Power Project Industry An

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Chapter No 2

Power project industry

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We are committed to provide a range of business supportservices that can assist organisations and individuals toachieve their goals and objectives.

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benefit of our customer in specific and the society ingeneral.We are committed to develop, review and contribute tothe process, techniques on Quality Management Systemsfor continuous improvement.
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We shall be working hard for making our clientorganisations competitive and world class in performanceof business and achieve expected results.

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We, our team of dedicated professionals works with passion tomaintain and continually improve the quality in keeping withour mission objectives.

We shall meet all commitments to customers on time andsatisfy our customers' needs and expectations.

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Commercial projects are currently either operational or under development inAustralia, the United States, and Germany.

The largest project in the world is being developed in Australia's Cooper Basin byGeodynamics.[6] The Cooper Basin project has the potential to develop 510 GW.Australia now has 33 firms either exploring for, drilling, or developing EGS

projects. Australia's industry has been greatly aided by a national RenewablePortfolio Standard of 25% renewables by 2025, a vibrant Green Energy Creditmarket, and supportive R&D collaboration between government, academia, andindustry.

Germany's 23 cent/kWh Feed-In Tariff(FIT) for geothermal energy has led to asurge in geothermal development, despite Germany's relatively poor geothermalresource. The Landau partial EGS project is profitable today under the FIT.

The AltaRock Energy effort is a demonstration project being conducted to proveout the company's proprietary technology at the site of an existing geothermal

project owned and operated byNCPA in The Geysers, and does not include powergeneration. However, any steam produced by the project will be supplied to

NCPA's flash turbines under a long-term contract.[7]

"There are some technical difficulties and challenges there, but those

people who are keen on getting Australia into geothermal say we'vegot this great access to resource and one of the things, interestingly,that's held them back is not having the capacity the put the drilling

plants in place. And so what we intend this $50 million to go towardsis to provide a one for one dollars. Match $1 from us, $1 from theindustry so that they can get these drilling rigs on to site and really getthe best sites identified and get the industry going."[8]

Efficiency and Renewable Energy, [10]

EGS are engineered reservoirs that have been created to extract heat from

economically unproductive geothermal resources. EGS technology includes thosemethods and equipment that enhance the removal of energy from a resource byincreasing the productivity of the reservoir. Better productivity may result fromimproving the reservoirs natural permeability and/or providing additional fluids totransport heat.[11]
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An energy tower (also known as a downdraft energy tower because the air flowsdown the tower) is a tall (1,000 meters) wide (400 meters) hollow cylinder with awater spray system at the top. Pumps lift the water to the top of the tower and thenspray the water inside the tower. This cools the hot air hovering at the top. Thecooled air, now denser than the outside warmer air, falls through the cylinder,spinning a turbine at the bottom. The turbine drives a generator which produces the

electricity.The greater the temperature difference between the air and water, the greater theenergy efficiency. Therefore, downdraft energy towers should work best in a hotdry climate. Energy towers require large quantities of water. Salt water isacceptable, although care must be taken to prevent corrosion.

The energy that is extracted from the air is ultimately derived from the Sun, so thiscan be considered a form ofsolar power. Unusually, this form of solar power alsoworks at night, because air retains some of the day's heat after dark. However,

power generation by the Energy tower is affected by the weather: it slows downeach time the ambienthumidity increases (such as during a rainstorm), or thetemperature falls.

A related approach is the solar updraft tower, which heats air in glass enclosures atground level and sends the heated air up a tower to drive a turbine at the top.Updraft towers don't pump water, which increases their efficiency, but do requirelarge amounts of land for the collectors. Land acquisition and collectorconstruction costs for updraft towers must be compared to pumping infrastructurecosts for downdraft collectors. Operationally, maintaining the collector structuresfor updraft towers must be compared to pumping costs and pump infrastructuremaintenance.

Projections made by Altmann[4] and by Czisch[5][6] about conversion efficiency andabout Cost of Energy (cents/kWh) are based only on model calculations[7], no dataon a working pilot plant have ever been collected.

