ADHD prevalence among Whites

ADHD The Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder featuring maladaptive levels of inattention, excessive activity, and impulsiveness. The disorder is often triggered by genetic and biological abnormalities as well as environmental factors and is usually prolonged from childhood to adulthood. DSM-IV-TR differentiates three types of symptoms. The first includes problems of inattention, second type is hyperactivity and the third is impulsivity (Durand & Barlow, 2010). ADHD is estimated to occur in 3% to 7% of school-age children in the United States, and an important analysis of prevalence suggests that the disorder is found in about 5.2% of the child populations across all regions of the world (Polanczyk, de Lima, Horta, Biederman, & Rodhe, 2007) One of the reasons for this is genetics. Studies shown that more than one gene is probably responsible for ADHD (Bobb, Castellanos, Addington, & Rapoport, 2006) Some socio-cultural factors also affects it. Most of the children diagnosed with ADHD are victims of racial discrimination and have a poor family background. Because of poverty, they cannot afford the right medication to improve the condition.

SMOKINGAnother cause can be Maternal Smoking, or mothers who are smoking during pregnancy. White women who are pregnant are more likely to smoke cigarettes than African-American or Hispanic mothers-to-be, a new government report shows. The study found that pregnant white women had high rates of cigarette smoking at 21.8% compared with 14.2% among African-American women and 6.5% among Hispanic women. (Nierenberg, 2012) Furthermore, according to Kahn, Khoury, Nichols & Lanphear (2003), children with a specific mutation involving the dopamine system (the DAT1 genotype) were more likely to exhibit the symptoms of ADHD if their mothers smoked during pregnancy.

FOOD ADDITIVESFeingold (2011) also presented that Food Additives also had a substantial impact for the symptoms of ADHD. Artificial food colorings, preservatives, and other additives may play a role in increasing hyperactive behavior among young children. Since then, many have tried to research further to support Feingolds claim but were unsuccessful, or have shown only a small benefit in learning and behavioral problems in children with ADHD. "Even though there is merit to it, none of the studies have backed it up tremendously." says Roseanne Schnoll, PhD, RD, associate professor of nutrition at Brooklyn College of the City University of New York.

Compared with white children, Hispanic and African-American children were significantly less likely to receive an ADHD diagnosis from kindergarten to eighth grade; the time pointspecific odds of a diagnosis of ADHD peaked at third grade and declined subsequently. Furthermore, Hispanic and African American children diagnosed with ADHD were less likely to be using medication than were white children diagnosed with ADHD.

ALCOHOL ABUSE AND DEPENDENCEAlcohol abuse is described as any harmful use of alcohol that causes either physical or mental damage. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV describes alcohol abusers as those who drink despite recurrent social, interpersonal, and legal problems as a result of alcohol use. Alcohol abuse is a major risk factor in developing Alcoholism or alcohol dependence. Genetic predispositions from a family history of alcoholism or due to a stressful change or personal issues usually trigger alcohol dependence. Moreover, increase of ones alcohol tolerance level could also contribute in its development. Developing alcoholism is even greater if a person is a binge drinker, or someone who drinks every day.

Hispanics tend to have this culture on drinking, that they start having alcohol at an early age, and it is more prevalent than men at older ages. Alcohol abuse and dependence is three times more likely to happen with Hispanics than other ethnic groups. Hispanics are less likely to drink at all than non-Hispanic Whites for they have high rates of abstinence from alcohol, but those who choose to drink are more likely to consume higher volumes of alcohol than non-Hispanic Whites.

ACCULTURATIONIt is the process of adapting to the beliefs, values, and behaviors of a new culture. A critical factor in predicting drinking patterns in the Hispanic community is level of acculturation Assaf Ohsri stated that:

We tend to view acculturation stress as coming from the hosting dominant culture. In fact, immigrant youth often have two or more cultural identities they are trying to embrace at once, leading them to experience dual stress, called bicultural stress.. and Enduring bicultural stress during adolescencea vulnerable developmental phase in which adolescents are still forming their own identityplaces them at risk for participation in risk behaviors. We found that bicultural stress disrupts their identity consolidation over time, which leads to increased expectations that getting engaged with alcohol use would help them alleviate or cope with this stress" (2014).

