• Muhammad Sajid us SalamMuhammad Sajid us Salam

• Mphil LinguisticsMphil Linguistics

• Islamia University BahawalpurIslamia University Bahawalpur

• cupidlucid@gmail.comcupidlucid@gmail.com

PragmaticsPragmatics• DefinitionDefinition

1: “Pragmatics is the study of 1: “Pragmatics is the study of speaker speaker meaningmeaning.” .”

2: “ Pragmatics is the study of 2: “ Pragmatics is the study of contextual contextual meaning”meaning”

3:“ Pragmatics is the study of 3:“ Pragmatics is the study of how more how more gets communicated than is saidgets communicated than is said””

4:“ Pragmatics is the study of the 4:“ Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distanceexpression of relative distance.” .” ( Yule:2008).( Yule:2008).

Invisible meaningInvisible meaning• Pragmatics is the study of invisible Pragmatics is the study of invisible

meaning ,that is how to recognize ,the meaning ,that is how to recognize ,the underlined meanings which are not underlined meanings which are not apparently said or written.apparently said or written.

For example, an advertisement shows For example, an advertisement shows the following words:the following words:

HEATEDHEATED ATTENDANTATTENDANT PARKINGPARKING from the apparent meaning different from the apparent meaning different

interpretations can be assumed likeinterpretations can be assumed like

“ “ You take an attendant , you heat him up , You take an attendant , you heat him up , and this is the place where you can park and this is the place where you can park him, another assumption may be like this him, another assumption may be like this “ It is a place where parking will be carried “ It is a place where parking will be carried out by attendants who have been heated,” out by attendants who have been heated,” despite these interpretations on the basis despite these interpretations on the basis of apparent meanings , we would normally of apparent meanings , we would normally understand that you can park your car in understand that you can park your car in this place, that is heated area and that this place, that is heated area and that there will be an attendant to look after the there will be an attendant to look after the car.car.

We have inferred these meanings by We have inferred these meanings by taking into account the taking into account the context context and and combination of the wordscombination of the words used by the used by the speaker or writer.speaker or writer.

• In fact Pragmatics , is the study of In fact Pragmatics , is the study of investigation of such assumptions investigation of such assumptions and expectations which provide us and expectations which provide us with the insights into how more gets with the insights into how more gets communicated than is said.communicated than is said.

ContextContext•Linguistic contextLinguistic context ( co- ( co-

text)text)

•Physical contextPhysical context

Linguistic ContextLinguistic Context• The set of other words used in same phrase The set of other words used in same phrase

or sentence.or sentence.• This surrounding co-text has a strong effect This surrounding co-text has a strong effect

on what we think the words mean.on what we think the words mean.• The word Bank is a homonym, a form with The word Bank is a homonym, a form with

more than one meaning.more than one meaning.• We know about the actual meaning of this We know about the actual meaning of this

word on the basis of linguistic context.word on the basis of linguistic context.• If the word “ bank “ is used in a sentence If the word “ bank “ is used in a sentence

together with words like steep or overgrown, together with words like steep or overgrown, we have no problem deciding which type of we have no problem deciding which type of bank is meant. Similarly when we hear some bank is meant. Similarly when we hear some one say that she has to get to the bank to one say that she has to get to the bank to cash a cheque, we know from the linguistic cash a cheque, we know from the linguistic context which type of bank is intended.context which type of bank is intended.

Physical ContextPhysical Context

• Physical context ( time and place in which we Physical context ( time and place in which we encounter linguistic expression) plays a vital encounter linguistic expression) plays a vital role in making us understand much of what role in making us understand much of what we read or hear.we read or hear.

• For example, if we see the word BANK on the For example, if we see the word BANK on the wall of a building in a city, the physical wall of a building in a city, the physical location will influence our interpretation.location will influence our interpretation.

• So we know what words mean on the basis of So we know what words mean on the basis of another type of context i.e Physical context.another type of context i.e Physical context.

DeixisDeixis• It is Greek word which means “ pointing” It is Greek word which means “ pointing”

via language.via language.• Certain words like here there, this, that , Certain words like here there, this, that ,

now , then, yesterday as well as most now , then, yesterday as well as most pronouns such as I , you, him, her , them pronouns such as I , you, him, her , them can only be understood if we know about can only be understood if we know about the context in which they are used.the context in which they are used.