A traction powerstation is apower station that produces only traction current,that is, electrical current used forrailways, trams, trolleybuses, or otherconveyances. Pure traction power stations are rare, and there are many more powerstations that generate current for other purposes, such as standard three phaseAC
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current, in addition to traction current. Hydroelectric power stations, conventionalthermal power stations, and nuclearpower stations can be used as traction powerstations; wind and solar power stations for the production of traction currentcurrently do not exist[citation needed] but can be used for this goal also.

) is the minimum amount of power that a utility or distribution company mustmake available to its customers, or the amount of power required to meet minimumdemands based on reasonable expectations of customer requirements. Baseloadvalues typically vary from hour to hour in most commercial and industrial areas.[1]

Baseload plant, (also baseload power plant orbase load power station) is anenergy plant devoted to the production of baseload supply. Baseload plants are the

production facilities used to meet some or all of a given region's continuous energydemand, and produce energy at a constant rate, usually at a low cost relative toother production facilities available to the system.[2] Examples of baseload plantsusing nonrenewable fuels include nuclearand coal-fired plants. Among the

renewable energy sources, hydroelectric, geothermal[3] and OTEC can providebaseload power. Baseload plants typically run at all times through the year exceptin the case of repairs or scheduled maintenance. (Hydroelectric power also has thedesirable attribute ofdispatchability, but a hydroelectric plant may run low on itsfuel (water at the reservoir elevation) if a long drought occurs over its drainagebas Each baseload power plant on a grid is allotted a specificamount of the baseload power demand to handle. The base loadpower is determined by the load duration curve of the system. Fora typical power system, the rule of thumb is that the base load poPower plants are designated baseload based on their low costgeneration, efficiency and safety at rated output power levels.Baseload power plants do not change production to match powerconsumption demands since it is more economical to operatethem at constant production levels. Use of higher cost combined-cycle plants or combustion turbines is thus minimized, and theseplants can be cycled up and down to match more rapidfluctuations in consumption. Baseload generators, such as nuclearand coal, often have very high fixed costs and very low marginalcosts. On the other hand, peak load generators, such as natural

gas, have low fixed costs and high marginal costs.[5] Typicallythese plants are large and provide a majority of the power usedby a grid. Thus, they are more effective when used continuouslyto cover the power baseload required by the grid.load durationcurverule of thumbfixed costsmarginal costs[5] grid

wer is usually 35-40% of the maximum load during the year. [4][4]
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inNuclearand coal power plants may take many hours, if not days, to achieve asteady state power output.[citation needed] On the other hand, they have low fuel costs.[citation needed] Because they require a long period of time to heat up to operatingtemperature, these plants typically handle large amounts of baseload demand.Different plants and technologies may have differing capacities to increase ordecrease output on demand: nuclear plants are generally run at close to peak outputcontinuously (apart from maintenance, refueling and periodic refurbishment),while coal-fired plants may be cycled over the course of a day to meetdemand[citation needed]. Plants with multiple generating units may be used as a group toimprove the "fit" with demand, by operating each unit as close to peakefficiencyas possible.

The net capacity factor of apower plant is the ratio of the actual output of a powerplant over a period of time and its output if it had operated at full nameplatecapacity the entire time. To calculate the capacity factor, total energy the plant

produced during a period of time and divide by the energy the plant would haveproduced at full capacity. Capacity factors vary greatly depending on the type offuel that is used and the design of the plant. The capacity factor should not beconfused with the availability faLoad following power plants, alsocalled intermediate power plants, are in between these extremesin terms of capacity factor, efficiency and cost per unit ofelectricity. They produce most of their electricity during the day,when prices and demand are highest. However, the demand andprice of electricity is far lower during the night and intermediateplants shutdown or reduce their output to low levels

overnight.Load following power plants

ctoror with efficiency

The main characteristic of the interaction between waves and a WEC (wave energyconverter) is that energy is converted at large forces and low velocities due to the
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characteristic ofocean waves. As conventional generators are designed for highspeed rotational motion, traditional wave power take-off system use a number ofintermediate steps, for example hydraulics orturbines, to convert this slow-movingwave motion making it suitable for these generators.[1]