MEDIAIn todays generation, media has a big role in promoting and introducing new things to the youth. It has also been a big factor in contributing to the alcohol dependency and abuse of minors. One study in John Hopkins University stated that the alcohol industry sees the Hispanic population as an important market for their products. 10 alcohol brands in the US in 2003 and 2004 have in fact, spent about $160 Million to advertise their products in Spanish-language television.

BIPOLAR DISORDERBipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and the ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. An estimated 2.3 million Americans have bipolar disorder. Feelings that are extremely high (mania) to exceedingly low (depression) are expected to be experienced by someone who suffers from the illness. People with bipolar disorder can control and manage these manias and depressions if properly treated. Even though the rate of bipolar disorder is equal among Blacks and other Americans, African Americans receive lesser diagnosis and treatment, which makes the illness severe.

ACCESS TO TREATMENT

Bipolar disorders are really prevalent in African-American community. There are no certain causes for its occurrence among blacks, but there are some factors that affect it such as Brain Chemistry Genetics, Drug and Alcohol Abuse, and Stressful or Disturbing Events. Most of them are not receiving treatments due to some reasons like cultural barriers between the patient and the doctor, reliance on family and religious communities rather than mental health professionals during emotional distress, socioeconomic factors that limits the access to mental and medical health care (lack of health insurance), mistrust of health professionals, continued misunderstanding and stigma about the illness, etc.

HEREDITARYBipolar disorder is one for the hereditary disorders, as shown in careful community studies among a representative of twins that focus not only on people who seek treatment but those who may have cases that are more severe than those who are not treated. A Finnish community-based twin sample that used structured interviews to verify diagnoses obtained a heritability estimate of 93 percent (Kieseppa et al., 2004). Adoption studies also confirm the importance of heritability in bipolar disorder (e.g., Wender et al., 1986). This result verifies that genetics really has a great effect among the population of twins in dealing with the disorder. Adoption studies also confirm the importance of heritability in bipolar disorder (e.g., Wender et al., 1986). In adoption, the foster parents may not know the genetic history of the child, which may lead to the late treatment in case the disorder would not be diagnosed earlier. Bipolar II disorder is also highly heritable (Edvardsen et al., 2008). However, Genetic models do not explain the timing of manic symptoms. Other factors must be considered as the immediate triggers of symptoms.

DEPRESSIONDepression is more than the feelings of loneliness; it has an effect in a victims whole body. Theres a rapid decline in energy and appetite, uncontrolled feeling of guilt and fatigue, loss of concentration and the worse is thoughts of suicide. Depression can occur to anyone, it does not target a certain age, a certain race or ethnic group, it is felt all over the world. However, studies show that it is more prevalent in Western people.

In a list released by The Richest: website of pop cultures and current events and CBS News, America has topped the list of the most depressed countries in the world. They have suggested a correlation of this illness with the countrys large economy. In addition, U.S. spends about $113 Billion on mental health treatment. Although this budget decreases annually.

Diagnosis rates have a big significance in contributing to the notion that African-Americans are less likely to trust doctors compared to Whites.Complication in detection and diagnosis of depression among minority patients are due to them showing physical aspects such as sleeping problem and drug abuse rathen than symptoms in mood or cognition.DRUG ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE

According to a research of Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in 1998, the surveys conducted on substance abuse in 1991, 1992 and 1993 by National Household Surveys suggested that the rates of alcohol and drug abuse among Hispanic do not have much difference than the whole U.S. Population. In dealing with drug crimes, black youth has an arrest rate ten times higher than whites. However, other research suggests that African Americans are the least to use drugs and have a lower chance of developing substance use disorders compared to Whites and Hispanic.PARENTAL GUIDANCE

Drug use of Hispanic teenagers have a higher rate compared to Caucasian or African-American adolescent, they have a tendency rate to use illegal drugs of 40% higher than Caucasians and 30% higher than Black teenagers.

