Principles of Building Construction 2

PLATFORM FRAME

Advantages of platform frame over balloon frame Uses short easily available length of lumber for wall framingThe vertically hollow spaces are automatically fire stopped at each floorPlatform are convenient working surfaces

DisadvantagesEach platform constitutes a thick layer of wood whose grain runs horizontally – large vertical shrinkage lead to distress in the exterior and interior finishes surfaces

BALLOON FRAME Used full length studs that run continuously for 2 stories from foundation to roofToo long to erect efficiently Tall hollow spaces between stud acted as multiple chimney in fire, spread fire rapidly to the upper floor unless use fire stops.

PLATFORM FRAME - ConceptA floor platform is buildLoad bearing walls are erected upon itA second floor platform is build upon these wallsSecond set of walls upon this platformThe attic and roof are then built upon the second set of wallA floor platform is completed at each level and the walls bear upon the platform rather than directly upon the walls of the story below

ROOF FRAMING

Roof trussOr install ridge & rafterHip and valley Applying plywood roof sheathing or insulation layerBatten for tile roof roof covering or tiles

PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2

AQS 1291

Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali

7 REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES

Contents

Concrete

Reinforcements

Formworks

Reinforcing

Prestressing

Sitecast Concrete Framing System

Precast Concrete Framing System

Method of Connections

SPECIFYING CONCRETE

Designed mix

Prescribe mix

Nominal mix

Standard mix

Designated mix

DESIGNED CONCRETE MIXED

Deriving mix portion just right for the job

Involve extra work in design and testing but for large volume application or high strength concrete,

produce concrete of consistently suitable properties

The mix is specified by a grade corresponding to required characteristic compressive strength at 28 days eg

C25

DESIGNED CONCRETE MIXED

The purchaser specifies the required strength, the minimum cement content and other properties

necessary to ensure durability but leaves the contractor or manufacture to decide the mix portion

Producer makes concrete to satisfy the purchaser’s performance specification

PRESCRIBED CONCRETE MIX

Specify the mixed portion by prescription

The purchaser specify the mixed portion and accept the responsibility for their being able to provide the

desired properties in the concrete

PRESCRIBED MIX - NOMINAL MIXED

To specify ratio such as 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts aggregates

Mixed proportion by weight

Type of cement

Type of aggregate and their maximum size

Degree of workability (slump and/or water cement ratio)

PRESCRIBED MIX - STANDARD MIXES

BS5328

Mixes are produced from one of the five grades ranging from ST1 to St5 with corresponding 28

days strength characteristics of 7.7 to a limit of 25N/mm2

Mixed composition and details are specified by

Cement to aggregate by weight

Type of cement

Aggregate type and maximum size

Workability

Use or omission of reinforcement

Most suited to site production, where the scale of operation is relatively small

PRESCRIBED MIX - DESIGNATED MIXES

These are recommended mixes for specific application e.g. blinding and mass concrete fill, strip

footing, mass concrete foundation, trench fill foundation, unreinforced house floor, drainage

application

General, graded 0- 4, ranging from 7.5 to 25N/mm2 characteristic strength for foundation, floors

and external works

Needs to specify

Reinforced or unreinforced

Maximum aggregate size (if not 20mm)

Exposure to chemicals ( chlorides and sulphates) etc

PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE - WORKABILITY

Determined by the ability to be placed, compact and finished

Measured by slump test

Factors affecting workability

Water content

Maximum aggregate size

Aggregate shape

Aggregate surface texture

MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE

Can either be made wholly on the site or factory (ready mixed concrete)

Ready mixed concrete is useful where:

continuous site production is not possible

space for storage and mixing is limited

high quality or special mixed concrete required

HANDLING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

Whether concrete is moved from the mixer by lorries, barrows, dumper, pipeline it is important that the

process does not cause segregation

Segregation

coarse aggregate go to the bottom while water and cement raise to the top

Prevention:

Deposit concrete as close to the final position

If dropped for more than 3 or 4 feet user drop chutes

If moved horizontally should pump through hose, conveyed in bucket rather than pushed across.

COMPACTION

Trapped air in concrete ( about 2% ) must be remove after placing if maximum density is to be achieved

Done by compaction with rod or vibrator

Compaction eliminate trapped air but excessive vibration will cause segregation

CURING OF CONCRETE

A process by which cement is enabled to hydrate

Since water is involved in the process it is essential to maintained concrete in a saturated condition for a

sufficient length until required strength achieved

During curing period the strength of concrete is gradually increased

Drying of water will cause to be shrinkage and stress developed and caused cracks

CURING METHOD

Curing compound

Cover with impervious sheets (plastic)

Cover with gunny sacks, spray water every day for 1 week

Steam curing – room temperature for several hours then stem curing – mainly used in precast factories

where a high early strength need to be achieved

PROPERTIES OF HARDERN CONCRETE - STRENGTH

Determine by ultimate strength in compression

Concrete gains strength over a long period of time

Rapid gain in strength in first 28 day

Afterwards increase of strength is slow

28 days strength used to measure strength

STRENGTH DEPEND ON NUMBER OF FACTORS

Types of cement used

Normal, air entraining, high early strength, low heat hydration, resistance to sulphate

Types and size of aggregates

¾ of concrete made of aggregate

strong clean, chemically stable, properly graded

Max size not more than ¾ clear space between bars or 1/3 thickness of slab

STRENGTH DEPEND ON NUMBER OF FACTORS (cont’d)

Water

clean, drinking water

Use of admixture

Air entraining, water reducing, accelerating admixture, retarder

water/cement ratio

Water used for hydration process. Extra water used for workability. More water weaker

DURABILITY

Mainly depend on its permeability and hence on the porosity of the hydrated cement

Similar to the determination of strength- low water cement ratio better durability

REINFORCEMENTS

Requirement

must have tensile strength

capable of achieving tensile strength with out undue strain

easily bend to any shape

capable of developing an adequate bond between concrete and reinforcement

similar thermal coefficient to prevent unwanted stressed due to temp change

reasonable cost

STEEL REINFORCEMENTS

2 basic types BS4449

Mild steel - characteristic strength 250 N/mm2 –smooth surface

High yield strength - 460 N/mm2 – transverse ribs

Nominal size – 6,8,10,12,16,20,25,32

STEEL REINFORCEMENTS

Bending of reinforcement – at site or factory

STEEL – Fabric/Mesh

Steel fabric BS4483

Type A square mesh,

B – rectangular

C long mach for pavement,

2400 wide. 4800 length or 48,000 or 72000 (rolled)

Before placing should be brushed free of rust and mill scale and free of grease

CONCRETE COVER

Minimum cover of concrete – protection from corrosion and fire resistance.

Nominal cover = size of bars

BS8110 Table 3.4 give recommended cover relationship to exposure/ durability and period of fire resistance

REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE AND DETAILS

Drawing should have the following information:

Sufficient cross-reference to identify members in relation to the whole drawing

All the necessary dimension

Detail of reinforcement

Minimum cover of concrete

Concrete grade

BAR SCHEDULE

Example:

2R 2001

6R 1004 - 200

HOOKS, BENDS AND LAPS

To prevent bond failure, bars extended beyond no stress section

Hooks and bends are to reduce anchorage length

Laps and joints length

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM

Transfer load to column

Simply supported beam of uniform loading maximum moment is at the centre

Tensile stress is taken by reinforcement while compression stress is taken by concrete

Maximum shear is near the support

Shear stress is taken by stirrup or inclined bars

Stirrup also to reduce shrinkage cracking and to from cage for easy handling

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN

Vertical member carrying the beam and floor loading to the foundation

Compression member

Concrete is strong in compression

Reinforcement still needed- load not axial, lateral loading, slender column

Minimum no of bars - 4

Links – to prevent buckling and busting

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB

Behave exactly as beam

Design in the same manner as beam but per m wide

Fabricated to from a continuous mat

FLAT AND SLABS

Slab act as plate which is divided into middle and column strips

Can be thick and heavy but have clear ceiling height

BEAM AND SLAB

Larger span is possible

Reinforcement uncomplicated

Negative moment at the support required top reinforcement

FORMWORKS

Wet concrete have no shape nor physical strength – put into formwork until it has cured and gained strength

to support itself.

