weeks a hen lays eggs is about 75 weeks 4 A hen lays about 250 eggs a lifetime 5 A hen stops laying eggs at the average age of 90 weeks Subchapter 7.1 Egg production 1. You have the following data:

Number of egg laying hens: 200 Percentage: 75 % 7 days a week 30 days a month 365 days a year.

A) How many eggs can you collect per week? Write down the calculation and the answer. B) How many eggs can you collect per month? Write down the calculation and the answer. C) How many eggs can you collect per year? Write down the calculation and the answer. Subchapter 7.2 Marketing 2. Is the sentence below true or false? Marketing means: all of the activities that will bring the seller and the buyer together.

3. How is the table above called?


4. There is only one supplier but there is much demand. How is this market form called? (circle the right answer) A) Oligopoly B) Monopoly C) Polypoly

5. The picture above is an example of: 6. What is the most important rule of marketing? 7. Write down 3 of the 7 questions you have to answer for yourself after you’ve tested the market 8. Write down how you are planning to earn your place into the market Subchapter 7.3 Registration and identification


9. Is it necessary to identificate chickens? 10. Write down how you would register the eggs Subchapter 7.4 Networking and working together 11. Describe the advantages of networking. Why is this an advantage? 12. Describe the advantages of working together. Why is this an advantage? 13. Describe how you would create a win- win situation Subchapter 7.5 Customer focus and customer friendliness 14. Write down and explain 5 of the 12 tips that are mentioned in subchapter 7.5.1 15. What is customer friendless, according to you? Subchapter 7.6 Logistics 16. How would you transport the eggs and chickens? Subchapter 7.7 Financial aspects 17. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result How many chickens 200 Gram a day a chicken 125 Kilogram a day in total

Price of the food 800 for 100 kg Price a kilogram Total costs a day 18. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result Age of arriving 20 20 weeks Age of leaving 90 90 weeks Total of weeks at the farm Total of days at the farm Total of gram a chicken Total of costs a chicken ( 70 days) Total of costs for 250 chickens ( 70 days)


19. Fill in the right calculation and results. The percentage to calculate with is 80 %

Data Calculating Result Number of egg laying chickens 500 500 chickens Number of eggs a day Average number of eggs sold a day ( personal contacts, market, own shop)

Price of one egg 2 birr 2 birr Income a day Income a week ( 7 days) Income a month (30 days) Income a year ( 365 days) 20. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result Number of non- producing chicken

150 150 chickens


Afford


Theme 3- Extending

Week 8 – Extending your company Week 9 – Examination


CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY The one thing a company needs to do is grow. There are different ways to grow. Getting more contacts, enlarge the production rate, produce different products, and so on. The way to get all those things could be hard. People are careful when someone wants to start a cooperation. The most important thing is that you can convince someone to start a cooperation with you. All the possibility’s to enlarge your company are subscribed in the next subchapters.

8.1 HOW TO APPROACH OTHER COMPANIES One of the most important things when you want to approach another company is that you got the right competences. These competences are presenting, self-reflection, communication and globalization. Those competences are subscribed in table 8.1 ‘Competence’.

Table 8.1 ‘Competence’

Presenting Able to present yourself in the right way to the customers and to other company’s

Self-reflection Knowing that there are things you can do and things that you can’t do.

Communication Knowing the right way to communicate with the customer and the company’s that you are dealing with.

Globalization Know what to do when foreign company wants to do business with you.

The way of contacting another professional company is the first thing the other company will remember. Be sure that you got a good strategy that will make sense. The other company must feel itself attracted to the products and the information that is being shared. The following information is about approaching professional companies. This makes presenting yourself more important. There are a few aspects that you must keep in mind. It is common to wear formal clothes, this is the first thing that the other company will see. The second thing is your attitude. You must stand in the right position with your breast pressed forward. You must communicate to the person of the other company with talking and with gestures as shown in Figure 8.1 ‘Gestures’. It is important to get the other company enthusiastic.

When a company wants contact, you can give that company a business card. A business card contains: Your name, the name of your company, telephone number and an e-mail address. Try using positive colours, this will help to create an positive association.

Figure 8.1 ‘Gestures’


8.2 GOVERNMENT A license is needed to start a farm. You can request this license at the government. Before getting a license you must have some land for building a stable and that all facilities are at hand. If the government agrees with your request, you’ll get a license. This licence contains the legally keeping of an amount until 1000 chickens. This license also contains 2% VAT. This makes it attractive for farmers to start. The rules will change when a company grows larger than the amount of 1000 chickens. The VAT will increase to 15%. The most attractive way to grow is to double the amount of chickens. The VAT won’t harm the company if the farmer grows with these big steps. There is a license for getting a VAT number when you got more than 1000 chickens. This license will cost around the 500.000 birr.

8.3 WRITING A BUSINESS PLAN A business plan is required to explain to the government what kind of business you’re starting. It will also help you with the financial aspects and the vision of the company. This plan will describe how you want to start your own company. This plan must be realistic. The government won’t take you serious otherwise. You can investigate and describe the strengths and weaknesses of your company. The strengths and weaknesses are depending on a lot factors. The starter, the concurrence, the product and the external factors are a few of these factors that must be described in the business plan. You can show the external and internal factors in a SWOT-analysis. It gives you an overview of the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities of your own business.

Case study 8.1 How to approach other companies

Philip got an appointment with another company. He wears shoes, a shirt and pants with holes in it. The owner of the company sees Philip and says that he won’t start a cooperation with Philip. What could be the reason, the owner of the company won’t start a cooperation with

Philip?

Answer: The owner was looking at his clothes and is thinking that it can’t be serious in doing business.

Case study 8.2 Government

Keta got a stable with 200 chickens. He keeps them close to the border from his neighbour. His neighbour, called Carl, gets harm from the chickens. He calls the government and tells them about the

situation. He tells them that the chickens make a lot of noise. The government tells Carl that they will sent the police to talk to Keta. They will search for a possible solution. After the conversation with the police, Keta tells a friend that he got a penalty for keeping chickens. What is the reason that Keta got a penalty?

Answer:

Keta hasn’t got a license to keep chickens.


Figure 8.2 on the next page shows an example of the SWOT- analysis that is made of Genesis Farms. The strengths are the positive or strong point of Genesis Farms and the weaknesses are the negative or weak points of Genesis Farms. The strengths and weaknesses are part of the internal analysis of Genesis Farms. This means; the internal subjects of Genesis Farms, like products, quality, staff and management. Opportunities are the positive points that Genesis can adapt on, and the threats are the negative points that Genesis has to look out for. The threats and opportunities are a part of the external analyse. This means; the external surrounding of Genesis Farms, like competition and trends. In the table, the plus means that a point will be positive for the company. The minus means that a point will be negative for the company, while a zero means that the influence will be neutral. The SWOT analysis can be made for every company. This version is a complicated and difficult, but you can write an easy version for your own company by checking the internal positive and negative points of your company, even as the external surrounding, like described earlier.


SWOT-analyses Op

po

rtun

ities

Economical/ agrarian Growth

Low income a person Foreign influence Threats

Foreign influence Everyone for themselves + _

Strengths

Poultry is at the growth phase of the Product life-cycle

+ 0 + 0 0 2 0

Star position in BCG-matrix with poultry

+ 0 + - - 2 2

Genesis cafeteria + + 0 - - 2 2

Genesis shop + + 0 - - 2 2

The question for poultry is higher than the farms can provide

0 0 + 0 0 1 0

Providing of trainings for local poultry farmers

+ 0 + 0 - 2 1

Trainings for employees

0 0 + 0 - 1 1

Weaknesses

Lack of communication

0 0 + 0 - 1 1

The stock at the Genesis shop isn’t optimal

- 0 + 0 - 1 2

The knowledge of the employees isn’t optimal

0 0 + 0 - 1 1

+ 5 2 8 0 0 30

- 1 0 0 3 8 24

Figure 8.2 SWOT analysis


What is in the business plan?

A business plan contains a short resume with the reasons of starting a company. Another thing that a business plan must contain is a short introduction of the starter. The business plan also contains a few describing’s like: the products and the organisation. The organization includes: working space, how to take care of your staff and how you’re going to organize your organization. All those aspects must be financial supported. A thing that the government wants to see is the financial aspects. You must make a budget for one year. This will make sense to the government that it is a good running company. You need financial support to buy food, chicken and to build a stable for the beginning of your company. An example of this financial aspect is described in the previous chapter, chapter seven. A business plan is a personal plan. Nobody can tell you how it must look like. An example of a business plan is shown in appendix one, business plan.

8.4 ADVERTISEMENT There are a lot of ways to make yourself popular amongst the local people. To get a bigger target audience, it’s important to use the right way of advertisement. The most effective ways of making advertisements for your company are summarized below. In the newspaper, Mouth to mouth advertisement, Signs along the road, Posters on poles and trees, Handing out business cards. The prizes of advertisement are fluctuating. Check the internet or the local shop for the most regular advertisement prices.

Case study 8.3 Writing a business plan

William is showing his business plan to the government. The government gives the plan to William and

says that it must contain a financial report. William returns home with his plan. Why does the business

plan contain a financial report?