Parental upbringing and guidance have an important role in dealing with this mental disorder. According to a study conducted by Ortegal and colleagues (2000), Hispanic teenagers receive little supervision from their parents. Their actions are not monitored as well as their behavior; teenagers who experience these are 4 times more likely to take illegal drugs.

GENETICS

Studies show that drug abuse is prevalent in Hispanic community. One of the causes of drug abuse could be genetics. According to US Department of Health and Human Services, genes can be a cause of drug abuse because genes can participate in acquiring risk behaviors and personality development that will affect the person in terms of reacting or responding to its environment, and genes can affect the reactions of the body to the drug. Another reason for drug abuse is the acculturation of the Hispanics. Hispanics are immigrants and they may find it difficult to adapt to the culture and social patterns and practices. Other factors are poverty issues.

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

Generalized Anxiety Disorder is an illness in which a person suffers from persistent and chronic worry that is hard to control. People with GAD may not necessarily be provoked by specific triggers; they may worry about anything. GAD is described as a "free-floating" kind of anxiety, which means it can cling itself to numerous issues and concerns in the patient's environment.

Contrary to what is stated in the chart, Hispanics and Blacks have higher rates of GAD than that of Whites. Socioeconomic status is one contributor that may result to GAD. According to one study, GAD is more likely caused by a gradual gathering of minor stressors than with demographic factors. People who belong to the lower socioeconomic status have less resources for dealing with minor stressors, making them more prone to developing GAD. Since treatment for mental illness comes with high costs, Hispanics and Blacks' risk of severe impairment is elevated.PANIC DISORDER

Panic disorder is an illness in which panic attacks are recurrent and causes extreme episodes of chronic anxiety. Panic Disorder often begins during late adolescence and early adulthood. It is more prevalent in women than it is in men. It may also come with changes in behavior, which can last at least a month. It isn't the same as the fear and anxiety one feels towards stressful events. It can affect daily functioning and general quality of life.

LACK OF DIAGNOSIS

Most Hispanics with Panic Disorder go undiagnosed. This can be a factor to Panic Disorder as not getting help or medical care may heighten the threat of developing mental disorders.

SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Substance Abuse can be a contributor in developing Panic Disorder. Hispanics have the highest rate of Alcohol and Drug Abuse, which makes them more susceptible in developing Panic Disorder.

ENVIRONMENTAL

Environment and surroundings also play a vital role in one's mental health. A poor environment and exposure to vices and crimes, which is prevalent in Hispanics, may contribute to Panic Disorder.

PTSD

When people experience accidents, natural catastrophes, violent personal assaults or loss of a loved one, these cause emotional disorder such as intense fear or horror and feeling of helplessness which will possibly lead to posttraumatic stress disorder in which victims will continue to experience fear after being exposed to traumatic event. PTSD can be developed biologically and psychologically

In the past decade, Americans have experienced some of the worst disasters in the world. One of which was on 11th of September in 2001, the world has witnessed the bombing of World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Surveys that were conducted in PTSD revealed that 3.5% of citizens in United States experience PTSD annually and 7.9% suffer from it during their lifetime (Taylor et al, 2010). In addition, only about 60% of these individual seek treatment (Wang et al., 2005). It is important to take note that Whites and minorities both experience these factors that contribute to PTSD, however, Whites have a higher statistics in the enumerated factors. SOCIAL FACTOR

People are a social animal, meaning they tend to live in groups such as families and friends; this factor make direct contributions to biology and behavior of an individual. Getting support from people that matters to an individual reduces cortisol secretion and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis which are responsible for regulating stress.