• For example, the sentence, “ you’ll have to For example, the sentence, “ you’ll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here”, out of context will be quite aren’t here”, out of context will be quite unintelligible.unintelligible.

• Because this sentence contain large Because this sentence contain large number of certain expressions ( Deixis) number of certain expressions ( Deixis) which depend for their interpretation on the which depend for their interpretation on the immediate physical context in which they immediate physical context in which they are uttered.are uttered.

Types of DeixisTypes of Deixis•Person deixisPerson deixis : Any expression used to point to a : Any expression used to point to a

person ( me, you, him, them) is an example of PERSON DEIXISperson ( me, you, him, them) is an example of PERSON DEIXIS

• PLACE DEIXISPLACE DEIXIS: Words used to point to a location ( here, : Words used to point to a location ( here, there, yonde) are examples of place Deixisthere, yonde) are examples of place Deixis

•TIME DEIXISTIME DEIXIS : The expression used to point to a time : The expression used to point to a time ( now, then, tonight, last week, yesterday) are examples of TIME ( now, then, tonight, last week, yesterday) are examples of TIME DEIXISDEIXIS

All these expressions have to be interpreted in terms what person , All these expressions have to be interpreted in terms what person , place or time the speaker has in mind. There is broad distinction place or time the speaker has in mind. There is broad distinction between what is marked as distant( that ,there, then). It is also between what is marked as distant( that ,there, then). It is also possible to mark whether the movement is happening towards the possible to mark whether the movement is happening towards the speaker’s location( come) or away from speaker’s location go) If speaker’s location( come) or away from speaker’s location go) If you are looking for someone and he or she appears moving you are looking for someone and he or she appears moving towards you, you tend to say “ Here she Comes! If , however, towards you, you tend to say “ Here she Comes! If , however, she/he is moving away from you in the distance, you are more like she/he is moving away from you in the distance, you are more like to say There she goes!to say There she goes!

People can actually use Deixis to have fun. The bar owner People can actually use Deixis to have fun. The bar owner who puts up a big sign that reads “ Free Beer Tomorrow( to get who puts up a big sign that reads “ Free Beer Tomorrow( to get you to return to his bar) can always claim that you are one day you to return to his bar) can always claim that you are one day too early for the drink.too early for the drink.

ReferenceReference

The words we use to identify things are The words we use to identify things are in some direct relationship to those in some direct relationship to those things. In discussing deixis we things. In discussing deixis we assumed that the use of words to assumed that the use of words to refer to people and things was simple refer to people and things was simple matter. However, words themselves matter. However, words themselves don’t refer to anything. People refer.don’t refer to anything. People refer.

Inference Inference

• The key process here is called The key process here is called Inference, it is an additional information Inference, it is an additional information used by the listeners to connect what is used by the listeners to connect what is said to what must be meant In the last said to what must be meant In the last example, the listener has to infer that example, the listener has to infer that name of writer of a book can be used to name of writer of a book can be used to identify a book by that writer. Similar identify a book by that writer. Similar type of inferences are necessary t to type of inferences are necessary t to understand some who says that understand some who says that Picasso Picasso is in the museumis in the museum or or I saw Shakespeare I saw Shakespeare in Londonin London or or I enjoy listening to Mozart.I enjoy listening to Mozart.

Anaphora Anaphora • Anaphora is a subsequent reference to an already Anaphora is a subsequent reference to an already

introduced entity. Mostly we use anaphora in a text introduced entity. Mostly we use anaphora in a text to maintain reference. When we establish a to maintain reference. When we establish a referent( e.g. referent( e.g. can I borrow your book?)can I borrow your book?) and and subsequently referee to the same object( yeah, it’s on subsequently referee to the same object( yeah, it’s on the table) , we have particular kind of referential the table) , we have particular kind of referential relationship between book and it. The Second ( and relationship between book and it. The Second ( and any subsequent ) referring expression is an example any subsequent ) referring expression is an example of anaphora and the first mentioned is called the “ of anaphora and the first mentioned is called the “ antecedent”antecedent”