Another way to tackle the problem; instead of adapting the waves to the power-take off system is adapting the system to the waves. This can be done by using adirect driven WEC (wave energy converter) with a linear generator. The advantagewith this setup is a less complex mechanical system with potentially a smaller needfor maintenance. One drawback with this kind of system is a more complicatedtransmission of the power to the grid. This is due to the characteristics of thegenerated voltage which will vary both in amplitude and frequency.[1][2]

In the Lysekil project one goal was to develop a simple and robust wave energysystem with a low need for maintenance. The approach was to find a system withfew moving parts and as few energy converting steps as possible. Because of these

requirements, a concept with a direct drivenpermanent magnet linear generatordriven by a buoy that follows the motion at the sea surface was chosen. [1]

[edit] Purpose of the project

Results from the studies demonstrate how well wave energy converting with thisconcept functioning in calm as well as rough offshore sea states. Experiments withnon-linear loads have increased the knowledge about how the transmission systemshould be designed. The results also show how the WEC operates when connectedto a non-linear load which will be the case when the generated voltage rectifies.[1]

The Lysekil Project has been enlarged with two additional WEC which have been

launched in the test site together with a marine substation. These three WEC haverecently (June 2009) been interconnected with the substation.[1][4]

[edit] Technology

[edit] Linear Generator

The moving part in a linear generator is called translator and when the buoy islifted by the wave, the buoy sets the translator in motion. It is the relative motion

between the stator and the translator in the generator which causes voltage to beinduced in the stator windings.[1][2]

The requirement on a linear generator for wave power applications is the ability tohandle high peak forces, low speed and irregular motion at low costs.[5] When agenerator moves with varying speed and direction it results in an induced voltagewith irregular amplitude and frequency. The output powers peak value will beseveral times higher than the average power production. The generator and theelectrical system has to be dimensioned for these peaks in power.[6]
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There are different kind of linear generators which could be used in wave powerapplications and at comparison it has been found that permanent magnetizedsynchronous linear generators is the most suitable type.[5] In the Lysekil project thistype of generator has been chosen and the magnets are Nd-Fe-B permanentmagnets mounted on the translator. Inside the generator powerful springs arefastened underneath the translator, they act as a reacting force in the wave troughsafter the buoy and translator being lifted by the wave crests. The springs alsotemporarily store energy which results in allowing the generator, optimally, to

produce an equally amount of energy in both directions, evening out the producedpower. In the top and bottom of the generator end stops with powerful springs areplaced to limit the translator stroke length.[1][2]

[edit] Transmission system

The power produced cannot, as earlier mentioned, be directly delivered to the gridwithout conversion. This is done in several steps; firstly the voltage is rectified

from each generator. Then they are interconnected in parallel and the DC voltage isfiltered (the filter consist of capacitors). The filter smooths out the voltage from thegenerators and creates a stable DC voltage. During short periods of time, the powerafter the filter will also be constant. If the system is studied during hour-scales (ormore) there will be variations in the produced power, these variations is due tochanges in the sea state.[1]

This buoy-generator concept does not allow a single unit to be operated, especiallynot connected to the grid. This is mainly due to the large short term variations in

produced power and the relatively small size of the WEC. The cost for the

electrical system, the transmission system, would be too high. When severalgenerators are connected in parallel the demand on the ability of the capacitivefilter to store energy will decrease and hence also the cost associated with it. Tocompensate for voltage variations on the output that occur due to sea statevariations, a DC/DC converter or a tap-changed transformer can be used.[1]

[edit] System aspects

A high level of damping (power extraction) results in bigger difference betweenthe vertical motion of the wave and the speed of the translator. This will in turnresult in a higher line force when the wave lifts the buoy and a lower force whenthe buoy moves downwards. The maximum power occurs during the maximumand minimum line forces (assumed the translator is within generator stroke length).If the translator moves downwards with a lower speed than the buoy the line willslacken and the resulting line force becomes almost zero. The reverse relationoccurs when the buoy moves upwards, then the line force becomes larger the

bigger difference there is between the motion of the buoy and the generatortranslator.[1]
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If the wave height (the difference between wave crest and wave trough) is largerthan the stroke length, the translator will reach a standstill at the lower end stop. Atthe upper end stop the wave flushes over the buoy and at the lower the lineslackens. In both of these cases no power is produced (voltage induced) until thetranslator starts to move again. This happens when the wave is lower than the

buoys top position in the upper state, and in the lower state when the wave hasrisen so much that the buoy once again starts to pull the translator upwards. It has

been found that most of the energy is transmitted through wave heights of 1.2-2.7m in the research area.[1]