Made from wood, metal or plastic

Temporary means to support reinforcement

Curing period – help to retain necessary water of hydration

Stripping without damage to either formwork or concrete

FORMWORK -REQUIREMENTS

Must be able to support wet concrete (2400 kg/m3) and fluid pressure

No excessive deflection under loading

Accurately set out

Grout tight joints

Size must be easily handled

Material must be easily fixed

Easily assembled and dismantled

CONCRETE SURFACE QUALITY

Depends on quality of formwork surfaces

Two defects on concrete surface

Blow holes – small holes less than 15 mm cause of air trapped between formwork and concrete surface

Uneven colour – irregular absorption of from wet concrete by formwork

Form release compound or mould oil is applied to inside surface of the formwork to alleviate these defects

and to prevent adhesion of concrete to the formwork.

FORMWORK LININGS

Use lining such as oil tempered hardboard, moulded rubber, moulded PVC to obtained smooth patterned

surfaces

Major component of the overall cost of concrete building

Constitute an entire temporary building that must be erected an demolished in order to produce permanent

building of concrete

TYPES OF FORMWORK

Foundation Formwork

Column Formwork

Beam Formwork

Floor or Roof Formwork

FOUNDATION FORMWORK

Generally a series of isolated bases or pads

If subsoil is firm and hard- excavate trench or pit to the size and depth required and cast concrete.

Or else construct foundation formwork

COLUMN FORMWORK

vertical mould which has to resist considerable horizontal pressure in the early stage

yokes and clamps

BEAM FORMWORK

3 sided supported by cross head which are propped to the underside of the soffit board

beam form is also used to support slab formwork and the two structural members are cast together

FLOOR OR ROOF FORMWORK

Also called shuttering .

Consist of panels that can easily handled

Adjustment for leveling can be carried out using small folding wedges between the joist or framing and the

beam box

FLOOR OR ROOF FORMWORK

SITE WORK

All formwork should be clear of rubbish, dirt and grease before the application of mould oil or reducing

agent

All joint should be checked to ensure that they are grout tight

Distance between mixer and formwork should be kept as short as possible to prevent segregation and avoid

double handling

Compacting – reinforcement should not be displaced, not to over compact

WHEN TO REMOVED FORMWORK

Table 6.6 from BS 8110

Eg. soffit formwork to beam and props to slabs -10days

WHEN TO REMOVED FORMWORK

Removed slowly

Beam sides could be removed earlier that the soffit board an enable a flow of air to pass round the new

concrete speed up hardening process and reuse of formwork earliest possible.

Material and plant should no the placed on partly hardened concrete.

TESTING – CUBE TEST

Samples taken during concreting

Test for compression –

3 days, 7 days, 28 days

REINFORCING A SIMPLE CONCRETE BEAM

Compressive stress at the top of the beam – taken by concrete

Tensile stress at the bottom – put reinforcement

Tensile stress in diagonal orientation near the end of the beam – resisted by stirrup

REINFORCING A CONTINUOUS CONCRETE BEAM

Reinforcement at the bottom mid-span and top at the column

REINFORCING STRUCTURAL CONCRETE SLABS

Slab- very broad beam, similar reinforcing pattern as the beam

TWO-WAY SLAB ACTION

Nearly square slab reinforced equally in both direction

Shallower than one way slab

REINFORCING CONCRETE COLUMN

Verticals bars to take the compressive loads and resist tensile stress

Ties wrap around the vertical bars help to prevent buckling under load

Rectangular (use ties) and circular column (uses spiral)

REINFORCING CONCRETE COLUMN

PRESTRESSING

Concept

Prestressed members lighter, longer span

Types:

pre-tensioning

Post- tensioning

PRETENSIONING

High strand steel are cast first before casting of concrete

After curing steel is cut at either end of the member

Useful for precast members

POST TENSIONING

Done at site

Steel strands (tendons) are prevented from bonding to concrete and not tensioned until concrete is cured

Tensile force is applied by jack

Tendon may be left unbonded as in building

Bonded by grouting as in bridges and other heavy structures

POST TENSIONING

SITE CAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEM

Tend to be heavier

Slow to construct – level by level

Variable weather condition

Now with method of handling material and reusable form work, fabrication of reinforcing element and

mechanizing the finishing operation.- technique most favorable

CASTING A CONCRETE SLAB ON GRADE

Supported directly on the ground

Scrape top soil

Lay 80-100mm crushed stone (20mm dia) – drainage layer

Construct simple edge formwork

Coat the formwork with release compound

Moisture barrier layer

Mortar layer or sand

Reinforcements - BRC

POURING AND FINISHING THE SLAB ON GRADE

Control joint provided with fiber board strip

Pouring of concrete by cute or wheelbarrow, conveyer belt, pump – depend on scale of job and accessibility

Spread using shovels and rakes until formwork is full

Vibrate to eliminate air pockets

Straightedge concrete with stiff plank to achieve level surface

If smooth surface desired use float


Shake on hardener is sprinkle over surface of slab between straight edging and floating operation to form

hard durable surface for heavy wear application

For completely smooth ,dense surface use steel trowel – several hours after floating when quite firm

If non slip surface use stiff bristled broom – broom finished


CASTING CONCRETE WALL

Keys is sometimes formed in the top of footing

Reinforcements of wall overlap of those of strip footings

Front and back formworks are tied

Exact height – surveyor transit and marked on the inside of formwork

CASTING CONCRETE WALL

Pour, vibrate smoothened

Stripping of formwork when concrete strong enough

CASTING OF CONCRETE COLUMN

Formed and cast like a wall

Dowel bar from the footing matched the vertical bars of column

The vertical bars projected from the top of the column to overlap or splice to the bars of column for story

above and bend at right angle to splice in to roof structure

Offset (bent inward) to avoid interference

CASTING OF CONCRETE COLUMN

ONE WAY FLOOR AND ROOF FRAMING SYSTEM

The walls and column are poured prior to erecting the formwork

Girder and beams are nearly formed first then slab but concrete are poured at the same time as the slab

When the beam and slab attained enough strength to support themselves safely the formed is stripped

Beam and slab are reshored with vertical propped to relieve them of load until they reached full strength

TWO WAY FLOOR AND ROOF FRAMING SYSTEM

Slab is supported by a grid of beam running in both direction

Used for heavy loaded industrial floor

Thickness usually 6-12in

Reinforcement – column strip carries higher bending force compared to middle zones

The End

PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEM

Structural precast concrete element are cast and cured in plant, transported to site and erected as rigid

component.


