CONVERSATION AND ITS STRUCTURES

1. Barans Irawan Palagan (13020211400004)

2. Kharisma Puspita Sari (13020211400009)

3. Machalla Megaiab Abdullah

BASIC CONCEPT 1

deixis: encoding of temporal, spatial, social, discourse parameters organized around the assumption of co-present conversational participants.

presupposition: involving constraints on the way in which information has to be presented if it is to be introduced to particular participants with specific shared knowledge and assumptions about the world

implicatures: deriving from specific assumptions about conversational context

speech acts: building on the assumption of a conversational matrix (e.g., betting requires an uptake to be effective)

BASIC CONCEPT 2

A: I have a 14-year-old sonB: Well, that’s alrightA: I also have a dogB: Oh, I’m sorry This dialog seems bizarre in isolation, its meaning becoming

clear only when embedded in a full conversation/situation (discussion with landlord about apartment rental)

no independent, general rules for the sequencing of conversation structure, but particular phenomena can be described

- the term 'interaction' could apply to a very large number of different social encounters

- typical structure of conversation: I speak - you speak - I speak - you speak ...

CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS

Terminology in analogy with market economyfloor =the right to speakturn =having control of the right to speakturn-taking =attempt to take control of the right to speaklocal management system =set of conventions for getting,

keeping and giving away turnstransition relevance place (TRP)= possible change-of-turn point

speakers having a conversation = taking turns at holding the floor - speakers may cooperate and share the floor equally - speakers may compete for keeping the floor, preventing

others from getting itCAUTION:systems of conversationational interaction vary greatly

between social/cultural group

PAUSE AND OVERLAPS 1

Conversations typically consist of two or more participants taking turns, and only one

participant speaking at any time. Smooth transitions from one speaker to the next are valued.

- transitions with a long silence between turns

- transition with overlap (both speakers speaking at the same time) are perceived as awkward

EXAMPLE OF CONVERSATION Situation: Student and his girlfriend's father during their first

meetingMr. Strait: What's your major, Dave?Dave: English - well I haven't really decided yet.(3 seconds silence)Mr. Strait: So - you want to be a teacher?Dave: No - not really - well not if I can help it.(2 seconds silence)Mr. Strait: Wha-//Where do you-- go aheadDave: I mean it's a--oh sorry //I em-short pauses, hesitations beginning of overlap (both speakers attempt to initiate talk)silences are not attributable to either speaker because each

has completed a turnno rhythm to transitions (no flow) conveys sense of distance,

absence of familiarity/ease

PAUSE AND OVERLAPS 2

If one speaker explicitly turns over the floor to another and the other does not speak, then the silence is attributable to the second speaker and becomes significant

Jan: Dave, I'm going to the store.(2 seconds)Jan: Dave?(2 seconds)Jan: Dave - is something wrong?Dave: What? What's wrong?Jan: Nevermind.

PAUSE AND OVERLAPS 3

Other types of overlap (apart from initial type):- for many (younger) speakers overlapped talk

appears to function like an expression ofsolidarity or closeness in expressing similar opinionsDeb: Did you see him in the video?Wendy: Yeah - the part on the beachDeb: Oh my God // he was so sexyWendy // he was just being so coolDeb: And all the waves // crashing around him!Wendy: // yeah that was really wild.overlap can also communicate competitionJoe: When they were in // power las-- wait CAN I FINISH?Jerry: // that's my point I said --

PAUSE AND OVERLAPS 3

speaker are competing for the floorThe point of overlap is treated as an

interruption and the first speaker actually has to make a comment about procedure, i.e., appeals to an unstated rule of conversation structure, namely that each potential speaker is expected to wait until the current speaker reaches a TRP

markers of TRPs: - end of a structural unit (phrase/clause)- pause

PAUSE AND OVERLAPS 4

A speaker who wants to keep holding the floor will avoid providing TRPs, i.e. Avoiding open pauses at the end of syntactic units and places fillers/breaths in the middle, not at the end of those units.

Example:I wasn't talking about - um his first

book that was - uh really just like a start and so - uh isn't -doesn't count really.

Continued...

I wasn't talking about - um his first book that was - uh really just like a start and so - uh isn't -doesn't count really.

Another floor holding device is to indicate that there is a larger structure to your turn

a. There are three points I'd like to make -- first ...b. There's more than one way to do this -- one example

would be ...c. Didn't you know about Melvin? - Oh, it was last October ...d. Did you hear about Cindy's new car? - She got it in ...a/b technical information about coming structurec/d preludes to storytellingsuspend regular exchange of turn process, speaker allowed

to have extended turn

BACKCHANNELS

backchannel signals provide feedback to the speaker that the message is being received,they indicate that the listener is following and not objecting

• the absence of backchannels is interpreted as significant (in telephone conversations the speaker is prompted to ask whether the speaker is still there).

• in face-to-face conversations the absence of backchannels may be interpreted as a way of withholding agreement

EXAMPLE OF BACKCHANNELS

speakers expect their conversational partners to indicate that they are listening

- nodding, smiling, other facial expressions, gestures- vocal indications are called backchannel signals

Caller: If you use your long distance service a lot then you'll … Mary: // uh-huh Caller: be interested in the discount I'm talking about because … Mary: // yeah Caller: it can only save you money to switch to a cheaper service

// mmm

CONVERSATIONAL STYLE

There are individual and cultural differences in conversational style/turn taking

some individuals expect that participation in a conversation will be very active, that speaking rate will be relatively fast, with almost no pausing between turns, and with some overlap or even competition between turns

high involvement style other speakers use a slower rate, expect longer

pauses between turns, do not overlap and avoid interruption or completion of the other’s turn

high considerateness style

Continued..