Answer: The government wants to know how much money they must give William to start his own business.


8.5 STAFF If you have decided to extend your company, you must realize that it is impossible to do all the work alone. For example, the maintenance and the care for around 2000 chickens will take one day. It will make it impossible to collect the eggs. That’s where the second person is needed. The salary for one person is around the 20 birr a day. It’s possible to make a schedule for the staff. This will increase your time to take care of the chickens. You must make some appointments so that your staff knows what you are expecting. Appointments about salary, working times and monthly payment are needed to keep everything clear. Twice a year, a functional conversation is needed to talk about your staffs’ functioning in the company and to make new appointments if needed. It’s possible to get some more professional staff if you got cooperation with another company.

8.6 COOPERATION Cooperation can be useful. However, there are some negative aspects. Both sides must be thinking the same. This makes it important to communicate with each other. More resources at your disposal is one of the positive aspects. Another positive aspect is that you can share knowledge with each other. That makes it possible for your company to grow faster. Cooperation gives you more knowledge. This will give you the opportunity to produce other products. You can concentrate your company on marketing while the other company produces new products. You can also share the costs of marketing with the other company. Another important factor is that you must look positive critical to the work of both companies. This is useful to improve your company. Furthermore, it’s important to make good appointments for the risks you can take. For example, when you got an advertisement in the newspaper with the wrong message. Cooperation will give you more room to produce more products and to get better contacts with your customers. Spending more time with your customers is a way to make some advertisements. People will talk to each other about your company in a positive way. You can reach a bigger area if you extend your company. You can open more stored yourself, or you could sell your eggs in more shops to satisfy your customers.

Case study 8.4 Advertisements

Derek wants to make his company popular amongst the local people. He makes some advertisements.

There is a road close to his company. Derek decided to place the advertisement amongst the road. The

road, where the advertisements are placed, is a road, only for truckers. After 1 month, he still got the

same amount of customers. What is the reason Derek still got the same amount of customers?

Answer: Truckers are not the right targets. He has to look closely on this target group and will have to replace the

advertisement if he wants more customers.


You can spent more money when there is a cooperation. On the other hand, you have to in calculate the risks of working together. These risks are mentioned in chapter 7, subchapter 7.4.

Case study 8.6 Cooperation.

Sophie has started a cooperation with another company. She wants a better name and a bigger delivery

area. The problem is that the most people can’t come to the shop because of the long distance. What could

be a possible solution for Sophie to solve this problem?

Answer: She must open a shop in the new area. This makes it easier for the local people to do business.


8.7 QUESTIONS True or false (seta cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 A license can be requested at the police station 2 The vat percentage of a farmer with 200 chickens is 15 % 3 You need another license when you keep more than 1000 chickens 4 The most important thing when you approach another company is that

you got the right competences

5 A license can be requested at the police station Subchapter 8.1 How to approach other company’s 1. What are the most important competences? 2. What is the most important thing that you must keep in mind by visiting another company? Subchapter 8.2 Government 3. What kind of license do you need to start a company with 200 chickens? 4. For which amount of chickens do you need another license? 5. There are 2 different vat percentages, what is the difference? 6. Where can you request a license? Subchapter 8. 3 Making a business plan 7. What is the reason for a starting company to make a business plan? Subchapter 8.4 advertisement 8. What are the most effective ways of making advertisements for your company? 9. What is one of the most common reasons for making advertisement? Subchapter 8.5 Staff 10. Is it important to get a functional conversation with your employees? Subchapter 8.6 cooperation 11. Cooperation is useful. Describe 2 negative and the positive aspects.


CHAPTER 9 – ASSIGNMENTS AND ANSWERS

CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN True or False? (set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 An broken egg won’t be eaten by another chicken X 2 Chickens copy each other’s behaviour X 3 You can leave an egg eater in the flock X 4 An empty egg shell can be fed back to the chickens X 5 An empty egg shell contains protein X 6 Roosters that haunt each other are playing X 7 Roosters show pseudo-mating to establish a dominant position X 8 Feather picking can be a form of redirection from ground pecking X 9 Experiences in an early stage of life can’t influence the pecking behaviour

in later life X

10 The first lay of an pullet is smaller than the lay of an older chicken X 11 Older hens always lay normal size eggs, because of their age X 12 The variation double-egg is also known as egg-in-an-egg X 13 A Double-Yolker only consist of yolk X 14 A windegg is only filled with egg white X 15 The size of an egg depends on the breed, age, weight of a chicken X 16 It’s possible to separate hatchling eggs from consumption eggs X 17 A hatchling egg is an fertilized egg X 18 All hatchling eggs are suitable to hatch X 19 The deviations that ensures that an egg is suitable to hatch is only

internally X

20 An inspecting lamp sends light through the egg, so that the content becomes visible

X

21 You need to collect the eggs ones a day to prevent them from becoming dirty

X

22 The embryo’s development will start when the temperature rises above the 26° Celsius

X

23 The storage room for the hatchling eggs need to variate between the 10-13° Celsius

X

24 A humidity of 75-80% prevents the dehydration of the hatchling eggs X 25 You can store the hatchling eggs for a maximum of 3 weeks X


Subchapter 1.1 1. Is a Chicken an omnivore, carnivore or an herbivore? A chicken is an omnivore 2. If the composition of the food changes, will the hen eat it just as easily as normal? The hens may not change easily to eating seeds of a different shape or colour 3. On which 2 cues’ is the selection of food based on?

Visual Taste

Subchapter 1.2 4. Where do the feathers protect the body from?

Injuries They have an isolating function

5. What are the parts of a feather? (fill the right name of the part in at the right number)

6. What is the difference between a rooster and a hen?

Table 1.1 ‘The differences between roosters and hens’ Rooster Hen Bigger than a hen Shorter and rounder feathers Comb, wattles and earlobes usually bigger Larger tail Shiny, pointed feathers on their necks (hackles) and backs (saddle)

Bigger spur These are possible answers 7. What is the main function of the respiratory tract?


The main function of the respiratory system of birds is to absorb oxygen and to release carbon dioxide in the body. In addition, the respiratory system also gets rid of excess heat (temperature regulation), detoxification of certain chemicals and vocalization. Subchapter 1.3 8. Where does the digestive tract of a chicken consist of? (fill the right name of the part in at the right number)

Subchapter 1.4 9. When do behavioural problems occur? Behavioural problems occur when the chicken doesn’t have the chance of expressing his instinctual behaviour. 10. When does a chicken start to show unnatural behaviour patterns? When the chicken is exposed to stress. This type of behaviour is called stereotypic behaviour. Immediate reaction is required when the chicken shows stereotypical behaviour. Stereotypical behaviour is a way of communication. The chicken lets you know through his way that it’s not happy or healthy. 11. Why does a hen needs a nest site? Without a nest the hens will often show abnormal behaviour during pre-laying such as: pacing, reduced sitting and displacement behaviours. So when a hen has a nesting site there is an opportunity for more normal behaviour. 12. How can you make sure that a hen lies in a particularly location? If you want to encourage hens to lie in a particular location, you can use some fake eggs made of plastic, stones or golf balls. 13. When does a chicken starts cannibalising? (circle the right answer) A) When a chicken sees a dead chicken B) When a chicken has seen blood C) When a chicken sees another chicken cannibalising


D) When a chicken has caught a rat 14. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer This is not an option in Ethiopia, because of the nearby living predators. The chickens will constantly get scared and this has a negative stress effect on the egg laying. It’s also uneconomical because of labour, food requirements, disease control and wastage in egg handling and hygiene. 15. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters and pullets reach an age of: (circle the right answer) A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks 16. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer This is not an option in Ethiopia, because of the nearby living predators. The chickens will constantly get scared and this has a negative stress effect on the egg laying. It’s also uneconomical because of labour, food requirements, disease control and wastage in egg handling and hygiene. 17. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters and pullets reach an age of: (circle the right answer) A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks Subchapter 1.5 18. What can disrupt a normal laying routine? Give at least 3 options

The moulting process Winter daylight shortage Extreme temperatures Illness Poor nutrition Stress Lack of fresh water

19. The interval between the egg laying of a hen is about: (circle the right answer) A) 24 hours B) 20 hours C) 25 hours D) 26 hours 20. How can you make sure if an egg is old ore fresh? You can submerge it in water. The freshest egg will remain at the bottom of the container, while old eggs will float. 21. Does a chicken give birth to a living youngster?


No they first lay an egg 22. What are the 5 distinctive parts of the oviduct?

Infundibulum Magnum Isthmus Shell Gland Cloacae

23. What influences the quality of an egg?

The health and condition of the older chickens The hereditary predisposition The quality and quantity food you give the chickens The housing (laying nests or do you get the eggs from the ground) The care taking and keeping (how many times do you collect the eggs/ keeping

temperature) 24. What are the terms to ensure the quality of the hatchling egg?