Advantages

Mixing, placing curing is carried out under controlled condition which result uniform and accurate units

Excellent surface properties

Repetitive standard unit – reduce cost

Could use pretension – longer spans, lesser depth and lighter element

Frame can be assembled on site on cold weather with the help of planning, programming and progressive of

building operation

Reduce labour needs and can be assemble by semi skilled labour

Erection faster – no formwork


Disadvantages

System building less flexible in its design concept

Heavy and bulky to transport – restricted by transport size

Needs mechanical lifting to place in position

Programming is restricted by controls on delivery and unloading time laid down by the police

Need structural connections

PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Slabs

Beams

Girders

Columns

Wall panels

PRECAST CONCRETE SLABS FIG 15.3

The most fully standardized

Supported by load bearing walls, frames of steel, cast in situ concrete and precast concrete

Solid flat slab

Hollow core slab

Double tee

Single tee

PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS, GIRDERS AND COLUMN FIG 15.4

Rectangular beam

L shaped beam

Inverted tee beam

I beam

PRECAST CONCRETE WALL PANELS

Precast solids slabs – load bearing wall panels

ASSEMBLY CONCEPT FOR PRECAST CONCRETE BUILDING

Fig 15.5 – slab supported on l shape girder and precast column

Fig 15.6 – supported on precast loadbearing wall

Fig 15.7 – combination of girder an d load bearing walls

THE MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENT

Fig 15.8

CASTING OF BED Fig 15.8, 15.9, 15.11

connections

CASTING OF BED Fig 15.8, 15.9, 15.11

Permanent form – casting bed

Work cycle

Morning – lifting of element that is cast yesterday

Strung high strength steel strand between abutment

Pretensionned strand

Place reinforcing bars, stirrups etc

Cast in concrete

Finished surface with trowels

Steam to cure

Nest morning test concrete cylinder to verify strength

Cut end of strands- prestressing concrete

METHOD OF CONNECTIONS

FOUNDATION CONNECTIONS FIG 9.4.1

pocket left in the foundation – prop and grout

cast or weld in base plate at he foot of the column and use holding down bolt to secure column to its

foundation

COLUMN CONNECTIONS Fig 9.4.2

Principle to ensure continuity

dowel bar positioned in the upper and lower column

stud and plate connection

exposed reinforcement connection

BEAM CONNECTIONS FIG 9.4.3

projecting concrete haunch is cast on the column with dowel or stud bolt to fix to the beam

projecting metal corbel is fixed to the column and beam

Column and beam reinforcement left exposed of hook and hooked to together and covered with in situ

concrete

Lateral restrain in beam and column connection is provided by leaving projected reinforcements from the

beam sides to bond to the floor slab or precast concrete floor unit.

PRECAST CONCRETE AND THE BUILDING CODE

Fire resistance rating for each component

Slab element readily available in 1-2 hr fire resistance rating

Beam and column rating ranging 1-4 hrs

Can be increased by adding a topping

UNIQUENESS OF PRECAST CONCRETE FRAME

Slender, in relation to span, precise, repetitive and high quality finishes

Solid and Hollow slab

Used in schools, hotels apartment building and hospital

Precast concrete in longer span

Parking structures, warehouse and industrial plant

Increasing successful in creating publics buildings of higher architectural quality

The Ends

Thank you

PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 2AQS 1291

Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 12 DRAINAGE CONTENTS Principles of Good Drainage Drainage Systems Private Sewer Drainage Materials Drain Laying Mean Of Access Rainwater Drainage Sizing Of Gutter And Down Pipes DRAINAGE A system of pipe work usually installed below ground level Function

To convey the discharge from sanitary fittings, rainwater gutters and down pipes to a suitable disposal installation.

Sewer – a means of conveying waste, soil or rainwater below ground that has been collected from the drain and convey it to the final disposal point

DISPOSAL METHOD To connect the pipe work to the public sewer –discharge to local authority sewerage treatment plan Small self contained treatment plan on site - collection tank – collected by special tanker lorry to local

sewerage treatment plan PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Material –adequate strength , durability Diameter as small as practicable : soil drain – 100 mm, surface water 75 mm Every part should be accessible for purpose of inspection and cleansing Laid in straight runs as far as possible PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Laid to a gradient which render efficient

Calculated by rate of flow, velocity , diameter of drain Rule of thumb for gradient : diameter divide 2.5, eg 100 mm gradient 1:40

Drain inlet should be trapped to prevent the entry of foul air into the building PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Inspection chamber, manholes, access fittings should be places at changes of direction or gradient, if these

changes would prevent the drain from being cleansed Inspection chamber placed at a junction unless run can be cleanse from an access point PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Junction between drains must be arranged - incoming drain joint at an oblique angle in the direction of

main flow Avoid drain under buildings, if unavoidable they must be protected to ensure water tightness and to prevent

damages Encase the drain with 100 mm (min) granular filling Use cast iron pipes under building

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD DRAINAGE Drain within 1m of foundation to the walls of buildings and below foundation level must be back filled with

concrete up to the level of the underside of the foundation. Minimum invert level of drain is 450 mm, to avoid damage by ground movement and 700 for traffic

Invert level is the lowest level of the bore of a drain DRAINAGE SCHEMES . Depend on a number of factors

Number of discharge point Relative position of discharge points Drainage system and location of local authority’s sewer Internal layout of sanitary fittings External position of rainwater down pipe Disposition of building Topography of the area to be served

DRAINAGE SCHEMES Designed within the limits of terrain Discharges flow by gravity from origin to point of discharged Pipe size and gradient selected based on sufficient capacity to accommodate maximum flow or adequate self

cleansing velocity to prevent debris accumulating DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Combined System Totally Separate System Partially Separate System Private Sewer

COMBINED SYSTEM All drains discharged into a common or combined sewer. Simple and economic method since there is no duplication of drains COMBINED SYSTEM Advantage

easy to maintain all drain are flushed when it rains impossible to connect to the wrong sewer

Disadvantage all discharge must pass through the sewerage treatment plan installation thus costly

TOTALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM The method employed by Malaysian authorities Consist of 2 sewers

one for surface water discharged – convey to a suitable outfall e.g. river without treatment second sewer received soil and foul discharge from baths, basin , sink, shower and toilet - convey to

sewage treatment plan TOTALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM Disadvantage

More drains are required Often necessary to cross one drain over the other thus risk of connection to the wrong sewer Soil drains are not flushed during heavy drain.

Advantage Smaller volume of discharged to be treated thus lead to overall economy

PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM 2 sewers used

one for surface water two act as combined sewer

The amount of surface water to be discharges into combines sewer can be adjusted according to the capacity of the sewerage treatment installation

PRIVATE & PUBLIC SEWER Public Sewer

Sewer that is owned and maintained by the local authority Private Sewer

Sewer owned by a single person or group of people and maintained by them SEWER CONNECTION TO THE PUBLIC SEWER 1. individual sewer 2. A few houses connected to the single sewer which in turn is connected to the public sewer A few houses connected to the single sewer which in turn is connected to the public sewer Possible saving

total length of drain required number of connection to public sewer amount of opening in the road number of inspection chambers

DRAINAGE MATERIALS Rigid

clay, cast iron, precast concrete(for surface water)

Flexible

unplasticied PVC(UPVC) CLAY PIPES BS 65 BS EN 295 Used for domestic drainage. Glazed with common salt, borax or boric acid during firing process to render them imperviousness Today high standard of manufacture combined with quality dense material – no need this process Type and quality marked on the barrel CLAY PIPES BS 65 BS EN 295 Diameter range 100- 250mm (increment of 25,75, mm) Length 1,300 to 16000 for plain pipe Shorter up to 600 mm for spigot and socket pipes. Joints - mostly flexible to accommodate earth movement under, around an dover the pipeline, within the

joint Rigid joint is difficult to make in wet trenches and unable to absorbed movement