As with other types of reference, the connection As with other types of reference, the connection between referent and anaphora may not always be between referent and anaphora may not always be direct. For example, In a complaint” I was waiting for direct. For example, In a complaint” I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping” the bus, but he just drove by without stopping” Notice that antecedent is bus and he anaphoric Notice that antecedent is bus and he anaphoric expression is “ he” we would normally expect it to be expression is “ he” we would normally expect it to be used for a bus. Obviously there is an inference used for a bus. Obviously there is an inference involved here: if someone is taking about a bus in involved here: if someone is taking about a bus in motion , assume that there is a drive. That assumed motion , assume that there is a drive. That assumed driver is inferred referent for “ he” .The term “ driver is inferred referent for “ he” .The term “ inference ‘ has been used here to describe what the inference ‘ has been used here to describe what the listener or reader) does.listener or reader) does.

PresuppositionPresupposition

• What speaker assumes as true or is known by What speaker assumes as true or is known by the hearer can described as presuppositionthe hearer can described as presupposition

• When a speaker uses referring expressions like When a speaker uses referring expressions like this, he or Shakespeare in normal circumstance, this, he or Shakespeare in normal circumstance, she is working with an assumption that hearer she is working with an assumption that hearer know which referent is intended. In a more know which referent is intended. In a more general way, speaker continuously design their general way, speaker continuously design their linguistic messages on the basis of assumptions linguistic messages on the basis of assumptions about what the hearer already knows. These about what the hearer already knows. These assumptions may be mistaken of course, but assumptions may be mistaken of course, but they underlie much of what we say in the every they underlie much of what we say in the every day use of language.day use of language.For example, if someone tell you “ your brother For example, if someone tell you “ your brother is waiting outside for you there is an obvious is waiting outside for you there is an obvious supposition that you have a brother.supposition that you have a brother.

Speech ActsSpeech Acts

• Speech acts are the ways through which we interpret meanings and use Speech acts are the ways through which we interpret meanings and use actions to convey the meanings. For example, such as requesting , actions to convey the meanings. For example, such as requesting , commanding, questioning and informing. It is typically the case that we use commanding, questioning and informing. It is typically the case that we use the following linguistic forms with the following functions:the following linguistic forms with the following functions:

• Did you drink milk? QuestionDid you drink milk? Question• Shut the door ( please). ImperativeShut the door ( please). Imperative• The earth is round. DeclarativeThe earth is round. Declarative When a form such as Did he…………? Are they………? Or Can you………? is When a form such as Did he…………? Are they………? Or Can you………? is

used to ask a question, it is described as used to ask a question, it is described as Direct speech act Direct speech act For example when a speaker does not know something and asks the hearer to For example when a speaker does not know something and asks the hearer to

provide the information, he or she typically produce a direct speech act of provide the information, he or she typically produce a direct speech act of the following type:the following type:

Can you ride a bicycle?Can you ride a bicycle? If we compare this utterance with If we compare this utterance with Can you pass the salt?Can you pass the salt? In this second In this second

example , we would not usually understand the utterance as a question example , we would not usually understand the utterance as a question about our ability to do something. In fact We would not treat this as a about our ability to do something. In fact We would not treat this as a question at all. We would treat it as a request and perform the action question at all. We would treat it as a request and perform the action requested, yet this request has been presented in the syntactic for usually requested, yet this request has been presented in the syntactic for usually associated with the question. Such an example is described as indirect associated with the question. Such an example is described as indirect Speech Act. Whenever one of the forms in the set above is used to perform Speech Act. Whenever one of the forms in the set above is used to perform a function other than the one listed beside it (on the same line) the result is a function other than the one listed beside it (on the same line) the result is an indirect speech act.an indirect speech act.

Perhaps the crucial distinction in the use of these two types of speech acts Perhaps the crucial distinction in the use of these two types of speech acts is based on the fact that indirect commands or requests are simply is based on the fact that indirect commands or requests are simply considered more polite is based on some complex social assumptions.considered more polite is based on some complex social assumptions.