The shape of the eggs need to be normal (Vormidex) The egg needs to have a normal size and weight The egg shell needs to be clean The egg needs to be fresh (date) The shell has to be intact (not broken) The egg shell needs to be smooth (It has to be equally thick) The inside needs to be good (inspect)

25. What are the regularly occurring deviations of hatchling eggs?

- Too long and too round eggs - Too big (double-yolkers), too small or too light - Dirty eggshells by excrements, blood or dirt - An egg older than 3 weeks - Broken eggs and too thin shells - Rough shells, sand or chalk head, ridges on the egg and egg wall

26. Why do you need to store the hatchling eggs for at least one day? This is to promote the embryo’s resting 27. What are the behavioural changes of a broody clucker?

She’ll sit constantly on the same spot, even though there aren’t eggs When you approach she’ll spread her wings to appear big She’ll will peck at your hands when you approach When the hen leaves the nest she’ll make a cluckerend sound. This is the reason you call a

broody hen a clucker The comb is shrivelled and dry, but the chest will feel warm

28. Describe the steps of building a nest for a clucker To make a nest you need a piece of grass (30 x 30 x5 centimetre). Put this at the breeding place and moist is a little. The second step is to put some teff on the moistened grass. The final step is to make


a pit with your fist to lay the eggs in. The final stage is to lay the eggs in the pit and let the clucker with the eggs at dawn. 29. A clucker will hatch her eggs in: (circle the right answer) A) 21 days B) 14 days C) 28 days D) 35 days 30. What are the 4 terms of using a breeding machine

1. The temperature needs to be regulated. You need to read the temperature of a thermometer that hangs inside the breeding machine. The right temperature needs to be 100° Fahrenheit or 37.7° Celsius.

2. The humidity has to be regulated. This prevents dehydration of the eggs. The humidity needs to be 55% for the first 18 days. After the 18 days you need to raise the humidity to 70%. You can’t raise the humidity by adding more water in the bin, but you can by increasing the surface of the evaporating water.

3. Ventilation is very important, because of the gas exchange between the breeding machine and the outside surroundings. This way the carbon dioxide leaves the breeding machine and will be exchanged for oxygen rich air. This is necessary for the breathing of the embryo. Ventilation can be regulated (depending on the machine) with openings (that are lockable) in the walls.

4. You need to turn the eggs around to prevent the embryo from growing with the cuticle. The eggs need to be turned around 3 times a day for the first 18 days. The egg will be filled with a growing chick after 18 days.

31. What are the causes of poor breeding results when using a breeding machine?

Many unfertile eggs A lot of embryo’s that died The dying of embryo’s in a later stage Chicks aren’t hatching after pecking Moist and sticky chicks Chicks that hatch too soon, sometimes with bloody beaks Too small chicks Overweighed chicks Too slow hatching Rough, goluptious beaks Deformed chicks


CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN CARE True or False (set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 When the disease is in one of the last stadia, the chicken is still treatable X 2 Observing the chickens at least once a day, makes it easier to capture the

disease X

3 Prevention is important, because some symptoms will only occur in one of the last stadia

X

4 Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) is triggered by bacteria’s X 5 The bacterium that causes infectious Coryza is emophilusparagallinarum X 6 New Castle Disease is a worldwide disease X 7 Lymphoid leucosis is a virus disease X 8 Marek disease is a bacterial disease X 9 Egg Drop Syndrome 1976 is a viral disease X 10 Coccidiosis is caused by a one-celled parasite X 11 Good hygiene in the stable prevents unwelcome guests X 12 The drinking and water systems must be cleaned at least once a week X 13 The maximum stocking rate of chickens is 8 chickens per one square

metre X

Subchapter 2.1 1. When is a chicken healthy and in optimal condition This means that the chickens produce as optimal as possible and that the chickens are free of diseases 2. A disease can be spread in various ways. Name at least 3 options 1. Infection from animal to animal 2. Infection from the environment 3. People can spread a disease by clothes or by air 4. All sorts of materials can spread a disease 5. Infection by the way of hatching the egg 3. Write the 7 most common diseases down 1. Infectory respiratory diseases 2. Diseases causing tumours 3. Avian adenoviral diseases 4. Miscellaneous virus diseases 5. Miscellaneous bacterial diseases 6. Diseases caused by parasites 7. Non-contagious diseases 4. Write down the treatment and control of Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) Control and eradication of MG infection is by far the most effective method of combating CRD. Fertile eggs from infected chickens can be treated with antibiotics to eliminate the MG organisms (infection of fertile eggs or egg dipping).


5. How does the Coryza disease spread? The disease spreads from chicken to chicken and flock to flock by contact. It also spreads through airborne infected dust particles and via the drinking water. Equipment and personal can also spread the disease. 6. What are the signs of Coryza? Eradication and prevention are the most desirable means of controlling coryza. Vaccines have been developed but are only used in areas where the disease is endemic and cannot be eradicated. The main of the disease are inflammation of eyes and nose, with foul-smelling discharges, conjunctivitis, sneezing and facial swellings. Feed and water intake is reduced. The chicken will lose weight and the egg production will decrease. Mortality varies, but is generally low. The symptoms are similar to CRD. 7. Write down the treatment and control of Coryza Eradication and prevention are the most desirable means of controlling coryza. Vaccines have been developed but are only used in areas where the disease is endemic and cannot be eradicated. 8. How does the New Castle Disease spread? It is a highly contagious disease and spreads through infected droppings and respiratory discharge between chickens. This disease can also spread itself by infected equipment such as trucks, personnel, wild chickens or simply the air. It’s possible to incubate the chickens 9. What are the signs of the New Castle Disease ND causes high mortality, with depression and death in 3 to 5 days as major signs. Difficult breathing, with wheezing and gurgling, accompanied by nervous signs (such as paralysis or twisted necks) are the main indication. Egg production decreases 30- 50% or more. Eggs may have thin shells or have no shells at all. 10. How do you treat the New Castle Disease? The only thing to do is to vaccinate to prevent the chickens from this disease. 11. What are the signs of the Marek Disease? Infected chickens lose weight or may show some form of paralysis. The classic form with leg nerve involvement causes a chicken to lie on its side with one leg stretched forward and the other backward. The presence of tumors in liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, ovary, muscles or other tissues indicates MD but may also point to lymphoid leucosis. Nerve involvement is typical for MD. 12. How can you treat the Marek Disease? There is a vaccine for MD. This vaccine only prevents the appearance of the tumors and paralysis of Marek`s disease, it does not prevent the chickens from becoming infected with MD virus. 13. What are the signs of Gumborro? Affected chickens are listless and depressed, pale and huddling and some may die. More important is the subclinical form. The immune system will be affected which will lead to gumboro related diseases, such as infectious anaemia. In growers, this form of the diseases results in poor performance.


14. What is the treatment for Gumborro? There is no treatment. The best way to control this disease is to vaccinate the parent breeders and/or young chicks. 15. Which three types of worms are there Roundworms, Gapeworms and Tapeworms 16. What are the signs and treatment of worms? Heavy infestations can reduce the birds’ ability to fight other infections. The most common way of checking your chickens on parasites is to control their faeces. Healthy chicken droppings should be fairly firm and rounded with two distinct sections. The largest darker portion should be black, brown and/or grey in colour and the smaller portion should be white (this is the urine) and it will form a cap at one end. Yellow coloured - loose yellow droppings which will normally stick to the feathers of the birds’ bottom are most often a sign of internal worms. It can also be that the birds have a diet rich in corn or maize but in our experience it is usually worms. It could also point to a respiratory infection but there would be other signs with this kind of problem. This is not to be confused with faecal droppings which are brown and foamy and expelled roughly every 7-10 droppings - perfectly normal. Black, runny and sticky faeces can point to nutritional deficiency. Revisit their diet and feed only layers pellets ad lib with treats of corn twice a day for two weeks to see if this improves their droppings. Stop all other treats for this period. Other signs are: worms visible in the droppings, mucky bottoms, dishevelled, depressed appearance, weight loss, drop in egg production and a pale comb. The best way to prevent the chickens from worms it to keep them on a wire floor. It’s always better top prevent than to cure your chickens. 17. Which ectoparasites are most common? Lice, Mites and ticks and Fleas 18. Fill the vaccination schedule in:

Subchapter 2.2 19. What influences the activity of the vaccinations? Storage conditions, doses, the way of intake, the age of the animal, immunity status of the animal, pressure of infection and the climate of the stable 20. What are the 5 methods of vaccination? Spray, drinkwater method, Wing web method, injection method and eye-drop method



New castle disease 3 times, 4 times for perfect vaccination

Gumboro 2 times

Fowl typhoid 2 times

Fowl pox 2 times


21. What are the signs of good resistance? Proper condition, Healthy mucous membranes and Proper functioning of the stomach. 22. What is the difference between resistance and immunity? Resistance protects the animal from all diseases and unfavourable environmental conditions. Immunity protects the animal from one specific disease. For that reason resistance is more important than immunity.


