Practical Application Of Marxist ideas in Literature-Urvi Sharma

"As far as I am concerned, to me belong neither the merit of discovering the existence of classes in modern society, not the merit of the discovery of their mutual struggle ... My contribution consists merely in proving that 1. The existence of classes is connected only with a certain historical phases of development of production, 2. That Class Struggle leads necessarily to the dictatorship of the proletariat and that the dictatorship itself is only a transitional stage leading to the abolition of classes and to classless society" The preceding words were written by Karl Heinrich Marx who apart from being a prodigious and revolutionary social scientist propagating his principles of Communism through 1845 Thesis on Feuerbach, 1845 German Ideology, 1848 Communist Manifest, 1865 Das Kapital was also the first Marxist literary critic who wrote critical essays in the 1830s on such writers as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William Shakespeare. The mainline answer to a Marxist critic dealing with characters in literary works lies in the doctrine of socialist realism which sees literature as social analysis, art as social reality and the artist as the social enlightener. The task therefore of Marxist critic is to identify dialectical relationships and social transformation of ascribing significance to readers. According to Marx, the writer translates social facts into literary ones and the critics task is to decode them back in reality. According to George Lucas, a Hungarian Marxist, reality is expressed by historical individuality in characters rather than individual psychology. A good Marxist critic is careful to concern him with form at the expense of social realities whereby he views literary work not as repository for hidden meaning but to reflect, propagate and even challenge the existing social order in it. As Sigmund Freud puts it Marx argues that economic motives are only ones that determine behaviour of human beings in society. Marx treated politics as illusion and distortion of reality, religion as opiate of masses and only economic structure as reality behind the veil of society. The first announcement of the non-traditional way of seeing things appeared in The German Ideology in 1845 where Karl Marx introduced the concept of dialectical materialism, arguing that the ruling class owning means of production form base that controls a society's institutions and beliefs through the superstructure consisting of its ubiquitous organs of law, politics, philosophy, religion, art and literature. This leads to the development of three kinds of alienation in the working class, where worker is alienated from what he produces, from himself and from other workers creating a feeling of helplessness. In Jungle, a 1906 novel by Upton Sinclair, we see workers working indifferently and heedlessly thus becoming instruments in the hands of powerful capitalists and in 1984 by George Orwell, we witness a similar totalitarian regime in which individual emotions are persecuted. For Marx, this possibility to give up ownership of one's own -- one's capacity to transform the world -- is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss. It was in University of Berlin during his student days that Karl Marx came in touch with young Hegelians which subsequently shaped his conceptions and philosophical ideas related to self-validating essence of humanity, Eurocentrism and the belief that synthesis of truth emerges from a comparison of thesis and anti-thesis. As he states in a famous passage from The Communist Manifesto, "Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains; Karl Marx contended that history is progressing towards the inevitable triumph of communism which was the idea derived from Hegelian dialectic that history is progress in consciousness of freedom. Itis not theconsciousness of menthatdetermines their existence, but on thecontrary their social existencethatdetermines their consciousness. Marx further proclaimed that Consciousness from very beginning is a social product where people are conditioned in a certain way to accept the dominant hegemonies and prevailing ideas of bourgeoisie as the objective facts. This false consciousness is promoted by the dominant class of society to justify their power. Many Marxist critics carried forward this idea and studied it in detail. George Lukas believed that detailed analysis of symbols, images, literary devices in a literary text would expose the class conflict and relationship between base and superstructure whereas Antonio Gramsci in his Reflection theory exposed how capitalism control not just through military repression or political and economic coercion but through carefully crafted complex series of messages through superstructure. French Marxist, Louis Althusser drew on the ideas of psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan postulating a Perspective Theory discussing the relationship between ideology and hegemony, the pervasive system of assumptions and values that shapes the perception of reality for people in a given culture through the process of Interpellation. However Louis Althusser believed that counter hegemonies can emerge if the people write their own literature, create their own music and paint their own art. Althussers followers included Pierre Macherey, who inA Theory of Literary Production(1966) developed Althussers concept of the relationship between literature and ideology; Terry Eagleton, who proposes an elaborate theory about how history enters texts, which in turn may alter history; and Frederic Jameson, who has argued that form is but the working out of content "in the realm of the superstructure".Marx rightlyputit in afamous quote: Theideas oftherulingclass are in every epoch the ruling ideas. Marx identified five major epochs: a. Primitive communism - characteristic of early human history where people held everything in common. b. The Ancient epoch (slave society) - societies based upon slavery where the means of production was owned and controlled by an aristocratic elite. c. Feudal society - where land was the most important means of production. This was owned / controlled by an aristocratic class, the majority of people belonging to a peasant class (who had few, if any, political rights). D. Capitalist