COMBAT

Being a soldier is one of the careers that are most vulnerable to violence. They experience anxiety and depression during combat, Figley (1978) stated that during World War I; soldiers experienced shell shock and combat fatigue during World War II. These terms were created to describe the reaction of the witnesses to the atrocities of the wars.

About 20% of the 16 million Americans deployed to the Afghanistan and Iraq wars have showed symptoms of PTSD based on the large-scale study completed in 2008 by a non-profit organization: RAND corporation (Gerver, 2008). Furthermore, the traumatic events the soldiers have witnessed are seeing colleagues and civilians seriously wounded or killed and experiencing the injuries they themselves.

MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENTS

Blanchard & Hickling (2004) revealed that the most common traumatic experience associated with PTSD is actually motor vehicle accidents. Since transportation plays a big role in peoples everyday lives, it is more likely that an individual get into these accidents. However, victims of motor vehicle accidents are less likely to experience PTSD than those who have gone through combat and physical assaults.

Prevalence of Depression among Caucasians

Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest. According to Faris (2012), it is a condition that had reportedly affects one in ten Americans at one point or another, and the incidence of depression is higher in some states than others. It has been becoming a significant health concern worldwide.

Depression has many causes, it may be genetic, yet according to some researches on mental health conditions, and it has been revealed that certain lifestyle factors increased depression rates. Based from an article written by Stephanie Faris, and medically reviewed by Dr. George Krucik, M.D., Individuals with less than a high school education are more likely to suffer from depression than those with a high school diploma or more advanced degree. Also, Faris stated that involuntary unemploymentregardless of its causeis also elevated among those reporting depression. Since depression is a leading cause of disability in the U.S., it may lead to increased unemployment and decreased quality of life. Lastly, those who have gone through a divorce have a higher risk of depression. Statistics indicate that men are more likely than women to suffer depression after a divorce. (2012)

Rates of depression differ according to gender, age, and ethnicity. Researchers found out that women are twice as likely to have depression, and symptoms of depression, as men of the same age. 12% of all women in the United States will experience symptoms of clinical depression at some point in their lives. Approximately one in ten women experience symptoms of depression in the weeks after having a baby. The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System found that the rate of diagnosed major depression increased with age from 2.8% for adults 18-24 to a peak of 4.6% for adults 45-64 years. 4% of adolescents will develop significant symptoms of serious depression each year in the United States. Suicide is the third leading cause of death among children and young adults aged 10 to 24. For every 33 children in school, one child will have clinical depression. Non-Hispanic blacks, Hispanics, and Non-Hispanic others had rates of diagnosis of 4.0%, 4.0%, and 4.3%, respectively, and were more likely to report depressive symptoms than non-Hispanics whites (3.1%). (Faris, 2012)

Persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest in inevitable, but it may be prevented to lead to depression. The necessity of prevention and cure for depression is indeed evident, since it has becoming a significant health concern not just in the United States but all over the world.

Source: http://www.healthline.com/health/depression/statistics#4

Prevalence of Alcohol Abuse among Hispanics

According to DSM-IV-TR, alcohol abuse or dependence is most prevalent among the Latin Americans. Alcohol dependence is an alcohol use disorder often characterized by craving or compulsion to drink, increased tolerance to alcohol, withdrawal symptoms, including shaking, anxiety, or even seizures, and failed attempts to quit that can result in drinking even greater amounts. According to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) of USA, a standard drink that is roughly 14 grams of pure alcohol, which is found in 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, and 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits, is considered too much. Below is a representation of the average number of alcohol consumption per week (beer, wine, and liquor) by country/nation of origin.