CHAPTER 3 - HOUSING True or False? (set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 A party bedding material system is an example of a slatted floor system. X 2 There are three main forms of husbandry systems. X 3 A poultry run is not very stressful for the chickens. X 4 The maximum amount of chickens per square meter is 8. X 5 Free range systems are one of the cheapest systems. X 6 Chickens reared indoors cannot be kept outdoors later. X 7 The optimal temperature of pullets is between 25 and 35 degrees. X 8 The optimal humidity for chicks is between 75% and 80%. X 9 Ammoniac is one of the damaging gasses into a stable. X 10 N₂ is oxygen. X 11 Light affects the start of sexual activities, which is also the laying of eggs

and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of activity. X

12 The light during the rearing period should be very short. X 13 A properly constructed chicken house has proper ventilation and

constructions that are easy to clean. X

14 The best position of a stable is the East-West orientation. X 15 Concrete is the best material for the floor of the stable. X 16 Walls should be at least 3 meters high. X 17 The tukul stable is one of the cheapest stables. X 18 When starting a company, you should have some ground, a living place and

licenses. X

19 Roosts are required for the well-being of the chickens. X 20 A linear drinker is the most difficult water system. X Subchapter 3.1 1. What kind of global husbandry systems are available for chickens?

Battery systems Slatted floor systems Free range systems

2. What are the advantages and problems of a battery system? Advantages:

Highest stocking rate Less risk on diseases Higher egg weight Lower food intake Better feed conversion rate Labour saving Easier supervision, culling and selection No eggs on the floor No hens which are brooding


Problems: Relatively high investment costs per bird The system is not flexible Technical problems Percentage second class eggs is higher There have to be pay more attention to ventilation Debeaking and light intensity control are necessary

3. What is the advantage and problem of the slatted floor system? Advantage:

Lower risk on diseases Problem:

Expensive 4. What are the advantages and problems of floor system houses? Advantages:

Cheap Simple Cheap variant Simple Absorbs much moisture

Problems:

Higher risk on infections and diseases The chickens could damage crops Risk on predators, traffic and theft Hided eggs Difficult to keep the run mud-free in rain seasons Higher level of stress Frequently moving of the run Higher risk on infections and diseases Wet bedding material has a bigger risk on diseases

5. How many (adult laying) chickens can be hold on one square meter? 6 chickens

Subchapter 3.2 6. Factors which influence the climate in a chicken house are……. ??? (6 factors)

1. Temperature 2. Humidity 3. Ventilation and fresh air 4. The volume of the house 5. Light 6. Flies


7. Which 7 things can happen when layers exposed to higher temperatures? 1. Feed consumptions stops 2. Water consumptions stops 3. Egg production stops or the egg weight drops 4. The activity of chickens become low 5. The chickens start panting and spreading their wings 6. They are looking for colder places (cold floor) 7. Having a lower fertility and hatchability of the eggs

8. Why is the climate in the stable important? The temperature and/or the humidity will become too high or too low, which can influence the production of the chickens. When these factors are not optimal, the chickens will get diseases. 9. How is it possible that light influences the egg production? Artificial light creates a longer day. Light affects the start of sexual activities, which also is the laying of eggs and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of rest. It influences the production intensity. 10. What are the requirements of materials for the housing?

1. Proper ventilation system 2. Constructions that are easy to clean 3. Predator proof 4. Optimal located 5. Strongly built and durable 6. Waterproof

Subchapter 3.3

11. Which position of the stable is the best position? East-West orientated position 12. Which material is the best option for the floor and why? Concrete, it is quite expensive, but durable, waterproof, isolates and is easy to clean. 13. What is a problem of an original floor? It is dusty and difficult to clean 14. How can you build your own stable? There are a lot of possibilities, see subchapter 3.3

Subchapter 3.4 15. What is a tukul stable? The traditional tukul stable is a round building with walls made of manure or bricks and a roof made of reed. 16. What kind of stable is the most easiest to build? The tukul stable or an own built stable? Motivate you answer.


An own built stable is the most easiest, because the possibilities are open, you can built it to your own creation.

Subchapter 3.5 17. What are the requirements to build a stable? The procedure to get a legal poultry farm is very easy. When you want to start poultry farm, you have to go to the area authorized bureau of the parish. You have to improve that you have some ground and say that you want to start a poultry farm. You get some papers to fill in. A license is around 200 birr. You get a license when you can improve that you have a living place, working place and some ground.

Subchapter 3.6 18 What kind of equipment is not needed into chickens’ housing? A) Roosts B) Laying nests C) Bedding material D) Concrete Subchapter 3.7 19. How can you reduce the costs of equipment? If you calculate how many chickens you have, you can calculate how many materials you need for equipment. This will prevent too high costs.


CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW True or False? True or False? True False 1 New Hampshire is an example of an meat and egg producing chicken X 2 The commercial breeds can be divided into two groups X 3 Usually brown eggs fetch a lower price than white eggs X 4 When you buy chickens by a farmer who has unhealthy chickens, there is a

big risk that the production of the chickens is very low X

5 After two weeks of laying, the good and the poor layers can be distinguished from each other.

X

6 One of the important thing of the selection of a farmer is: ‘Make sure that the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care’

X

7 Good hens are lively, interested in their environment and have the right body weight

X

8 Transport by truck is the best way of transport for the chickens X 9 Chicks should be protected to heat during transport X 10 Chick boxes are especially for chicks X 11 Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens

that are inferior in appearance or production, that are sick of become sick, have to be removed from the flock

X

12 If you want a good quality and quantity of production of the chickens, you need first rate turkeys

X

13 The chicks must be cleaned and disinfected when entering the housing X 14 A brooder ring with a diameter of 5 meters should not have more than 500

chicks X

15 Growers feed has more metabolic energy than Starters feed X 16 The temperature of the housing has to be between 32 and 34 degrees at the

level of the chicks X

17 Recording should be a daily activity X 18 The modern hybrids have an incredible potential to grow X 19 A broiler drinks around 200 ml a day X 20 Early feathering is one of the characteristics of a good egg producing

chicken X

Subchapter 4.1 1. The commercial breeds can be divided into three groups, which groups are that?

Egg producers Meat and egg producers Meat producers

2. What are experts doing with breeding and multiplication?

Development of (new) lines or strains in chicken breeds. Testing of crosses to find the best combination. Some aspects of chicken biology. Delivery of parent stocks.


3. What kind of breed is not a local breed? (circle the right answer) A) Lowman B) Leghorn C) Bovans D) High-Line E) ISA-Brown

Subchapter 4.2 4. What kind of thing are important by the selection of a farmer?

Make sure the farmer is reliable. Make sure that the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care. The building and environment of the chickens is clean and hygienic. The farmer is producing for a correct price The farmer can tell when the chickens are vaccinated

5. Mention 5 characteristics of a good hen?

Are lively. Interested in their environment. Yellow skinned breeds have yellow colored beaks and shanks. Smooth and nice-looking feathers in the colours of the breed. Red and fully grown combs and wattles The right bodyweight The hens are vaccinated Have a good water and feed consumption When they are old enough, they produce around one egg a day

6. Where can you buy good producing chickens? The best option is to buy the chickens by Maranatha farm or a comparable company. When you buy chickens by another local farmer, there is a bigger risk on diseases or non producing hens. You have to check the chickens first when you decide to buy your chickens on a local farm, bij voorkeur with an expert. 7. Why is it important to make a written contract? To prevent problems in future (garanty and prices) or by paying the chickens. Subchapter 4.4 8. What kind of transports are available? And what kind of transport would you choose for local transport?

Transport by truck Transport by air Chick boxes Carrying crates


Carrying crates are the best option for local transport, because there are different kinds of crates available on the market, opportune by the size and amount of chickens. Chicken crates are animal friendly (by good using). 9. What is culling? And what are the most common defects? Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens that are inferior in appearance or production, that are sick of become sick, have to be removed from the flock. Culling starts when the chickens arrive at the farm. One-day old chick can show the following defects:

Crooked legs (curly toes), only one eye or a crossed beak Unhealed navels Dehydration, because too much body moisture has been lost. This condition is difficult to

correct. The colours are not representative for the breed, it could be a disease The chickens are not lively, with sunken head and drooping wings. This indicates that the

chick does not feel well and may already be sick

Subchapter 4.5 10. Why are the first ten days of a chicken the most important days? The chickens are vulnerable and experienced hatching, have been graded, vaccinated, sexed, handled, placed on transport and other environments, this all in a few hours or days. Comfort during this period is essential and will prevent a high mortality. 11. Is it handy to buy chicks when you want to keep chickens for egg producing? Explain you motivation. No, because chicks are very vulnerable and need special care. Especially when you are a starting farmer, you do not have the right knowledge to let turn the chicks into wholesome laying hens. The better way is to buy chickens when they just start laying (around 20 weeks). 12. Why does a rearer need more metabolic energy and crude protein in their food? (In comparing to a layer) They need the energy and protein for growing. They grow very fast during the rearing period, so it is the most important period in their life to become a good layer. 13. Explain this picture.

It shows the behavior of the chicks into the brooder. The heat is placed in the middle of the circle.

Too high: Chicks make no noise, chicks pant, head and wigs droop and get away from the heater.


Too cold: Chicks crowd to the brooder and are noisy, distress calling Draught: This distribution requires investigation, influenced by draught, uneven light

distribution or external noises. Correct temperature: Chicks evenly spread and the noise level signifies contentment.