PolitenessPoliteness

• Politeness in fact is showing awareness of another person’s face. There are Politeness in fact is showing awareness of another person’s face. There are several ways to think of politeness. These might involve ideas like being several ways to think of politeness. These might involve ideas like being tactful, modest and nice to the other people. In the study of linguistic tactful, modest and nice to the other people. In the study of linguistic politeness the most relevant concept is face. Your face in pragmatics is politeness the most relevant concept is face. Your face in pragmatics is your public self image. This is emotional and social sense of self that every your public self image. This is emotional and social sense of self that every person has and expects everyone else to recognize.person has and expects everyone else to recognize.

• Face threatening ActFace threatening Act• If someone says something that represents a threat to another person’s If someone says something that represents a threat to another person’s

self image that is called a face threatening act. For example, if you use a self image that is called a face threatening act. For example, if you use a direct speech act to order someone to do something , for example, Give direct speech act to order someone to do something , for example, Give me the paper! You are acting as if you have more social power then you me the paper! You are acting as if you have more social power then you are performing a face threatening act.are performing a face threatening act.

• Face Saving ActFace Saving Act An indirect speech act in the form of a question , for example, Could you An indirect speech act in the form of a question , for example, Could you

pass me that paper please? removes the assumption of social power .You pass me that paper please? removes the assumption of social power .You appear to be asking about ability. This makes your request less threatening appear to be asking about ability. This makes your request less threatening to other person’s sense of self. Whenever you say something that lessens to other person’s sense of self. Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another’s face it is called a face saving act. You have the possible threat to another’s face it is called a face saving act. You have both a negative face and positive face.both a negative face and positive face.

• Negative FaceNegative Face• In negative face speech act there is the need to be independent and to have In negative face speech act there is the need to be independent and to have

freedom from imposition. Thus a face saving act that emphasizes a person’s freedom from imposition. Thus a face saving act that emphasizes a person’s negative face will show concern about impression.negative face will show concern about impression.

• For example, I’m Sorry to bother you……For example, I’m Sorry to bother you……• I know you are busy but…………………..I know you are busy but…………………..

Positive facePositive face Your positive face is your need to be connected to belong , to be a member of Your positive face is your need to be connected to belong , to be a member of

the group. A face saving act that emphasizes a person’s positive face will show the group. A face saving act that emphasizes a person’s positive face will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal. For example, let us do this solidarity and draw attention to a common goal. For example, let us do this together ………………. You and I have the same problem, so ……………..together ………………. You and I have the same problem, so ……………..

Ideas about the appropriate language to mark politeness differ substantially Ideas about the appropriate language to mark politeness differ substantially from one culture to the next. If you have grown up in a culture that has from one culture to the next. If you have grown up in a culture that has directness as a valued way of showing solidarity and you use direct speech acts( directness as a valued way of showing solidarity and you use direct speech acts( Pour me some coffee) to people whose culture is more oriented to indirectness Pour me some coffee) to people whose culture is more oriented to indirectness and avoiding direct imposition, then you will be considered impolite. You in turn and avoiding direct imposition, then you will be considered impolite. You in turn may think of others as vague and unsure of what they want. In either case it is may think of others as vague and unsure of what they want. In either case it is the pragmatics that is misunderstood and unfortunately much more will be the pragmatics that is misunderstood and unfortunately much more will be communicated that is said.communicated that is said.

ConclusionConclusion

• Understanding how people Understanding how people communicate is actually a process of communicate is actually a process of interpreting not just what speakers interpreting not just what speakers say , but what they intend to mean.say , but what they intend to mean.

PragmaticsPragmatics• When a diplomat says When a diplomat says yesyes, he means ‘perhaps’;, he means ‘perhaps’;

When he says When he says perhapsperhaps, he means ‘no’;, he means ‘no’;

When he says When he says nono, he is not a diplomat., he is not a diplomat.

When a lady says When a lady says nono, she means ‘perhaps’;, she means ‘perhaps’;

When she says When she says perhapsperhaps, she means ‘yes’;, she means ‘yes’;

When she says When she says yesyes, she is not a lady.      , she is not a lady.     

VoltaireVoltaire (Quoted, in Spanish, in Escandell 1993.) (Quoted, in Spanish, in Escandell 1993.)