Socket joint – socket and spigot Sleeve joint - plain pipes with push fit polypropylene sleeve coupling

CLAY PIPES FITTINGS 45o oblique junction Eighth bend Yard gully Access gully S trap outlet P trap outlet others MAKING OF

CLAY PIPES CAST IRON PIPES Used in domestic pipes if ground unstable, drain with shallow invert and passed under buildings, sewage is

under pressure from pumping. Diameter 75, 100, 150 and 225 mm Length 1.83, 2.74 and 3.66 fittings same as clay pipes Protective coating – hot dip into bituminous or tar composition or cold solution of naphtha and bitumen

composition. Joint – flexible push fit joint – harden rubber and soft bulb gasket UNPLASTICIZED PVC PIPES

BS 35600 industrial use, BS 4660 domestic use Made from polyvinyl chloride + additives Diameter outside 110mm, 160mm with non std diameter 82, 200,250 and 315 mm Length 3m and 6m Long length less jointing Can be cut easily by hacksaw Joint

socket and spigot with rubber ring Sleeve joints of polypropylene with ruber dealing solvent welded joint – brush with PVC solution and methyl chloride

Concrete pipes Used for major infrastructure work Size – 300mm -1.8m Std pipe – 2.5m long, 600mm dia, weight 1200kg

Can only be lifted and maneuvered into position using mechanical plan Fitted with gasket Once lubricant has been applied to the barrel, it can be pushed into socket for a watertight seal UNPLASTICIZED PVC PIPES Advantages

Smooth bore Light Easy to handle Long - length reduce joints, Can be jointed and laid in all weathers

Drain - Sewer No exact distinction between drain and sewer Generally Drain – pipeline under privately owned land, laid and maintained by the owner Sewer – pipeline laid and maintained by the local authority DRAIN LAYING BS 8301 – Laid in trenches which are excavated, if necessary timbered to prevent collapse Trench excavated to the required gradient and fall Excavation should remain open as short as possible time Technique for lying depend on material and joint ( rigid or flexible) Gradient 1:200, not less than 1:80 Lay bedding Carry out jointing Lay pipe Use pipe laser for pipe gradient or fall Built up bedding Testing Backfill and compaction DRAIN LAYING Pipe is set in position by scooping out the granular from the underneath the collar, and set the pipe in the

centre of the trench Laser sit at one end of the pipe run and the target is positioned in the end of the pipe being leveled. When

the lase strike the center of the target, the pipe is at the correct level Further granular material is then spreads and lightly packed each side of pipeline, to support it against

deformation under load. Then on top of the pipe and later backfill with excavated material up to ground level

Pipe could accommodate axial flexibility and extensibility by flexible jointing and granular flexible bedding medium.

Pipes depend upon the support bedding for their strength, must be uniformly supported on all sides by bedding material and compacted

DRAIN LAYING Min diameter waste water 75mm, soil water 100mm Bedding –

for flexible pipes For rigid pipes

Class D – on trench bed Class N granular bedding, Class B granular bedding Concrete casing for rigid pipes

None cohesive granular material size 5-20mm Socket end laid against the flow Flexible joints required special lubricant to ease jointing process With modern excavating machinery , flexible joint pipelines may be assemble above ground and then

lowered into and bedded in comparatively narrow trenches MEAN OF ACCESS INTO SEWER Should have adequate access for testing, maintenance and clearance of blockage Rodding is the operation of pushing flexible, sectional rods down drain lines to clear blockage 3 types of access point

Rodding eyes Shallow access fittings Inspection chambers & Manholes

Access points should be provided : on long drain runs, at the head od each drain run at a bend or change of gradient a change of pipe size at junction where each drain run to the junction cannot be cleared from an access points

RODDING EYES Located at the head for a drain Are used as a continuation of straight drain runs extended to the ground level with an access cap. It is possible to rod through each drain run to clear a blockage. SHALLOW ACCESS FITTINGS Provide vertical access to both directions of drain run which is not over 600 mm deep INSPECTION OF CHAMBER Enlarge version of shallow access fitting but depth up to 1 m Provided limited access and contain facilities for few junctions and branch connections Material

Plastics Precast concrete Brick masonry

MANHOLES Inspection chambers over 1m Compartment containing half or three quarter section round channels to enable the flow to be observed Provide a drain access point for cleaning and testing Domestic drainage - shallow manhole up to 1800 mm MANHOLES Internal sizing governed by

depth to invert nos of branch drains diameter of branch drain space for one person to work within manhole

Brick manhole is formed on 150 mm concrete bed on which brick walls are raised In the bed, a half –round channel take discharge from the branch drains Have cast iron covers over frames VENTILATION OF DRAINS To prevent foul air from soil and combined drain from escaping and causing nuisance To prevent the build-up of explosive gasses and to relieve pressure which could interfere with the smooth

operation of the drainage system.

Ventilating pipes should be provided at or near the head of each main drain and any branch exceeding 10 m in length

VENTILATION OF DRAINS Can be separate pipes or soil discharge stack pipe – carried upward to act as ventilating discharge pipe stack

or soil vent pipe. Ventilating pipe should be open to the outside air and carried at least 900mm above the head of any window

within a horizontal distance of 3,000mm VENTILATION OF DRAINS Air admittance valve is used every fifth house must have a conventional vent pipe to preserved the

atmospheric pressure in the drain and sewer. Principles

Discharge of water in the stack creates a slight negative pressure sufficient to open the valve and admit air, atmospheric pressure allows spring to reseal the unit and prevent foul from escaping.

Advantages Ventilating stack can be terminated inside the building typically in the roof space Greater flexibility in design Adapt to plastic or pipework Visually unobtrusive as there is no projecting stack pipe

ROOF DRAINGE - RAINWATER DRAINAGE To get rainwater from the roof to a suitable discharge as quickly and economical as possible, thus helping to

prevent water penetration to the inside of the building Roof- collection channel (gutter) - vertical rainwater pipes – rainwater shoe (surface water drain) or trapped

gully for a combined drain Use trapped gully at the foot of rain water downpipe when soil and wastewater discharges and rainwater

goes to drain – to prevent odour Use rainwater shoe when rain water down pipe connect directly to storm water drain Gully and shoe usually bedded on a small concrete base to provide base for connection to stack pipes and

drains RAINWATER DRAINAGE Materials

Concrete galvanized pressed steel

For Domestic cast iron uPVC

CAST IRON RAINWATER GOODS – BS 460 Members – gutter, downpipe, shoe, clip, dead end, corners, hopper ,branch, socket, nozzle outlet Shape of gutter – half round, segmental and ogee Half round gutter with socket joint – diameter 75 to 150 mm, 1800 mm length Socket should be lapped in the direction of flow and sealed with putty Gutter supported by brackets screwed to the feet of rafter or fascia board Down pipes are fixed to the wall by clips SIZING OF GUTTER AND DOWN PIPES Depend on

the are of roof to be drained anticipated intensity of rainfall material of gutter and down pipes fall within gutter usually 1:150 , 1:600 numbers, size and position of outlets

UNPLASTICIZED PVC RAINWATER GOODS BS 4576 Advantages over cast iron easier jointing, gutter bolts are not required, joint is self sealing by butyl corrosion eliminated decoration not required, several colour available breakages are reduced better flow properties, enable smaller section and lower falls half round gutter – diameter 75 to 150 mm, length 6 m down pipes – dia 50,63,75, 89 mm length 2 and 4 meter CONNECTION TO SEWERS Incoming drain or private sewer is joined main sewer obliquely in the direction of flow and the connection

watertight Method of connection depend on

relative size of sewer and connecting drain or private sewer relative invert level position nearest inspection chamber on the sewer run whether the sewer is existing or being laid concurrently with drain or private sewer whether stopped or join, the junctions have been built into existing sewer the shortest and most practical route