Society e. Communist Society. He emphasizes that the idea of social life is based upon the conflict of interest whereby change comes through the competition among the social classes as they pursue what they see to be their collective interests in society. He exposed the political and economical contradictions inherent in a capitalist setup to the proletariat who have nothing in their hands. New higher relations of production never appear before material conditions of their existence have matured in the womb of old society wrote Marx in Critique of political economy. Human history is an inevitable march toward the perfect economic arrangement. As history advances, the failures of preceding system would lead to the adoption of new one. As capitalism was the result of massive contradiction between feudal lords and serfs of feudalism which led to French Revolution(1790) and between guild masters and journey men in pre-capitalistic society. Similarly the contradiction of capitalistic society that has passed its sell date will lead to its eventual downfall, as in Paris Commune of 1891 thereby leading to the adoption of new ideals of communism according to Marx. He believed that the proletariat revolution will end the class struggle, exploitative organized religion and manipulative bourgeoisie morality whereby the whole prehistory of humanity will end and truly human history will begin.The revolution anticipated by Marx and Engels did not occur in their century, let alone in their lifetime. When it did occur, in 1917, it did so in a place unimagined by either theorist: Russia, a country long ruled by despotic Czars but also enlightened by the works of powerful novelists and playwrights including Anton Chekhov, Alexander Pushkin, Leo Tolstoy, and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Russia produced revolutionaries like Vladimir Lenin, who shared not only Marx's interest in literature but also his belief in its ultimate importance. Lenin believed that three basic components of Marxism are Materialist philosophy, critique of political economy and socialist politics. Trotsky, Lenin's comrade in Russian Revolution, took a strong interest in literary matters as well, publishingLiterature and Revolution(1924), in which he elucidated the complex way in which art informs and alters our understanding of the world declaring that such terms as proletariat literature and proletariat culture are dangerous because they erroneously compress the culture of future into narrow limits of present day. It is still viewed as a classic of Marxist literary criticism. Of those critics active in the Soviet Union after the expulsion of Trotsky and the triumph of Stalin, two stand out: Mikhail Bakhtin who viewed language written in a society in flux especially literary textsin terms of an official, legitimate discourses and dialogues, as well as one infiltrated by challenging comments and George Lukcs appreciated pre revolutionary realistic novels that broadly reflected upon characters representing human types of the author's place and time. George Lukacs was readily criticized by Theodor Adorno for his dogmatic rejection of non-realistic modern literature and for his elevation of content over form and Bertolt Brecht (who himself in his anti-war drama elaborated Verfremdung effect caused by war by placing the baffling words in mouth of one of his most phenomenal character Mother Courage Your rage has calmed down already. It was a short one and youd need a long one) criticized Lukcs for his attempt to enshrine realism at the expense not only of the other "isms", also of poetry and drama. However systematic oppression of its citizens into submission and obedience eventually saw a backlash against the ruling regime of Stalin in U.S.S.R. that culminated into people voting their Communist government out of existence in 1991.However TONY BENN, British Labor politician remarked The Marxist analysis has got nothing to do with what happened in Stalin's Russia: it's like blaming Jesus Christ for the Inquisition in Spain.Marxist theorists often examine literary texts with a critical eye toward their various economic, ideological and social contexts, suggestions, and assertions, focusing their interpretations on considering how literary texts depict class oppression and strife and social inequality, how literary texts participate in or resist mass media and other forms of popular, capitalistic culture, further taking an interest in how an authors own class, political positions, and other ideological positions serve to influence his or her writings i.e. Welltanschauung and finally considering the ideologies presented within the text as well as the economic and social conditions under which particular texts are composed, published, publicized, sold, and consumed by the public. A Marxist theorist while analyzing Shakespeare immortal Hamlet might argue that Claudius killed his brother King Hamlet in order to gain political, social, and economic power, and hence might be viewed as a figure who is corrupted by his desire for social and political power. A Marxist critic might take a particular interest in the manner in which Hamlet subverts Claudiuss rule by engaging in acts of subterfuge, manipulation, and revolution in order to overcome his oppressive rule over him. A critic may also argue that Hamlets actions serve to demonstrate a way by which an oppressive ideological regime can be countered and overcome. Hamlet himself steps outside of the standards, rules, and norms established and encouraged by the ruling class that he was once a part of in order to resist its oppressive ideology. Such a critical viewpoint might serve to argue that Hamlet is at least partly about Hamlets own sudden separation from his primordial ruling class and realization of the ideological faults of the political structure he is or was a part of. Also, a Marxist theorist might take interest in the fact that Shakespearewho, himself, was born to a commoner and was himself very much a member of what we would today call the working class or middle classis issuing an attack or critique of the oppressive and morally corrupt ideology of the ruling classes throughout Hamlet. The division of the bourgeoisie and proletariat in the society depicted in short story of "The Diamond Necklace" by Guy de Maupassant is firmly established and