Subchapter 4.6 14. When is a chicken called a ‘broiler’? (based on age) At the age of 7-22 weeks

Subchapter 4.7 15. When start a layer to produce eggs? They start to produce eggs when they are 20 weeks old. Subchapter 4.8 16. Why can meat chickens not be hold on slatted floor systems? The meat chickens are too heavy for the slats, when they reach the top of their weight, they cannot walk on the slats anymore.


CHAPTER 5 – MAINTENANCE True or False? True or False? True False 1 A wet perch doesn’t rot away X 2 The pH for quality water needs to be between the 5 and 8 X 3 Quality water needs to contain sediment X 4 Controlling the intake is a example of the animal care routine X Subchapter 5.1 1. How long does a plastic water bucket or bin last? Plastic buckets or bins can be used as a water system. A plastic bucket will last for 2 weeks. This fact counts when you constantly fill the bucket up to the edge or when you step on it. When you handle the bucket or bin with care it can last for 20 years. This will only count when you fill the bucket for 70% and not to the edge. 2. How can you make sure that a perch is kept dry? Make sure that the sitting stick is placed on top of a stone so that the stick won’t touch the ground. This will help to keep the sitting stick dry in times that the ground will get wet. 3. How can you prevent eucalyptus tree from getting wet? To prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet, you can extend your roof. If you let your roof stick out for at least one metre. The eucalyptus tree won’t get wet. This extends the lifetime of the eucalyptus tree. The second option to prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet is to nail some corrugated metal against them. These corrugated metal are made of plastic which is waterproof. Subchapter 5.2 4. How can you maintain a high quality of water? You need to refresh the water twice a day with fresh water. This is to keep high quality water for the chickens. If you look at the water and you wouldn’t want to drink it yourself because it’s so dirty, than the water is of a poor quality and it needs to be refreshed. You can put a drop of chloride in the water. This drop terminates bacteria’s and parasites that live in the water. This means that the water is now sterile. Don’t use this method every time you refresh the water. If you use this method every time the chickens will be incapable of developing an immune system. Use this method not more than once every two weeks. You can determine the quality of the drinking water in a laboratory. The criteria for quality water are:

It needs to be clear (limpid), without smell, colour or sediment pH needs to be between the 5 and 8 Hardness: hard water contains various calcium and magnesium salts. In itself hard water is

not harmful for chickens, but it may influence the functioning of the water equipment. Hard water in combination with a high sulphate level can cause diarrhoea.

Iron: maximum 1 mg/litre. High levels may affect drugs such as tetracycline and sulpha drugs and may affect the functioning of valves and nipple drinkers. The problem with high levels of iron, calcium and magnesium, in particular for vaccinations and drug supply, may be overcome by adding dried skim milk to the water.


5. What can you do with the bedding material that’s collected by the cleaning of the stable? The bedding material of the stable is recyclable. Clean up the bedding material and disinfection it. After you’ve done that the bedding material can be fed as concentrate to the horses, cows and donkeys. You can also use it as a fertilizer. 6. Why is a thorough cleaning so important? By cleaning thoroughly, we can remove 99% of all pathogens. When we do it poorly, the usefulness of our work is low; there is little difference between poor cleaning and not cleaning at all, hence is poor cleaning is a waste of effort. After cleaning comes disinfection; disinfection without perfection has generally little sense. 7. What do you need to do when you want to place a new bought rooster to the flock? If you want to place new, bought stock with your own hens, it’s a good idea to keep the new bird separated for some time. If a contagious disease appears, the change of infection will be less than if you immediately place the new birds with the old stock. 8. How can you protect your stable from the entering of predators? A way to protect you stable against the entering of the predators is to cover all openings with 13 mm wire mesh. 9. What are the daily routine tasks?

Daily health control Animal care Routine administration

10. What are the tasks that the daily routines consist of? Daily health control You need to inspect the flock of chickens at least twice a day. When you inspect the flock it is necessary to observe them:

At behaviour, appearance of flock and individual birds, if necessary examination You need to control the intake (feed and water) You need to control the output (production, excrements, dead birds)

Animal care (daily) Below is a check-list for the daily routine check upon the health of the flock:

Clean water Clean feed (no old feed rests) Temperature, ventilation, air composition Bedding, manure disposal, fly control Immediate separation of weak and sick birds Execution of treatments Reporting abnormalities immediately

Routine administration (daily) You need to keep your administration up-to-date. This means that you need to register daily:

Feed consumption (including grit, shell, green plants) Water consumption (a change in water consumption is often a warning) Production


Mortality Incidents

You also need to register periodical activities such as: Vaccinations Preparation related to reception, delivery and transport of the birds Routine checks of (ecto)parasites once a month

Subchapter 5.3 11. What does feed mainly consists of?

Vitamins Minerals Energy Protein Water

12. Where can you find vitamins? Vitamins can be found in all types of fresh fruits, seeds and plants. To give the chicken all the vitamins he needed, variation in seeds and fruit is required. Vitamin and mineral supplements are added to the complete feed. 13. Why is it important to get enough minerals? It’s important to get enough minerals for the construction of bones and feathers. Getting enough minerals is essential when the chicken starts to produce eggs. Enough minerals will result in good shells and strong eggs. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorus for the producing of eggs. These minerals can be found in eggshells, bones and lime. Subchapter 5.4 14. What amount does a chicken eat and drink a day? A chicken eats around the 125 grams a day and drinks around the 250 millilitre water a day. 15. When do you need to order new feed? Make sure that when you get your order of food that you immediately make another order at the factory. At this way you can never have a shortage in feed at your farm. It can occur that the factory can’t deliver your order at time. This can create the fact that you’re short in food. A shortage in food at your farm has a negative effect on the production of the animals. 16. Where do you go if you don’t know what to do anymore? Every village has its own advice centre. This is a centre where you can ask for advice when you don’t know what to do anymore with you chickens and the feeding of them.


CHAPTER 6 – OUTFLOW Subchapter 6.1 The egg

1. Is the egg in the glass above rotten or not? (Circle the right answer and explain your answer) A) Yes B) No Yes, the egg is floating towards the surface, caused by the accumulation of gas in the egg itself. This means the egg is rotten.

2. This basket is filled to the edge. Why is this a good sign? This means the eggs are strong enough and have a strong shell.


3. Can you store the eggs (as shown in the picture above) like this for a longer period of time? Explain your answer ? No, because direct sunlight is not good for the eggs. 4. Write down 3 different options to sell your eggs to Personal contacts, the market, hotels, restaurants, local shops or at your own shop. Hotels, shops and restaurants often need a receive with a VAT number and other data of your business. When you are not registered, you can sell the eggs at your own shop, the local market or to personal contacts.

4. The picture above is an example of:

A. Sorting the eggs B. Checking the eggs C. Reflect on the health of the chicken

5. Fill in the right circumstances to store the eggs: Temperature: around 24 degrees Celsius. Surrounding: cool, sun free and dry Light: low, sun free Storing period: up to three or four weeks.

Subchapter 6.2 The chicken


6. Is this chicken (as shown in the picture above) producing eggs? Explain your answer. No, these are young, good feathered chickens. When you see such a beautiful hen, it means they are not producing eggs. When they are producing eggs, they will be bolder. All of the hens’ energy goes to the eggs, so they don’t look as beautiful as young, non- producing hens.

7. Fill in the right price on the 70 irr


8. Write down 3 different options to sell your chickens to It’s most important to have some interested personal contacts like family, neighbours or friends. You could also try to sell them on the market. 9. Fill in the right terms by using the 18 characteristics below. Trait Productive chicken Unproductive chicken General condition Lively Dull Weight Good Usually fairly light Wattle and comb Soft; bright red Pale and rough Eyes Lively Dull; yellow rims Pigment ( yellow breeds) Disappears Stays longer Cloacae Large, soft, moist Shrivelled, dry Distance between lay bones Large ( 5 cm) Small ( 2 cm) Distance between breastbone and lay bones

Large ( 8 cm) Small ( 4 cm)

Skin Soft, loose Skin

12. Lively 13. Dull 14. Good 15. Usually fairly light 16. Soft; bright red 17. Pale and rough 18. Lively 19. Dull; yellow rims 20. Disappears 21. Stays longer 22. Large, soft moist

19. Shrivelled, dry 20. Large ( 5 cm) 21. Small ( 2 cm) 22. Large ( 8 cm) 23. Small ( 4 cm) 24. Soft, loose 25. Skin


CHAPTER 7 – BUSINESS True or false (set a cross at the right answer) True or False? True False 1 A hen will begin to lay eggs at the age of 15 weeks x 2 A hen lays about 1 egg a day, but the percentage is 80 % x 3 The total of weeks a hen lays eggs is about 75 weeks x 4 A hen lays about 250 eggs a lifetime x 5 A hen stops laying eggs at the average age of 90 weeks x Subchapter 7.1 Egg production 1. You have the following data:

Number of egg laying hens: 200 Percentage: 75 % 7 days a week 30 days a month 365 days a year.