CONNECTION TO SEWERS Public sewer less than 225 mm – remove 2-3 pipes and replace with new pipes with oblique junction If new connection have been anticipated stopped junction may be included in the design Careful removal of the disk or cap is essential to ensure undamaged socket is available to make the

connection CONNECTION TO THE INSPECTION CHAMBER OR MANHOLES If same invert level – oblique branch channel If different level - a ramp formed in the branching within inspection chamber When a branch drain is to be corrected to main drain at a lower level it is often economical to construct a

back drop inspection chamber to avoid deep excavation CONNECTION TO THE INSPECTION CHAMBER OR MANHOLES Connection of small diameter drain to larger diameter – saddle connection A saddle is a short socket pipe with a flange or saddle curved to suit the outer profile of the sewer pipe. Hole must be cut in the upper part of the sewer Saddle connection is bedded on to the sewer with cement mortar and the whole connection is surrounded

with a minimum 150 mass concrete DRAIN TESTING - 3 methods Water test

Usual method –carried out by filling the drain line being tested with head of water being 1.5m above the crown of the high end of the pipeline and observing if there any escape of water. Test of water tightness under pressure

Air test Used in special circumstances such as large diameter pipe where a large quantity of water would be

required Smoke test

Smoke is pumped into sealed drain under test. The drained is stopped at suitable interval.. Give some indication of leaks before any excavation to expose drain is undertaken

CCT survey Use camera mounted to provide view of inside the drain

SEPTIC TANK

Is designed to take the outflow of soil and wastewater, retain some solid organic matter for partial purification and discharge the liquid sewage through a system of land drain to the surrounding ground to complete the process of purification

Capacity – 2800 to 6000 liters for 4-22 people respectively Tank is bedded on concrete and surrounded with lean mix concrete with access cover at ground level 3 chambers – lower chamber for large solid particles to settle Solid sewage that sattle in the ase of the tank should be removed every 12 months to a tanker SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE Fall - External surfaces that are paved with concrete, tarmac, paving slabs, bricks or granite set should be laid

with slight slopes or falls to gullies or channels. Min fall of 1:60 Channels – may be laid to slight fall by a gentle sinking towards a gully For rain and surface water drain use clay or uPVC with rodding eyes access fittings SURFACE WATER DISCHARGE Malaysia still use open drainage system although some use close drainage system Half circle drain U drain SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE -SOAKAWAY A pit into which roof and surface water is drained and from which the water seeps into the surrounding

ground Used as alternative means of discharge on large area of land surrounding a building Constructed by excavating a pit of appropriate size and either filling the void with selected granular materials

or alternatively lining the sides with brickwork or precast concrete rings Small capacity SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE -SOAKAWAY Difficult to estimate the storage capacity due to silting Sited away from the building so that foundation are not affected by the percolation of water from the

soakaway – min 5000 mm TYPES OF SOAKAWAY Filled soakaway

Employed only for small capacities The life is limited by the silting up of the voids between the filling material

Lined soakaway More efficient Have longer life If access is provided can be inspected and maintained at regular interval

The End Thank you


Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 11 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY

SANITARY FITTING AND PIPEWORKS CONTENTS Domestic water supply Sanitary fitting and pipe work DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY SYABAS provide from their main communication pipe to a stop valve and protections chamber just out side

the boundary. Service pipe is taken from this stop valve to an internal stop valve located just above floor level and housed

under the sink unit. Service pipe must not be placed where it can be affected by frost, heavy traffic or building loads Minimum depth 750mm recommended to domestic properties. Functions To provide clean water suitable for human consumption Provide a continuous supply at a constant pressure Water supply regulations

Provide guidance on materials, workmanship, water supply design and installation and provision against backflow of the water supply

Concern to prevent contamination of main supplied water by the flow of potentially polluted water from a supply or distributed system back into the mains water supply

Backflow can occur when there is a loss of pressure in the main due to failure of pumps or repair and maintenance on the main and also where a pumped supply in a building creates pressure greater than that in the main

Pipes and fittings must be designed to withstand an internal water pressure not less that one a half times the maximum water pressure design for

CONNECTION TO THE WATER MAIN Service pipe

From the main to the stop valve near the site boundary of a building Responsibility of SYABAS Stop valve is to enable SYABAS to disconnect supply if there is a leak or non payment

Supply pipe From the stop valve to and into the buildings Responsibility of house owner Subject to water pressure from SYABAS mains At a point it enter the building, there should be another stop valve

Distributing pipe Convey water from storage cistern to pipe fittings

WATER METER Located on a service pipe, in a compartment inside the property boundary. Indicate the volume of water used by the consumer Rate – Malaysia - the more used the more expensive the rate 1m3 – RM0.57 COLD WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY – direct from the main water pressure INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY – from a cold water storage cistern DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY The whole cold water to the sanitary fitting is supplied directly from the service pipe Used where high level reservoirs provide a good main supply and pressure. DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY Advantage Only a small cold water storage cistern to feed the hot water tank is required; this can usually be positioned

below the roof ceiling level giving a saving on pipe runs to the roof space and eliminating the need to insulate the pipes against frost

Drinking water available from several outlet point. Uniform high pressure supply DIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY Disadvantages Lack of reserve should the supply be cut off for repair Lowering of the supply during peak demand period. Risk of contamination of the main water from sanitary fittings by back siphonage The need for comparatively frequent inspection, maintenance and repair of many valves and control to the

system INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY - advantages All sanitary fittings except drinking water outlet is supply indirectly from cold water cistern positioned at a

high level, usually roof space

Requires more pipe works but give a reserve supply in case of mains failure and reduce the risk of contamination from back siphonage.

The air gap between the supply pipe and water level in the cistern acts an effective barrier to back flow INDIRECT COLD WATER SUPPLY - disadvantages The considerable weight of a filled cistern has to be supported at high level The inconvenience of access to cistern for inspection and maintenance The possibility of cistern overflowing Need to insulate effectively the cistern and its associated pipework against freezing Animal and insect may enter the cistern and contaminate water MATERIALS FOR PIPEWORKS Copper PVC polythene uPVC Galvanized steel Pvc pipes are resistance to frost and corrosion – superceded metal pipes PIPEWORKS Any materials suitable for service pipe are suitable for distribution pipe Choice based on individual preference

initial costs possible maintenance costs

Common Size 15mm for wash basin and WC flushing cistern 22mm for sink and bath

COPPER PIPES Low flow resistance Strong Easily jointed and bend Usually use in hot water supply Joints can be made by

Manipulative compression joint Non manipulative compression joints Capillary joint

Galvanized mild steel Used in service, supply and distribution pipework Galvanized to resist corrosion The pipe end is threaded Joint made with socket, fittings Pipes are supported at the interval of 2.5 to 3 m POLYTHENE PIPES Very light, easy to join, non-toxic, non corrosive and available in long length. Jointing using metal or plastic liner to the end of the tube Soften at low temperature - use in cold water supply. To prevent sagging, use saddle clips 14x diameter. For horizontal, 24x diameter for vertical runs. UNPLASTICIZED PVC (UPVC) For cold water service Color-gray, blue, black Jointing

a screw thread

solvent welding Chamfering the end pipes, coated with adhesive and pushed into straight coupling. Heat fusion used for larger diameter water authority mains.