If the generator is connected to a linear strictly resistive load, it will deliver poweras soon as voltage is induced in the generator. With a non-linear load the relation isnot so simple. The load is not linear due to the transmission system, whose dioderectifier results in power only being able to be extracted over certain voltage levels.Consequently the DC voltage level limits the amplitude of the generator phase

voltage. With a non-linear load the generator phase voltage will reach maximumamplitude which is approximately equal to the DC voltage. When the generatorsphase voltage reaches the level of the DC voltage current starts to flow (power isextracted) from the generator to the DC side of the rectifier. Power will bedelivered as long as the waves can deliver mechanical power to the buoy and aslong as the translator has not reached its upper or lower end stop. The current willincrease when the speed of the translator increases. This non-linear powerextraction results in different shapes of the voltages and the current pulses.[1]

[edit] Environmental impact

The research site was investigated at the beginning of the project and in 2004sediment samples were taken before the WEC was deployed. This was done inorder to investigate and analyze the marineinfauna inside the research area andcontrol area and get information about species composition andbiodiversity.Biodiversity richness is often used to measure the health of biological systems. Theorganisms were identified down to family or species level where possible. AtLysekil research area 68 different species were found. There were only small

juvenile organisms and no red-listed species were found. Since 2004 sedimentsample are taken yearly to follow the development in both the control area and inthe research area. Through the initial studies it has become clear that it was a

higher species richness and biodiversity in the research area than in the controlarea. This is explained by the variety of sediment substrate. Sediment in the controlarea mainly consists of silt, which is mostly relatively oxygen deficient and fewerspecies are adapted to such extreme conditions. Overall the Lysekil research site isnot a unique environment and there was no concern about extinction of sensitivelocal species.[1][3]
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The first experimental setup for marine ecological studies of wave power consistedof 4 biology buoys which were deployed in 2005. The purpose of the buoys is tostudy the effects an establishment of a wave power farm can have. When placingsolid structures on an otherwise rather empty sand bottom the living conditions atthe site will change and the consequences of this are studied with the help of the

buoys. In 2007 the size and the complexity of the study was increased whenadditional buoys were installed. The buoys were divided into two different areasinside the research area, with 200 meter between the groups. Within the groups the

buoys were placed 15-20 meter apart. Half of the foundations were designed withvarious holes and the other half without. The holes in the foundations were made tostudy the difference in colonization between the foundation with and without holesand how the different kind of holes affect the colonization pattern.[1][3]

The biology buoys are also used to studybiofouling and its impact on the powerabsorption. Some preliminary studies suggest that the effect of biofouling on

energy absorption can be neglected but this has to be investigated further.[3]

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Load following power plant

A load following power plant is apower plant that adjusts its power output asdemand forelectricity fluctuates throughout the day.[1] Load following plants are in

betweenbase load andpeaking power plants in efficiency, speed of startup andshutdown, construction cost, cost of electricity and capacity factor.

[edit] Base load power plants

Base load power plants operate continuously at maximum output. They only shutdown to perform maintenance or if something breaks. They produce electricity atthe lowest cost of any type of power plant. Base load power plants include coal,fuel oil, nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric,biomass and combined cyclenaturalgas plants.
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[edit] Peaking power plants

Peaking power plants operate only during times of peak demand. In countries withwidespread air conditioning, demand peaks around the middle of the afternoon, soa typical peaking power plant may start up a couple of hours before this point and

shut down a couple of hours after. However, the duration of operation for peakingplants varies from a good portion of the waking day to only a couple dozen hoursper year. Peaking power plants include hydroelectric and gas turbine power plants.Many gas turbine power plants can be fueled with natural gas ordiesel. Most

plants burn natural gas, but a supply of diesel is sometimes kept on hand in casethe gas supply is interrupted. Other gas turbines can only burn either diesel ornatural gas.