Average number of drinks per week (beer, wine, and liquor)by country/nation of origin

Country/Nation of OriginAverage Number of Drinks/Week for Men (irrespective of beverage)Average Number of Drinks/Week for Women (irrespective of beverage)

Puerto Rico16.9 (1.6)9.5 (2.3)

Mexico15.9 (1.7)3.0 (1.0)

South/Central America8.9 (0.8)3.8 (0.6)

Cuba8.4 (0.9)3.4 (1.1)

SOURCE: Ramisetty-Mikler, S.; Caetano, R.; and Rodriguez, L.A. The Hispanic Americans Baseline Alcohol Survey(HABLAS): Alcohol consumption and sociodemographic predictors across Hispanic national groups.Journal of Substance Use15(6): 402416, 2010.

There are certain factors, according to NIAAA, that predict drinking behavior in the Hispanic Community: Acculturation, Gender, and Attitudes. Acculturation is the process of adapting to the beliefs, values, and behaviors of a new culture. American education all contribute to adapting to American culture. But as acculturation levels increase, so can alcohol consumption. The evidence is clear that as women become acculturated to American life, they tend to drink more alcohol. There is mixed evidence of the same effect for men. In terms of gender, women typically do not drink outside of small family gatherings or other private settings. But as for the Hispanics in the United States, this cultural norm is changing. Recent studies show some young Hispanic women are drinking as much or even more than young Hispanic men. Research shows that young, U.S.-born Hispanic men who are not Protestant tend to have relaxed attitudes toward drinking. Those who feel this way also are more likely to drink, to drink heavily, and to possibly have alcohol-related problems. Within the Hispanic community, Puerto Ricans and Mexican Americans tend to have more relaxed attitudes about drinking than Cuban Americans.

Source: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/HispanicFact/HispanicFact.htm

Prevalence of Depression among African-Americans

Depression is a huge health concern among African-Americans -- particularly women -- but mental health is often stigmatized in the black community. Although it can impact people from all walks of life, cultural habits and historical experiences can cause depression to be expressed and addressed differently among black women. According to Esney M. Sharpe, founder and CEO of the Bessie Mae Womans Health Center in East Orange, New Jersey, that during slavery, African women were supposed to be the strong one. That they werent supposed to speak and that they were supposed to just do.

Hamm (2014) suggested that lack of treatment, lack of health insurance, shame and embarrassment, lack of knowledge, refusal of help, and hope, are some of the factors as to why depression is prevalent among African-Americans specifically women.

Hector M. Gonzalez, Ph.D., and colleagues at Wayne State University, Detroit, found that overall, only about half of Americans diagnosed with major depression in a given year receive treatment for it. But only one-fifth receive treatment consistent with current practice guidelines. African-Americans had some of the lowest rates of use of depression care.

A lack of adequate health care can significantly contribute to low rates of the treatment of depression among African-Americans, particularly African-American women. More than 20 percent of black Americans are uninsured compared to less than 12 percent of whites. Diane R. Brown is a professor of health education of behavioral science at the Rutgers School of Public Health and co-author of, "In and Out of Our Right Minds: The Mental Health of African-American Women." Her research shows a correlation between socioeconomic status and poor physical and mental health. Since black women are more likely to be poor, to be unmarried and to parent a child alone, which are all stressors that can contribute to poor mental health, they are also least likely to have resources like adequate mental health insurance to address problems such as depression. (Hamm, 2014)

There is an extreme lack of knowledge about depression in African-American communities due to the negative stigmas with regard to mental health and depression. A research done by researchers at Mental Health America suggest that African-Americans are more likely to believe depression is normal. In fact, 56% of blacks believed that depression was a normal part of aging according to a study made by Mental Health America on depression.

Hamm also stated that one of the great barriers to keeping black women from receiving treatment for depression is a history of discrimination and a deep mistrust of health care institutions in the U.S., which can cause black women to refuse help when they need it.

Matthew Johnson, a licensed psychologist in New Jersey and faculty member at John Jay College of Criminal Justice said, "Even though they are facing racism and sexism that they are finding ways to care for themselves and accommodate what they're faced with from external society and largely through a lot of relationships and support systems that they built for themselves among relatives and among friends."

Source: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nia-hamm/depression-african-americanwomen_b_5836320.html