Corrosion resistant Durable Environmentally sound

HPE - High density polyethylene pipe SYABAS SPECIFICATION Made from single grade polyethylene Conform to the requirements as specified in MS 1058 Part 1:2002. PE 80 with a derived density greater than 0.93g/cm³ tested at 20° C. Nominal Pressure (PN) 12.5 and Standard Dimensions Ratio (SDR) 11 with the minimum strength at 20° C. Colour - black with blue stripes. Fittings

Spigot fittings Electro-fusion fittings and Mechanical fittings and joints

Hot water piping Copper Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride

Service temp 90oC COLD WATER STORAGE CISTERNS Is a liquid storage container that open to air, water at atmospheric pressure Size-depends upon reserve required and whether to fit hot water system. Minimum 115 liters for cold water

storage, 230 liters for cold and hot water services. Material - plastic Positions-roof space -reasonable access for maintenance purposes 2 m above the highest fittings - head Flow by gravity. A stop valve is fitted before and after cistern to shut off the supply for maintenance and repair purposes Outlet above the highest discharge point COLD WATER STORAGE CISTERNS Inlet and outlet connection to the cistern-opposite sides to prevent stagnation of water. Security fitting cover to prevent ingress of dust, dirt and insects. To prevent vacuum occurring as water is drawn, the cover is fitted with a screen vent. The over flow is also

fitted with a filter. Ball valve to control water supply – when water is drawn, the ball falls and arm rise will open valve to let

water in, when water rise to the water line the ball and arm rise will close the valve Overflow pipe – precaution against failure of valve Distribution pipe – 50mm above the bottom of cistern to prevent sedimentation from entering pipe PLASTIC CISTERN ADVANTAGES

non-corrosive rot proof frost resistant have good resistant to mechanical damages.

MATERIALS Polythene Polypropylene Glass fiber

Valve Valve is a fitting that can be adjusted to cause a gradual restriction in flow or a cessation of flow Also known as stop valve 2 types Globe valve

Control or shut flow through a disc that is lowered slowly by turning a screwdown spindle to a seating – used in high pressure and hot water pipework

Gate valve Operate by raising or lowering a metal gate into or out of the line of the pipework as the spindle is

screwed down or up – used for low pressure flow Taps Fitting designed to draw hot or cold water from pipework 3 types

Bib taps – operate as globe tap – connectd horizontally Pillar tap – for bath, basin, sink – connected vertically Quarter turn tap – lower disc is fixed and the top disc can be turn through 90o. When the holes in

the top disc coincide with the bottom, the water flows SANITARY FITTING AND PIPEWORKS SANITARY APPLIANCES /FITTINGS Fixed appliances in which water is used either for flushing foul matter or cleaning Soil appliances - remove soil water and human excreta such as water closets and urinals Waste water appliances -used to remove waste water from washing and the preparation of food including

wash basin, bath, shower and sinks Functional requirements

The safe and hygienic disposal of waste Durable and easy to clean / maintain

Soil Appliances Wastewater appliances Water Closet suite

WC pan, seat, flushing appliance, pipe Urinal Washbasins Baths Shower Bidets Kitchen sinks WATER CLOSETS BS 5503 WC Pan is a ceramic or metal bowl to take solid and liquid excrement, with an inlet for flushing and a

trapped outlet Pedestal type – the base is made integral with the pan which is secured to the floor with screw through the

base plugs in solid floors Wash down type /syphonic

the flush of water run around the rim to wash down the bowl and then overturn the water seal and creat syphonic action that discharges the contents

Have trap to contain water seal against odour – S trap, P trap Connection from outgo from pan to the branch drain pipe

WATER CLOSETS WATER CLOSETS – flushing cistern Designed to discharged water rapidly into pan through a flush pipe for cleaning and disposed of content Arrangement

High level Low level Close couple WC

Made from enameled cast iron, enameled pressed steel, ceramic or plastic ware WATER CLOSETS – flushing cistern Piston type cistern operate by lever or button When activated the disc or flap valve piston is raised and with it the water level which commences the

siphonage Water level is control by float valve Typical capacity 6, 7.5 and 9 litres 40% of total water consumption is by the use of WC Now – smaller capacity 4 litres, dual flush Uranial 3 types

Stall urinal Slab urinal Bowl urinal

Flush by automatic flushing cistern fixed above the urinal Use not more that 10 litres of water per hour for single urinals WASTE ATER APPLIANCES

WATER BASINS BS 1188, BS 5506 Designed for washing the upper part of body Supported on wall-mounted cantilever brackets or leg support. Consist of a bowl, soap tray, outlet, water overflow and holes to fix tap WATER BASINS BATH Made from porcelain, enameled cast iron but now glass fibre fixed on adjustable leg Overflow pipe, seal trap Shower sprays SHOWERS Shower trays to collect and discharge water Fixed or hand held shower, rose, mixing valve Wall around fixed shower are lined with impermeable materials such as tile Shower compartment is often surrounded with upstand curb or sunk into floor KITCHEN SINKS For preparation of food, washing of dishes Position: at drinking water supply outlets Consist of bowl, drainer, seal trap, fitting Building Regulation G1, G2 detailed the requirement and minimum facilities to be made available in a

dwelling and the need for sanitary accommodation to be separated from kitchen area. MATERIALS FOR SANITARY AND WASTE WATER FITTINGS Should be made from impervious materials be quiet in operation easy to clean

convenient shape fixed at suitable height. MATERIALS VITREOUS CHINA (BS 3402) white clay body which is vitried and permanently fused with a vitreous surface when fired at a very high

temperature Non-corrosive, hygienic and easily cleaned with mild detergent.. GLAZED FIRECLAY Porous ceramic body glazed in a similar manner to vitreous china. Exceptionally strong and resistant to impact damage but will allow water penetration if protective glazing is

damaged. Non-corrosive, hygienic and easily cleaned. VITREOUS ENAMEL A form of glass which can be melted and used to give a glaze protective coating over a steel or cast iron base. Used mainly for bath, sinks, and draining boards. Lighter than ceramic material, hygienic, easy to clean, has a long life. However, can be cheap and subject to staining especially from copper compound from hot water system. PLASTIC MATERIALS Acrylic plastics, glass-reinforced polyester resins and polypropylene. Require no protective coating, very strong, light, chip resistant, but generally cost more than ceramic or

vitreous enamel product. Can become soft when heated, should be used for cold water fitments or thermostatically controlled mixing

taps. Clean by warm soapy water. STAINLESS STEEL 18% chromium, 8% nickel Resistant to corrosion, very durable and light. Used for sinks and draining board, available polished or satin finish. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS SPECIFYING SANITARY FITMENTS Costs: outlay, fixing and maintenance Hygiene: inherent and ease of cleaning Appearance: size, colour and shape Function: suitability, speed of operation and reliability Weight: support required from wall and floor Design: ease BUILDING REGULATION G1, G2

Malaysia? G1 -requirements for sanitary conveniences i.e water closets, urinals and wash basins G2 – bathroom – bath or shower installation BS 6465: SANITARY INSTALLATIONS Part 1- provision and installation Part 2- special layout and design for sanitary accommodation SANITARY PIPEWORK Building Regulation approved document H1, sanitary pipeworks and drainage set out in detail the

recommendation for soil pipes, waste pipes, and ventilating pipes. Regulation govern minimum diameter of soil pipes, material requirements, provision of adequate water

seals by means of an integral trap or non-integral traps, the positioning of soil pipes of the inside of a building, overflow pipe works and ventilating pipes.