A) How many eggs can you collect per week? Write down the calculation and the answer. 200x 0.75 = 150 eggs able to collect a day.

150 7 days = 1,050 eggs a week. B) How many eggs can you collect per month? Write down the calculation and the answer.

150 30 days = 4,500 eggs a month. C) How many eggs can you collect per year? Write down the calculation and the answer.

150 x 365 days = 52,500 eggs a year. Subchapter 7.2 Marketing

2. Is the sentence below true or false? Marketing means: all of the activities that will bring the seller and the buyer together. True


3. How is this table above called? Bostonmatrix. 4. There is only one supplier but there is many demand. How is this market form called? (circle the right answer) A) Oligopoly B) Monopoly C) Polypoly

5. The picture above is an example of: Advertisement.


6. What is the most important rule of marketing? Honesty is the most important rule of marketing. Be honest and true to your customers. For example: don’t mix good eggs with bad eggs. Make sure you deliver quality. When people are satisfied with the quality of your eggs, they will tell it to other people and your eggs will be noticed. 7. Write down 3 of the 7 questions you have to answer for yourself after you’ve tested the market After testing the market, you must answer these questions:

1. Where you able to get the price you wanted? If not, why not? 2. How many birds did you sell? 3. Do you think you’d be able to sell more? 4. Where there extra costs in selling, things you hadn’t thought of when you worked out the

feasibility costs? 5. How much money did you spend on buying the chickens, including the transport? 6. How much money did you receive from sales? 7. Did you make a profit? How much was it?

8. Write down how you are planning to earn your place into the market According to the trainings manual, the most important things to do to earn your place into the market are:

Know your customers. Who are you selling to? Who else is selling the same products? Get to know your concurrent Know your market. What are the prices? Respond on it. Be honest and true to your customers. Don’t mix good eggs with bad eggs. Make sure you deliver quality. When people are satisfied with the quality of your eggs, they

will tell it to other people and your eggs will be noticed Pick a name. When your eggs are being noticed, the people must know that are your eggs.

For example: people in local shops will ask for ‘Maranatha eggs’ or ‘Genesis eggs’ Build a reputation. Now that you have named your eggs and they are being noticed, it’s

important to keep the good reputation and to ensure the quality of your eggs. Make sure you show the certificate of the training you followed. This is another advantage

against your concurrent. Through this your customers will notice you are qualified and you know what you are talking about.

Subchapter 7.3 Registration and identification


9. Is it necessary to identify chickens? No, it is not necessary to identify your chickens. But if you do, you can do this for example with collars around their legs. On these collars will be a number of identification. 10. Write down how you would register the eggs According to the trainings manual, the easiest way to register the eggs is to use a chalk board or egg calendar. It’s important to think very logical. Note the egg production a day, the number of hens you have, food consumption per hen and deaths or other disasters. At the end of one month you can compare the different findings and maybe you will notice some changes. You can also note the date you’ve bought new food, how much green food is available, some reparations that still have to be done and other findings. Subchapter 7.4 Networking and working together

11. Describe the advantages of networking. Why is this an advantage? Networking has a lot of advantages. The five most important advantages are:

1. It’s easier to have access to knowledge and expertise. The threshold to call someone for advice, who is in your network is lower

2. You will learn to work more effective and more efficient. The time to get the right person by yourself is much shorter

3. You are reaching your goal faster. People who are networking will make promotion more early and will make more profit

4. It gives less tress. You are helping people and they are helping you more quickly 5. It will give you a good feeling. People will know you are helping them and will ask more

often for your advice.


12. Describe the advantages of working together. Why is this an advantage?

Aspect Advantages Risks

Education Learning from each other

Sharing own knowledge with

the risk of losing it

Responsibility More people or parties are carrying the

responsibility

People or companies are

hiding behind each other,

abdicate of responsibility

Synergy Consummate of each other’s capacity

Dependency from both parties

and the possibility to loose

speed

Conflicts Source of ideas for improvement

Losing time or running away

from problems to keep the

peace.

Movement

Through combinations will commence

new dynamics and movement and there

will commence ways to avoide the weak

chains.

There will commence new

weak chains that will influence

the speed

Volume of

work

You can quarter the work and avoid

double work.

Extra communication and

control is needed, considering

the volume of work

Harmony Group feeling and the accessory energy Loss of autonoom handling


13. Describe how you would create a win- win situation Some examples of advantages and win- win situations:

Making price ranges with partners; like with the supplier of your chickens, Trade your goods with goods you need from your partner, create a win- win situation, Categorize; like doing different researches and exchange the information, Discuss marketing strategies, make sure you’re doing something else and make sure you

compete, Explore the market together, together you will notice more than alone.

Subchapter 7.5 Customer focus and customer friendliness 14. Write down and explain 5 of the 12 tips that are mentioned in subchapter 7.5.1 The twelve tips that are mentioned in subchapter 7.5.1 are: Tip 1 It’s not about you; it’s about your customer. If you talk about yourself and your product a lot, you will miss the essence of the conversation. It’s important to ask the right questions, so the customer will notice you understand what he’s saying and you can provide the best possible solution. Tip 2 Give your customer the best possible service. Treat your customers like you want to be treated. Give your customers the best possible service and attention they deserve. Giving them attention, listening to them, a smile and understanding are the key words. Tip 3 Can you provide in your customers’ needs? Everyone has their own character, personality and personal style. Try to replace yourself in the experience your customer. In that way your customer feels that he is taken seriously and will be triggered to do business with you the next time. Tip 4 Call your customer by their name. When it’s possible, note your customers’ name and use theirs in a conversation. At this way you make the conversation way more personal. Tip 5 Be honest. You can be friendly to your consumers, but when you don’t mean it, it disturbs the communication. Make sure you mean what you say. Tip 6 Speak clearly. This is mostly important when you have a phone conversation. You want to make sure that your customers understand what you are saying. Clear talk will help you with that. Tip 7 Go for a win- win situation. You make the best deals when you both have the feeling you have an advantage of it. Tip 8 Invest in a long term relationship. Don’t go for the quick profit. By making the contact with the customer smooth you will invest in a long term relationship.


Tip 9 The customer is not always right. You have to be assertive and you have to draw a line. Sometimes a customer asks something you can’t give or what against your own norms and values. In that case you have to draw the line for yourself; even it can be hard sometimes. You have to stand up for yourself but you also have to be respectful for the other. You have to find the balance between that. Tip 10 Be satisfied with the feedback you get from your customer. You can learn a lot from the feedback and improvements your customers suggest. Take them seriously, because they will help you to do things different or better. Maybe they will attend you on something you didn’t know about yourself. On the other hand they take the time and courage to tell you. Feedback from your customers will help you to test your customer satisfaction. Tip 11 Selling ‘no’ sometimes is the best answer. Sometimes it is better to sell ‘no’, than to suggest a solution the customer won’t help. Customers want to be taken seriously. Tip 12 Be yourself. Just be yourself. It’s always better to be yourself than to play a role of someone you’re not. It will cost you a lot of energy and besides that, it’s not necessary at all. 15. What is customer friendless, according to you? Own opinion. Subchapter 7.6 Logistics 16. How would you transport the eggs and chickens? According to the trainings manual, this is best way to transport eggs: ‘It is it helpful to have proper egg trays (that usually hold two- and a half dozen eggs) or egg boxes (that hold six or 12 eggs), as shown in figure 7.6. This will mean less egg breakages. You can buy cardboard trays or boxes from your poultry supplier. An example of a poultry supplier is Alema Farm. Some producers sell boiled eggs when there is a demand (bus or train passengers, for example). Make sure you manage your transport carefully to collect your input as well as you do your marketing. For the transport, you can decide to hire or buy a car or other vehicle. But when you mostly are selling at home, this is not necessary. Besides that, it’s expensive. When you are selling at the local market, you can decide to buy a horse or mule to transport the eggs by gari. Maybe you already have one. Horses are very hard working animals and you could also use them to work on your land or as your own transport. Mules are stronger than horses or donkeys and will work more in your advantage. Another option is to transport the eggs yourself, by carrying them with you while travelling to the local market. You can use the little blue- and white busses which are used as public transport.’ According to the trainings manual, this is the best way to transport chickens: ‘If you are going to transport broilers or old hens alive, you will need something in which to carry them. You could use a plastic crate or just a big cardboard box with holes cut in the sides so that the chickens can breathe. A plastic crate will last for a long time, but you have to clean and disinfect it after selling each batch.