[edit] Load following power plants

Load following power plants run during the day and early evening. They eithershut down or greatly curtail output during the night and early morning, when thedemand for electricity is the lowest. The exact hours of operation depend onnumerous factors. One of the most important factors for a particular plant is howefficiently it can convert fuel into electricity. The most efficient plants, which arealmost invariably the least costly to run perkilowatt-hourproduced, are broughtonline first. As demand increases, the next most efficient plants are brought onlineand so on. The status of the electrical grid in that region, especially how much baseload generating capacity it has, and the variation in demand are also veryimportant. An additional factor for operational variability is that demand does notvary just between night and day. There are also significant variations in the time of

year and day of the week. A region that has large variations in demand will requirea large load following and/or peaking power plant capacity because base loadpower plants can only cover the capacity equal to that needed during times oflowest demand.

Load following power plants include hydroelectric power plants and steam turbinepower plants that run on natural gas or heavy fuel oil, although heavy fuel oilplants make up a very small portion of the energy mix. A relatively efficient modelof gas turbine that runs on natural gas can also make a decent load following plant.

[edit] Gas turbine power plants

Gas turbine power plants are the most flexible in terms of adjusting power level,but are also among the most expensive to operate. Therefore they are generallyused as "peaking" units at times of maximum power demand. Gas turbines findonly limited application as prime movers for power generation at military facilities.This is because gas turbine generators typically have significantly higher heat ratesthan steam turbine or diesel power plants; their higher fuel costs quickly outweightheir initial advantages in most applications. Applications to be evaluated include:
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a. Supplying relatively large power requirements in a facility where space isat a significant premiumsuch as hardened structure.

b. Mobile, temporary or difficult access site such as a troop support or lie ofsight station.c. Peak shaving, in conjunction with a more efficient generating station.d. Emergency power, where a gas turbines lightweight and relativelyvibration-free operation are of greater importance than fuel consumptionover short periods of operation. However, the starting time of gas turbinesmay not be suitable for a given application.e. Combined cycle or cogeneration power plants where turbine exhaustwaste heat can be economically used to generate additional power andthermal energy for process or space heating.

[edit] Hydroelectric power plants

Hydroelectric power plants can operate as base load, load following or peaking

power plants. They have the ability to start within minutes, and in some casesseconds. How the plant operates depends heavily on its water supply. Many plantsdo not have enough water to operate anywhere near their full capacity on acontinuous basis. Plants that have a large amount of water may operate as baseload or as load following power plants. Those that have limited amounts of watermay operate as peaking power plants. Also, the plants may change their operatingstyle depending on the time of year. For example, the plant may operate as a

peaking power plant during the dry season, and as a base load or load followingpower plant during the wet season. This is often done when the reservoirfrequently reaches full capacity and water either has to be used for electricity

generation or be released through the spillway. Another factor is whether the plantshave to release significant quantities of water downstream in order to maintain thestream habitat. Many plants have a base load capacity that is generated with thewater released to maintain the stream habitat. For example, a 100-MWhydroelectric plant may generate 5-MW when it is only releasing enough water fordownstream habitat. Except when it is undergoing maintenance and the water is

bypassed around the turbines, the plant will always be generating at least 5-MW.Some plants have a small turbine for these releases because it is inefficient to run alittle bit of water through a large turbine. Run of the river hydroelectric plants donot have any water storage. They simply divert water from a stream, run it throughthe turbines and then return it to the stream. For this reason, they are always baseload plants. However, they may be forced to shut down or reduce the amount ofdiverted water when the streamflow is insufficient to provide habitat for aquaticorganisms while providing water for electricity generation.

[edit] Nuclear power plants
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Some nuclear power plants (ABWRs and olderBWRs) have the capability to gofrom 100% of rated power down to 50% of rated power in about one hour. Thismakes them useful for overnight load-following.

KKS Power Plant Classification SystemThe KKS Power Plant Classification System is a standardised system for the

classification ofpower stations. It serves during engineering, construction,

operation and maintenance of power stations for identification and classification of

the equipment. The system is known in short as KKS which is the abbreviation of

the German termKraftwerk-Kennzeichensystem. KKS will be replaced in future by

Referenc e Designation System
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