SANITARY PIPEWORK SYSTEM

one-pipe system two-pipe system single-stack system ONE-PIPE SYSTEM Single discharge pipe which conveys both soil and waste water directly to the drain. TWO-PIPE SYSTEM Two discharge pipes, one convey soil discharges, the other waste discharges. Simple, reliable, and costly system. Advantage- complete flexibility in appliance layouts and deep seal traps are not required. SINGLE-STACK SYSTEM BS 5572 Building regulation approved documents H1. Simplification of one-pipe system by using deep seal trap, relying on venting by the discharge pipe, and

placing certain restriction on basin waste pipes, which have a higher risk of self-siphonage than other appliances.

100mm discharge stack Water seal trap for each appliances to prevent foul air Branch Pipe Carried foul water from sanitary appliances to vertical discharge stack All branch discharge pipe should be discharge into a discharge stack except those to appliances on the

ground floor A branch pipe should not discharge into stack lower than 450mm from bend at the foot of the stack for 1-3

storeys , 750m – 5 storeys Fig 12.43 MATERIALS FOR SANITARY PIPEWORK Galvanized steel prefabricated stack units (BS 3868) Cast iron (BS 416) Class E - uPVC (BS 4514 )

commonly use now because low cost, ease of cutting, speedily made joints and the range of fitting available

Connection by rubber compression rings tightened by a nut Soundness test – Air test Traps of all sanitary appliance are filled with water and the open ends of pipes are seals with expending

drain plugs or bag stopper Air is pump through WC pan trap and air pressure is measured in a U tube water gauge or manometer. A pressure equal to 38mm water gauge should be maintained for 3 minutes if the pipework is sound Ventilation for internal WCs and Bathrooms Need to provide means of extract ventilation to internal bathroom and WCs to dilute pollutants and

moisture vapour by air exchanges By mechanical extract of air - 60l/sec, have 15 min overrun after light has been switch off. 10mm gap under the door for replacement air to enter The End Thank you


Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 9 CLADDING CONTENTS Functions Installation Requirements Cladding Systems CLADDING Definition - Non load bearing exterior wall enclosure Another definition – a weather tight skin covering an external wall Most visible part of a building – exposed to view Exposed to wear and weathering – most subjected to natural forces that can spoil its appearance Must defend the interior spaces against invasion of water, wind, sunlight, heat and cold PRIMARY FUNCTION OF CLADDING Major purpose – to separate the indoor environment of a building from the outdoor. Indoor environment can be maintained at levels suitable for the building’s intended used Has to bear wind loads, impact damage and temperature extremes KEEPING WATER OUT

Must prevent the entry of rain, snow and ice into a building Complicated as water is often driven by wind a thigh velocities and high pressure at every direction. Higher the building the higher velocity at the top level Water pushed by wind tends to accumulate in crevices and readily penetrate the smallest cracks or hole and

enter building PREVENTING AIR LEAKAGE Must prevent the unintended passage of air between indoor and outdoors. Air leaks are harmful because they waste conditioned air, carry water through wall, allow moisture vapour to

condense inside the wall, allow noise to penetrate from outside Sealant, gasket and air barrier membranes are used to prevent air leakage through cladding CONTROLLING LIGHT Sunlight is heat that may be welcome and unwelcome Visible light useful for illumination but can cause glare Inclusive of destructive ultraviolet which is harmful and cause fading or disintegration Sometimes include external shading to keep light and heat away from window CONTROLLING THE RADIATION OF HEAT Maintain its interior surfaces at a temperature that will not cause radiant discomfort. External sun shading devices, adequate thermal insulation, selection of glass are potential strategies in

controlling heat radiation CONTROLLING CONDUCTION OF HEAT Must resist the required degree the conduction of heat in and out of the building Thermal insulation, appropriate glazing and thermal breaks are used to control heat conduction through

cladding CONTROLLING SOUND Isolate inside of a building from noises out side Best archives by walls that are air tight, massive and resilient Requirement varies from one building to the other Hospital and major airport requires high level of noise isolation SECONDARY FUNCTION OF CLADDING RESISTING WIND FORCES Must be strong and stiff to sustain the pressure and suction that will be placed by wind Higher building experiences aerodynamic effect from surrounding building High suction force at the corner of cladding CONTROLLING WATER VAPOUR Must retard the passage of water vapour must have adequate thermal insulation to prevent condensation of moisture ADJUSTING TO MOVEMENT Forces- thermal, moisture expansion and contraction, structural deflection Must allow these forces in the design of cladding THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION Indoor and outdoor temperature differences – warping of cladding Cladding protect frame of building MOISTURE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION Masonry and concrete material cladding must accommodate their expansion and contraction caused by

varying moisture content STRUCTURAL MOVEMENT Must adjust to the movement of frame Foundation may settle unevenly deflection of girder

long term creep causes shortening of concrete column and sagging of concrete beam RESISTING FIRE Building code provision WEATHERING GRACEFULLY Must weather gracefully Dirt will accumulate eventually Provision for cleaning, replacement, safety attachment Must resist oxidation and ultraviolet degradation, corrosion, freezing and thawing damage CLADDING CLASSIFICATION Cladding fixed to a structural backing Cladding to framed structures CLADDING FIXED TO A STRUCTURAL BACKING Two reasons Structural unable to provide an adequate barrier to the elements – cladding will raise the wall’s resistance to

an acceptable level Decorative purposes to break up monotony Materials Tiles, slates, shingles, timber boarding, plastic boards and stone facing CLADDING FIXED TO A STRUCTURAL BACKING General method of fixing Secure them to timber batten fixed to structure backing CLADDING TO FRAME STRUCTURES Include panels of masonry constructed between the column and beams Light infill of metal or timber, precast concrete panels and curtain walling CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO WATER TIGHTNESS IN CLADDING In order for water to penetrate a wall 3 conditions must be satisfied simultaneously There must be water present at the outer face of the wall There must be an opening through which water can move There must be a force to move the water through the opening 3 CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO MAKING A WALL WATER TIGHT try to keep water completely away from the wall – impossible try to eliminate the openings by sealing every seam – barrier wall approach – work well if done well try to eliminate or neutralize all the forces that can move water through the wall FORCES THAT CAN MOVE WATER Gravity Momentum surface tension Capillary action Wind current Leaking sealant THE RAINSCREEN PRINCIPLE A generic solution to wind current problem is to allow wind pressure difference between outside and the

inside of the cladding to neutralize themselves Also called pressure equalized wall design Creation of an airtight barrier at the interior side of the cladding, protected from direct exposure to the

outdoor by a loose fitting unsealed, labyrinth-jointed layer known as the rainscreen THE RAINSCREEN PRINCIPLE Between the rainscreen and the air barrier is a space known as the pressure equalization chamber (PEC)

As wind pressure on the cladding build up and fluctuate , small current of air pass back and forth through each unsealed joint in the rainscreen, just enough to equalize the pressure in the PEC with the pressure outside the joint