maintained. Loisel's husband is a "lowly clerk," and although she has a wealthy friend from her convent days from whom she borrows a diamond necklace, she has none of the embellishments that would fit her to attend a reception to which her husband has (with some manipulation) managed to be invited. Because of the debts owed to the bourgeoisie, incurred because of the loss of the borrowed diamond necklace owned by Loisel's well-to-do friend, they sink lower and lower in the social scale, losing what little hold they once had on social position or physical comfort. In the end, Loisel has become old and unkempt, unrecognizable to her friend. The economic base in The Diamond Necklace" is significant to all that is depicted in the story. She is destroyed not by spiritual failure but by an economic system that has created a superstructure that will not allow her a better life. She is trapped by material circumstances, and the final revelation about the false jewels deepens her sense of alienation and powerlessness.Lucien Goldmann, a Romanian critic living in Paris, combined structuralist principles with Marxs base superstructure model in order to show how economics determines the mental structures of social groups, which are reflected in literary texts. Walter Benjamin praised new art forms ushered in by the age of mechanical reproduction also made enduring and influential contributions by blendingaesthetic theoryandWestern Marxism. Today, what is known as New Marxist Criticism is quite popular among a number of critical theorists. Contemporary Marxist theoretical approaches, to some measure, part ways with formal and traditional modes of strict Marxist theory and consider how Marxism (and Marxist theory itself) functions in terms of other modes of literary theory. A number of literary theorists, despite aligning themselves with forms of literary theory other than Marxism, often make active use of the principles of Marxism in their theoretical work, particularly practitioners of such decidedly socially and politically minded forms of theory as new historicism, queer theory, feminist theory, and psychoanalytic theory. By thetimeof his death in 1884, Marx left amovement with thousands of followersin mostEuropean countries known as theSocial DemocraticParty, which was avigorous andgrowingfactor in French andGerman politics. Theinfluence of Karl Marx (1818-1884) has beenprodigious. Thehistorian WalterLaquer joked that Thereareor ratherwere, moreMarxists in theworldthan Christians. However Marx madethebasicerror of assumingthatconditions he observed during theeconomically troubleddecade of the1840s wouldnot, couldnot bealteredin any fundamental way withoutarevolution. In 1867, for exampletheyear that Marx publishedthefirst volumeof Capital, theBritish Parliament extendedtheright to voteto theBritish workingclass. Also for the over-concentration on economic relationships, Marx was accused of being "economically determinist" over-exaggerating the importance of economic relationships in face of all other relationships (family, education, friendship, religious and so forth). Much Marxism - both old and modern - has tended to ignore the role and position of women in society. Women tend to be marginalized to the periphery of much Marxist theorising, possibly because of the focus upon work relationships. Radical feminists, for example, argue that the roots of male - female conflict are not simply economic (to do with social class) but patriarchal. Jakob Burckhardt called Marx a terrible simplifier. Marxist approach is therefore often criticized for the subjective interpretation of individual characters which might be different to their objective class positions. For instance In Jane Eyre, John Reed belonging to upper class mocks her for being from lower class by telling her she has no right to live with gentlemans children like us whereas in Thornfield, Mr Rochester another upper class man redefines Janes class status by defining her as his equal. Many forms of Neo-Marxism have been criticised as being little more than a "left-wing" variety of Functionalism ("Left Functionalism" as Jock Young has termed it). In place of society existing for "the benefit of all", Young argues that many Marxists simply substitute the idea that society exists for "benefit of a ruling class". Capitalism, as an economic and political system, has proven to be more durable and flexible than Marx maintained. Critics like Sir Karl Popper have claimed that Marxism is unscientific in its methodology classifying it thereby as faith instead of an ideal theory. If hedidnot foresee thecourseof political reform, neitherdidheforesee theconsumeristsociety heassumedthat capitalists wouldbehavein rapacious ways at all times andin all situations. In Marxism thereis no accountingfor an industrialist likeHenry Ford, whograntedhis workerstheunheardof wage of $5.00per day, because, IfI dont paythem enough tobuy mycars, whois goingtobuythem? However he still remains the prophet of proletarian revolution on the pedestal after whom generation of scholars have churned out thousand of books and articles subjecting him to hair splitting analysis for his prodigious and world changing philosophies. Friedrich Engels in 1884 wrote Justas Darwindiscoveredthelaw of development of organic nature, so Marx discovered thelaw of developmentofhumanhistory to understand not only process of historical change but also as the key for predicting future. Applying Marxist approach to a modern twenty first century world, we see contemporary response to the class/racial oppression and social inequality which is more or less reminiscence of what Karl Marx talked about two centuries ago, for instance, in the form India Against Corruption campaign against the corrupt system in 2011. Communist ideologies of Marx on the other hand forms the basis of technological innovation and advancement in a healthy profitable way and scientific basis of human emancipation. To sum it up, it will not be wrong to conclude that Communism in the words of Karl Heinrich Marx is definitely the riddle of history solved.

Bibliography1. Manifesto of the Communist Party by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels2. Marxism and Literature- Raymond Williams3. A dictionary of Marxist thought- Laurence Harris4. MARXIST THEORIES OF CLASS AND CLASS STRUGGLE. F. MBENGO5. Internet