For the transport, you could do the same as with the eggs. Choose the vehicle that fits best at your company and works best in your advantage. Don’t spend money on things you don’t necessarily need.’ Subchapter 7.7 Financial aspects 17. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result How many chickens 200 Gram a day a chicken 125 Kilogram a day in total

Price of the food 800 for 100 kg Price a kilogram Total costs a day How many chickens 200 200 chickens Gram a day a chicken 125 125 gram Kilogram a day in total 200 chickens x 125 gram

25,000 gram. 25,000/ 1,000 = 25 kg

Price of the food 800 for 100 kg 800 birr for 100 kg Price a kilogram 800 birr/ 100 kg = 8 birr 8 birr a kilogram Total costs a day 25 kg x 8 birr = 200 birr 200 rr a day 18. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result Age of arriving 20 20 weeks Age of leaving 90 90 weeks Total of weeks at the farm 90 weeks- 20 weeks = 70 70 weeks Total of days at the farm 70 weeks x 7 days= 490 490 days Total of gram a chicken 490 days x 125 gram a day 61,250 gram or 61.25

kilogram Total of costs a chicken ( 70 days) 61.25 kg x 8 birr 490 birr Total of costs for 200 chickens ( 70 days)

490 birr x 200 chickens 98,000 birr

19. Fill in the right calculation and results. The percentage to calculate with is 80 %

Data Calculating Result Number of egg laying chickens 500 500 chickens Number of eggs a day 500 x 0,8 400 eggs Average number of eggs sold a day ( personal contacts, market, own shop)

400 400 eggs

Price of one egg 2 birr 2 birr Income a day 400 eggs x 2 birr 800 birr


Income a week ( 7 days) 800 birr x 7 days 5,600 birr Income a month (30 days) 800 birr x 30 days 24,000 birr Income a year ( 365 days) 800 birr x 365 days 292,000 birr 20. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result Number of non- producing chicken

150 150 chickens


Afford 150 chickens x 70 birr 10,500 birr


CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY True or False (set a cross on the right answer) True or False? True False 1 A license can be requested at the police station X 2 The vat percentage of a farmer with 200 chickens is 15 % X 3 You need another license when you keep more than 1000 chickens X 4 The most important thing when you approach another company is that

you got the right competences X

5 There are 2 factors that prevent chickens against ectoparasites X Subchapter 8.1 1. What are the most important competences? The most important competences are communication, self-reflection, presenting and globalization. 2. What is the most important thing that you must keep in mind by visiting another company? The most important thing is that you got the right competences. Subchapter 8.2 3. What kind of license do you need to start a company with 200 chicken? A license that contains the legal keeping of 1000 or less chicks. 4. For which amount of chickens do you need another license? 1000 or more chickens 5. There are 2 different vat percentages, what is the difference? One is 2% and the other is 15%. 6. Where can you request a license? At the government Subchapter 8. 3 7. What is the reason for a starting company to make a business plan? It is the best way for a farmer to make sense to the government. Subchapter 8.4 8. What are the most effective ways of making advertisements for your company? In the newspapere Mouth to mouth advertisement. Signs along the road. Posters on poles and trees. Handing out business cards .



9. What is one of the most common reasons for making advertisement? To get a bigger target audience. Subchapter 8.5 10. Is it important to get a functional conversation with your employees? Yes, you can ask what goes wrong and the functioning in the company. Subchapter 8.6 11. Cooperation is useful. Describe 2 negative and the positive aspects. Negative: both company must think the same. Difficult to agree with each other. Positive: more recourses at your disposal. You can share knowledge with each other. It gives you more knowledge.


BIBLIOGRAPHY Al-Rawl, B. and Craig, J.V. (1975). Agonistic behaviour of caged chickens related to group size and area per chicken. Applied Animal Ethology 2:69-80 Brak, K (2013) interview at Maranatha farm Blockhuis, H.J. (1991). Effect of rearing conditions on feather pecking in laying hens, Applied Animal Behavioural Science 30, 186 Blokhuis, H.J. (1989).The development and causation of feather pecking in the domestic fowl. Spelderholt Publ. 520, 109 Craig, J.V. and Guhl, A.M. (1969).Territorial behaviour and social interactions of pullets kept in large flocks. Poultry Science 48:1622–1628 Cunningham, D.L. and van Tienhoven, A. (1983). Relationship between production factors and dominance in White Leghorn hens in a study on social rank and cage design. Applied Animal Ethology 8, 365–375 Dawkins, M. (1980). Environmental preference studies in the hen. Animal Regular Studies 3:57–63. Eekeren van, A., Maas, A., Saatkamp H.W. & Verschuur M. (2004). Small-scale poultry production in the tropics. Agrodok 4. Wageningen: Agromisa Foundation. Eekeren van, A., Maas, A., Saatkamp H.W. & Verschuur M. (2006). Small-scale chicken production. Wageningen:Agromisa Foundation and CTA. Encyclo ( w.d.). Klanttevredenheid. From http://www.encyclo.nl/begrip/Klantvriendelijkheid Encyclo ( w.d.) Winst. From http://www.encyclo.nl/begrip/winst Encyclo ( w.d.). Omzet. From http://encyclo.nl/begrip/omzet Encyclo ( w.d.). Logistiek. From http://www.encyclo.nl/begrip/Logistiek Encyclo ( w.d.). Netwerken. From http://www.encyclo.nl/zoek.php?woord=netwerken Eltink, M. & Vastenhout, I.(2013) Internship. Development of chicken sector PassionConnectsEthiopia. Gauthier, J. DVM, Ludlow, R. (2013) Chicken health for dummies. Gietema, Bart. (2005). The basics of chicken farming (in the tropics). Agromisa Foundation, Wageningen Goodwin, E.B. and Hess, E.H. (1969). Innate visual form preferences in the imprinting behaviour of hatchlingchicks. Behaviour 34:238–254


Guhl, A.M. (1950). Social dominance and receptivity in the domestic fowl. Physiol. Zool. 23:361–366 Guhl, A.M. (1958).The development of social Organisation in the domestic chick. Animal Behaviour 6:92–111 Guhl, A.M. and Ortman, L.L. (1953).Visual patterns in the recognition of individuals among chickens. Condor 55, 287–298 Hansen, I. and Braastad, B.O. (1994) Effect of rearing density on pecking behaviour and plumage condition of laying hens in two types of aviary, Applied Animal Behavioural Science 40, 263–272 Houden van klanten ( 2010 ). Klanttevredenheid. From http://www.houdenvanklanten.nl/klantvriendelijkheid Hughes, B.O. and Wood-Gush, D.G.M. (1977) Agonistic behaviour in domestic hens: the influence of housing method and group size. Animal Behaviour 25, 1065–1062. Informatie over veel gespreksonderwerpen(2013). Marketing. http://www.info/marketing Keeling, L.J. and Hurink, J.F. (1996). Social facilitation acts more on the consummatory phase on feeding behaviour. Animal Behaviour 52, 11–15. Keepin on strict hygienic rules (2006). Desinfection. http://www.hygienerules.com Kruijt, J.P. (1964). Ontogeny of social behaviour in the Burmese Red jungle Fowl. Behaviour Suppl. XII, 1–201 Leren Netwerken ( w.d.) Voordelen. From http://www.lerennetwerken.nl/index.php/voordelen Maranatha Farm PLC. Management points in brief: Rearers, Growers& Layers. Mauldin, J.M. (1992) Applications of Behaviour to Poultry Management, Symposium: Quantifying the behaviour of Poultry. Poultry Science 71, 634–642 McBride, G. and Foenander, F. (1962). Territorial behaviour in flocks of domestic fowls. Nature 194:102 McBride, G., James, J.W. and Shoffner, R.N. (1963). Social forces determining spacing and head orientation in a flock of domestic hens. Nature 197:1272–1273 Mench, J. and Keeling, L.J, (2001) The Social Behaviour of Domestic Chickens, in Social Behaviour in Farm Animals. ed. L.J. Keeling and H.W. Gonyou, CABI Publishing, UK Meunier-Salaun, M.C. and Faure, J.M. (1984). On the feeding behaviour of the laying hen. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 13, 129–141. Ministry of agriculture, Livestock Development and marketing, chicken feed. Zippy Print Limited.


Mucket, (2012).Backyard chicken facts. Consulted on the 4th of December 2013 fromhttp://www.backyardchickens.com/a/interesting-facts-about-chicken-eggs PTC+, Hoenders Recoursement . (2004). http://www.ethiopianrecourses/cooperation Sainsbury, D.W.B.(1980).Poultry production and welfare.Animal Regular Studies 3:43–49 Samenwerken tussen organisaties ( 2006 ). From http://www.samenwerkentussenorganisaties.nl/Default.aspx?tabid=591 Schriel, P. ( 2012). Klantvriendelijkheid tips, klantgerichtheid en klanttevredenheid. From http://patrickschriel.nl/2012/05/19/klantvriendelijkheid-tips-klantgerichtheid-en-klanttevredenheid/ Sherwin, C.M. and Nicol C.J. (1993) A descriptive account of the prelaying behaviour of hens housed individually in modified cages with nests. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 38, 49–60. Slack-Smith, I. (2000, August 24) Insult and Battery, The Land Newspaper, A Rural Press Publication. STOAS. (1992). Chicken farming. Instruction & advice. Book one. Published by STOAS, Wageningen. STOAS. (1993).Chicken farming. More background information. Published by STOAS, Wageningen. Twinch, C. Succesvol kippen houden. Aartselaar: Zuidnederlandse Uitgeverij N.V. Verhage, B. ( 2009 ). Grondslagen van de marketing. ( seventh edition). Groningen| Houten: Noordhoff Uitgevers. Voedingswaarde levensmiddelen (2013). Alfalfa. http://www.voedingswaardetabel.nl/voedingswaarde/voedingsmiddel/?id=611 Wegner, R.M. (1980) Evaluation of various maintenance conditions for laying hens. Animal Regular Studies3:73–82. Wethli, E. (1999). The Southern African Chicken Book. How to start a small business keeping chickens. Creda Communications, South Africa Ylander, D.M. and Craig, J.V. (1980) Inhibition of agonistic acts between domestic hens by a dominant third party. Applied Animal Ethology 6:63–69.