style clashes lead a conversation to be one-sided

the faster speaker may think the slower one doesn't have much to say, is shy, perhaps boring or stupid

the slower speaker may view the faster one as noisy, pushy, domineering, selfish and tiresome

features of conversational style are often interpreted as personality traits

ADJACENCY PAIRS 1

Almost automatic patterns in the structure of conversation, e.g., in greetings and good-byes

Anna: Hello! Bill: Hi!Anna: How are you? Bill: Fine.Anna: See ya! Bill: Bye!- These automatic sequences are called adjacency pairs- They always consist of a first and second part

produced by different speakers.- The utterance of the first part immediately creates an

expectation of the utterance of a second part of the pair.- Failure to produce the second part will be treated as a

significant and hence meaningful.- A lot of internal variation is possible:

EXAMPLES OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 1 Example: opening sequences of a

conversationFirst Part Second PartA: What's up? B: Nothin' muchA: How's it goin'? B: Jus'

hangin' in thereA: How are things? B: The usualA: How ya doin' B: Can't

complain

ADJACENCY PAIRS 2

Example: question - answer sequence

A: What time is it? B: About eight-thirty Example: thanking - response

sequence A: Thanks. B: You're welcome Example: request - accept sequence A: Could you help me with this? B:

SureInsertion sequences can intervene

between adjacency pairs

EXAMPLE OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 2 Form Q1 - Q2 - A2 - A1 (one

adjacency pair within another)

Agent: Do you want the early flight? (= Q1)

Client:What time does it arrive? (= Q2)

Agent: Nine forty-five (= A2)

Client: Yeah - that's great (= A1)

EXAMPLE OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 2Mix of different sequences possible

Jean: Could you mail this letter for me? (Req. 1)

Fred: Does it have a stamp on? (Q2)

Jean: Yeah. (A2)

Fred: Okay (Acc. 1)

EXAMPLE OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 2 also with temporary interactional exitA: Uhm, what’s the price now with

VAT? (Q1)B: Er, I’ll just work that out for you

(HOLD)A: Thanks (ACCEPT)(10.0 s)B: Three Dollars nineteen a tube, Sir

(A1)

ADJACENCY PAIRS 3

Opening Sections (Summons-Answer Sequences)

First utterance is a summons, the second utterance an answer to the summons, establishing an open channel for talk (three part structure).

Child: Mommy? summonsMum: Yes, dear. answerChild: Can I have chocolate? reason for

summons

EXAMPLE OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 3 In telephone conversations the ringing of the

telephone acts as the summons. Additional potential problems are identification/recognition

A: (causes telephone to ring at B’s location) summons

B: Hello (answer + display for recognition)

A: Hi (greeting 1 + claim that A has recognized B + claim that B can recognize A)

B: Oh hi! (greeting 2 + claim that B has recognized A)

EXAMPLE OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 3 Speakers tend to use a signatured

prosody/voice quality in identity turns After the opening sequence the caller

announces the reason for the call (first topic slot)

B: (causes telephone to ring)A: HelloB: Hello Rob. This is Laurie. How’s everything?A: Pretty good. How ‘bout you?B: Just fine. The reason I called was to ask …

ADJACENCY PAIRS 4

Closing SectionsThe closure of any topic after the first one makes

the introduction of a closing section imminent (some phone calls have an expectable overall organization that admits just one topic (‘monotopical’))

- closings placed in such a way that no party is forced to exit while still having compelling things to say

- hasty or slow terminations carry unwelcome inferences about the relationships between the speakers

EXAMPLE OF ADJACENCY PAIRS 4A: Why don’t we all have lunch?B: Okay, so that would be in St. Jude’s wouldn’t it?A: YesB: Okay so …A: One o’clock in the barB: OkayA: Okay? B: Okay then thanks very much indeed George –A: - AlrightB: //See you thereA: //See you thereB: OkayA: Okay // byeB: // bye

PREFERENCE STRUCTURE 1

adjacency pairs represent social actions, and not all social actions are equal when they occur as second parts of some pairs, e.g., a first part request expects an acceptance

acceptance is structurally more likely than refusal

Structural likelihood is called preference Preference structure divides second

parts into preferred and dispreferred social acts

EXAMPLE OF PREFERENCE STRUCTURE 1

PREFERENCE STRUCTURE 2

Silence is also always a dispreferred response, often leading to a revision of the first part.

(Non-response communicates that the speaker is not in a position to provide the preferred response)

Sandy: But I'm sure they'll have good food there(1.6 seconds)Sandy: Hmm - I guess the food isn't greatJack: Nah - people mostly go for the musicSilence is risky as it may give the impression of non-

participation in the conversational structureSpeakers often signal that they are producing the

marked, dispreferred structure

PREFERENCE STRUCTURE 3

AssessmentCindy: So chiropodists do hands I guessJulie: Em - well - out there - they they

mostly work on people's feet- initial hesitation: delay (em + pause)- preface: well- appeal to the views of others: out there- stumbling repetition: they they- relativizing statement/mitigation: mostly

Continued..

invitationBecky: Come over for some coffee laterWally: Oh - eh - I'd love to - but you see - I -

I'm supposed to get this finished - you know- hesitation: oh - eh- preface: I'd love to (token acceptance)- stumbling repetition: I - I'm- account: I'm supposed to get this finished- invocation of understanding: but you see,

you know

PREFERENCE STRUCTURE 4

delay/hesitate pause; er; em; ah preface well; oh express doubt I'm not sure; I don't know token acceptance that's great; I'd love to apology I'm sorry; what a pity mention obligation I must do X; I'm expected in Y appeal for understanding you see; you know make it non-personal everbody else; out there give an account too much work; no time left use mitigators really; mostly; sort of; kinda hedge the negative I guess not; not possible

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