APPENDIX 1- BUSINESS PLAN 1.0 Executive Summary The purpose of this organization strategy strategy is to increase $900,000 for the growth of a poultry village and constant facility while presenting the predicted financial records and functions over the next three decades. Chickenfarm Inc. (“the Company”) is a New You are able to based organization that will provide income of live poultry and egg to customers in its focused industry. The Company was established by David Doe. 1.1 Products and Services As stated above, the primary income flow for the organization will come from the sale of meticulously poultry to farm owners within the target audience. The Company anticipates that each poultry will generate approximately $10 of income for the organization. Additional sources of income will include providing income of killed chickens/ egg to suppliers throughout the United States. The third section of the organization strategy strategy will further explain the solutions offered by the Chicken Farm. 1.2 The Financing Mr. Doe is seeking to increase $900,000 from as a loan from the bank. The attention amount and loan agreement are to be further discussed during discussion. This organization strategy represents that the organization will receive a 15 season loan with an 8% set amount. The funding will be used for the following: • Development of the Business’s Chicken Farm location. • Financing for the first six months of operation. • Capital to purchase the equipment for the Chicken Farm. Mr. Doe will play a role $100,000 to the venture. 1.3 Objective Statement The Chicken Farm’s mission is to become the recognized leader in its focused industry for income of poultry and egg. 1.4 Management Team The Company was established by David Doe. Mr. Doe has more than 10 decades of experience in the animal income industry. Through his expertise, he will be able to bring the functions of the organization to success within its first season of functions. 1.5 Sales forecast

Mr. Doe desires a strong amount of growth at the start of functions. Below are the predicted financial records over the next three decades.


1.6 Expansion Plan The Creator desires that the business will strongly increase during the first three years of function. Mr. Doe plans to apply marketing strategies that will successfully focus on plants, poultry merchants, and slaughter homes within the focus on audience. 2.0 Organization And Funding Summary

2.1 Authorized Name and Business Structure Chicken Village, Inc. The Organization is registered as a organization in the Condition of New You are able to. 2.2 Needed Funds At this time, the Chicken Village needs $900,000 of debts resources. Below is a malfunction of how these resources will be used:

http://samplesofbusinessplans.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/sales.gif


2.3 Investor Equity Mr. Doe is not looking for an investment from a third celebration presently. 2.4 Management Equity John Doe owns 100% of the Poultry Village, Inc. 2.5 Exit Strategy If the organization is very successful, Mr. Doe may seek to offer the organization to a third celebration for a important income multiple. Most likely, the Company will hire a qualified organization broker to offer the organization on behalf of the Poultry Village. Based on traditional numbers, the organization could fetch a product sales premium of up to 8 times income (including the value of appreciated real estate). 3.0 Items And Services

Below is a information of the solutions offered by the Poultry Village. 3.1 Sales of Chicken

http://samplesofbusinessplans.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Required-Funds.gif


The primary income stream for the organization will come from the selling of chicken to plants and slaughterhouses within the Business’s focused market. As stated in the executive conclusion, the anticipated income generated from the selling of each lawn fed chicken will produce roughly $10 of income. The organization plans to produce a lot of interest in the Poultry Village due to the fact that organic agriculture methods will be used and all poultry will only be fed lawn. 3.2 Sales of Various meats and Eggs Additionally, the service will also offer for the product sales of chicken to suppliers throughout the U. s. Declares. Poultry and egg are in requirement on a year long foundation, and the Company will be able to produce substantial income from selling top quality lawn chicken.

4.0 Strategic And Market Analysis

4.1 Financial Outlook This area of the research will detail the economical system, chicken agriculture market, the client information, and the opponents that the organization will face as it advances through its organization functions. Currently, the economical market condition in the U. s. Declares is gradual. This slowdown in the economic system has also greatly impacted property product sales, which has halted to traditional lows. Many economists expect that this gradual will continue for a important time period, at which point the economic system will begin a prolonged recovery period. This should have only a modest impact on the Business’s ability to produce income from its chicken agriculture and egg/chicken product sales functions. 4.2 Industry Analysis Within the U. s. Declares, there are roughly 65,000 plants that specialize in the development of chicken meat and egg manufacturing. Each year, these companies produce almost $85 billion dollars of income and offer jobs to more than 700,000 people. Yearly payrolls in each of the last five years has exceeded $10 billion dollars. This is a mature market, and the predicted future rate of growth is predicted to equal that of the common economic system. The requirement for chicken has continued to remain powerful despite the economic system. 4.3 Client Profile The Poultry Farm’s average client will be a slaughterhouse, farmer’s market, or chicken distributor in the Business’s focus on audience. Common traits among clients will include: • Annual income exceeding $1,000,000 • Operates no more than 25 miles from the Business’s location. • Will spend $5,000 to $30,000 with the Company on a yearly foundation. • Is licensed by the USDA to acquire, slaughter, and offer chicken. 4.4 Aggressive Analysis This is one of the sections of the organization technique strategy that you must write completely on your own. The key to writing a powerful competitive research is that you do your research on the regional opponents. Find out who your opponents are by doing a google search online directories looking in your regional Yellow Pages. If there are a variety of opponents in the same market (meaning that it is not feasible to explain each one) then showcase the variety of companies that compete with you, and why


your organization will offer clients with service/products that are of better quality or less expensive than your opponents.


5.0 Promotion Plan The Poultry Village plans to maintain an extensive technique that will ensure maximum visibility for the organization in its focused market. Below is an overview of the marketing techniques and goals of the Company. 5.1 Promotion Objectives • Establish connections with vets, regional plants, and chicken suppliers throughout the focus on audience. • Implement a regional technique with the Business’s focused market via the use of flyers, regional newspaper ads, and testimonials advertising. • Develop an online business by developing a website and placing the Business’s name and get in touch with details with online online directories. 5.2 Promotion Strategies Mr. Doe plans on using a variety of selling techniques that will allow the Poultry Village to easily focus on buyers within the focus on audience. These techniques consist of traditional print ads and ads placed on google on the Internet. Below is a information of how the organization plans to promote its solutions to the community. The Poultry Village will also use an online technique. This is very important as many people looking for regional solutions, such as chicken plants, now the Internet to conduct their initial searches. Mr. Doe will register the Poultry Village with online portals so that prospective clients can easily reach the organization. The Company will also create its own website showcasing the service, its inventory of poultry, initial costs details, and get in touch with details. Finally, Mr. Doe will create ongoing recommendation connections with vets that regularly work with owners of farmers of poultry. As time advances, these recommendation connections with become and invaluable source of income for the organization. 5.3 Pricing

In this area, explain the costs of your solutions as well as. You should offer as much details as possible about your costs as possible in this area. However, if you have hundreds of items, condense your product list categorically. This area of the organization technique strategy should not span more than 1 page. 6.0 Organizational Plan And Personnel Summary 6.1 Corporate Organization


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6.2 Organizational Budget

6.3 Management Biographies In this area of the company strategy, you should write a two to four passage bio about your experience, your education, and your expertise set. For each proprietor or key worker, you should provide a brief bio in this area. 7.Financial Plan 7.1 Actual Assumptions • The Poultry Village will have an yearly income amount of growth of 10% per season. • The Owner will obtain $900,000 of debt resources to create the company. • The loan will have a 15 season term with an 8% interest amount. 7.2 Understanding Analysis During times of financial slowdown or a gradual economic system, the Organization may have issues with top line income as ranchers range down their buying activities and farm owners cut back on capital expenses. However, the census focus on by the Organization have remarkable financial endurance, and

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as such, decreases in general financial efficiency should have only a average effect on the Business’s earnings.


7.3 Source of Funds

7.4 General Assumptions

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7.5 Profit and Loss Statements

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7.6 Cash Flow Analysis

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7.7 Balance Sheet

7.8 General Assumptions

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7.9 Business Ratios

7.10 Expanded Profit and Loss Statements

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Expanded Cash Flow Analysis

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Note: It’s one thing to start a chicken farm, but to start an actual business out of it is something else entirely. You are not only going to become a chicken farmer, but a businessperson as well, depending on what markets you want to target and what part of the chicken industry you want to tap into. In the chicken industry there are two main sectors: Layers, which are chickens bred and raised to produce eggs, or broilers, chickens raised and bred to be slaughtered. Whatever sector you choose, you have to make responsible managerial and financial decisions to make your chicken farm business a profitable one.


Documents

POULTRY FARMING - Addis Alem - Agri Consultaddisalem-agriconsult.com/Trainings manual (teacher... · 2014-03-14 · Chicken is a fast growing product in Ethiopia. Many residents are