THE RAINSCREEN PRINCIPLE These currents are too weak to carry water with them PEC should be divided into compartment not more than 2 storey high and a bay or two wide Or else large volume of air may rush through the joints and carry water in INSTALLING REQUIREMENT FOR CLADDING Must be easy to install There should be secure places for the installer to stand Build in adjustment mechanism in all fastening to allow for inaccuracies Must have dimensional clearance to allow cladding component to be inserted without binding against

adjacent component Must have features such as drainage channels, air barrier, generous edge clearance to keep glass from

contacting hard material of the frame SEALANT JOINTS IN CLADDING To fill the joint between cladding components, preventing the flow of air and or water while allowing

subsequent movement between components SEALANT MATERIALS -VISCOUS SEALANT MATERIAL Viscous sticky liquid that are injected into joint of building with a sealant gun Cure between joint to become rubber like materials that adhere to the surrounding and seal against the

passage of air and water SOLID SEALANT MATERIAL

- GASKETS Strips of various fully cured elastomeric (rubberlike) materials, manufactured in different components and

sizes for different purpose Compressed into joint and expended with lock strip inserted PERFORMED CELLULAR TAPE SEALANT Strip of polyurethane sponge material impregnated with mastic sealant. Delivered to site on air tight wrapper, compressed to one fifth of its volume When inserted expend to fill the joint. The sealant material cure with moisture from the air to form water

tight seam PERFORMED SOLID TAPE SEALANTS Only used in lap joint as in mounting glass in a metal frame. Thick, sticky ribbon of polybutene or

polysobutylene that adhere to both sides of the joint to seal or cushion the junction BASIC CONCEPT FOR BUILDING CLADDING SYSTEM

THE LOAD BEARING WALL Wall support substantial portion of the floor and roof load as well acting to separate the indoor environment

from the outdoor. Mainly brick, stone masonry Poor thermal insulator, developed water leaks, heavy, their height is limited to a few stories THE CURTAIN WALL Exterior cladding supported at each story by steel or concrete frame Bear no vertical load – thin and light Must have sufficient strength to support their own weight plus any attached finishes Strong enough to resist both positive and negative wind pressure May be constructed with any non combustible material that is suitable for exposure to the weather. May be constructed in place or prefabricated CLADDING AND BUILDING CODES

Structural strength – wind seismic loading Fire resistance – combustibility of the cladding material CLADDING WITH MASONRY AND CONCRETE Clad with brick, stone masonry, cut stone panels, precast concrete – impart solidity and permanence to a

building Brittle material must adjust to movement of the frame and maintained weather tightness despite being thin MASONRY VENEER CURTAIN WALLS Before casting concrete frame, inserts were put in formwork to create attachment Steel shelf angle is bolted to spandrel beam Flashing installed over shelf angle, edge of the floor slab Brickwork laid directly on the shelf angle MASONRY VENEER CURTAIN WALLS Backwall is also laid vertical bars grouted into hollow cores asphaltic coating applied on the outside of backup wall slab of polystyrene foam insulation placed masonry ties assembled to tie brick veneer to backwall PREFABRICATED BRICK PANEL CURTAIN WALLS Construct panels in factory, vertical and horizontal reinforcements installed Welded metal brackets for attachment to the building Completed panels with insulation PREFABRICATED BRICK PANEL CURTAIN WALLS installation by crane STONE CURTAIN WALLS PANELS MOUNTED ON STEEL SUB FRAME Vertical members erected first- designed to transmit gravity and wind load from the stone slabs to the frame

of the building Horizontal panes attached STONE CURTAIN WALLS PANELS MOUNTED ON STEEL SUB FRAME Panels have upper and lower edges to engage to the horizontal members Sealant filled the spaces between the panels allowing for considerable range of movements STONE CLADDING PANEL Fastened directly to the frame of building Weight support by two steel support plates STONE CLADDING PANEL PRECAST CONCRETE CURTAIN WALL Preacst concrete with reinforcement of prestressing Uses high quality mould Variety of surface finishes Ceramic tiles, thin bricks, thin stone facing may be attached. Thermal insulation may be sandwiched Reinforcing to resist wind gravity, seismic forces and to control cracking of panels PRECAST CONCRETE CURTAIN WALL -Panel fixing Either top hung from the structure or supported from the base Nibs projecting from the back of the panel transmit the load to the structure panels can be restrain by dowel

bars or by angle cleats GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE CURTAIN WALL Use alkali resistant glass fibre Thickness and weight one quarter of the precast concrete Can be moulded into 3 dimensional forms with intricate details, colours and textures

GFRC FABRICATION gun deposited sand cement slurry with glass fibre May be self stiffened by GFRC ribs or attached light gauge steel studs to the back in the factory steel frame is attached to it by applying pads wet GFRC over the rod anchors GFRC installation Metal Cladding Insulated and bonded metal penal are used primarily to clad industrial building They may have facing of anodized aluminum or steel with porcelain, vinyl, acrylic or enamel finishes The panel are typically 915 mm wide and span vertically between horizontal steel grits spaced 2.5 to 7.3 m

apart The End Thank you


Assoc Prof Ir Dr Maisarah Ali 10 Insulation CONTENTS Sound insulation Thermal Insulation SOUND INSULATION DEFINITION OF SOUND Anything that can be heard Produced by vibrating object which moves rapidly to and fro causing movement of tiny particles of air

surrounding the vibrating source. Sound medium – medium required for the sound to be transmitted Cannot travel through vacuum DEFINITIONS LOUDNESS The greater the movement the louder the sound Depend on the distance between source and ear Unit – decibel

SOUND LEVEL AND EFFECTS ON HEARING DEFINITIONS PITCH Depend on the rate vibrating object oscillates Frequency – nos of vibration per second – higher frequency higher pitch Human ear can hear between16 – 20,000 hertz ( cycles per second) SOUND -REACTIONS When sound is produced within a building 3 reactions can occur

The pressure or sound waves can come in contact with the wall, floor and ceiling and be reflected back into the building

Some of the sound can be absorb by these surfaces and / or furnishes The sound waves upon reaching the walls, floor and ceiling can set these members vibrating in

unison and thus transmit the sound to adjacent room SOURCES OF SOUND Internal

Equipment room, service elevator and other facilities External

Neighborhood noise Traffic

Sound can enter building from external source such as traffic and low-flying aircraft SOUND DEFINED AS IMPACT SOUND – caused by direct contact with the structure – eg. foot steps AIRBORNE SOUND – conversation, radio UNDESIRED SOUND Annoyance Cause disturbance of sleep Interfere with the ability to hold a normal conversation Cause damage to hearing APPROACH TO SOLVE NOISE PROBLEM Reduce the noise emitted at the source by attenuators and mounting machinery on resilient pads Provide a reasonable degree of sound insulation to reduce the amount of sound transmitted Isolate the source and the receiver SOUND INSULATION Desirable Mandatory in some countries Most effective barrier – material of high mass BUILDING REGULATION 1991 PART E – E1 Protection against sound from adjoining dwellings or buildings E2 protection against sound within a dwelling E3 Protection against noise from external sources E4 Reverberation in the common internal parts of building containing dwelling Malaysian Uniform Building By Laws – no requirement PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS Build in such a way that noise from normal domestic activities in an adjoining dwelling or other building is

kept down to a level that will not threaten the health of the occupant of the dwelling Provides numerous examples of construction materials capable of resisting and absorbing direct

transmission of sound through structure. WHERE TO INSTALL SOUND INSULATION? Wall or Partition

Floor or Floor System Wall and Floor Intersection Doors Windows Specific rooms or areas INSULATION AGAINST INTERIOR NOISE SOURCES Sealed windows, doors and vents Interior can be constructed with non-porous concrete or brick Lined on the noise side with sound insulator Protection against sound to walls between water closet and other room, walls between bedroom, floor

between bedroom and other area MEANS TO REDUCE IMPACT SOUNDS Cushion impact – carpet, carpet padding Adsorptive ceiling – sound adsorbing ceiling Adsorb noise between floor and ceiling – installation of sound absorbing insulation between joist system TYPES OF SOUND RESISTING SEPARATING FLOORS Concrete with soft covering – 4.5mm rubber flooring Concrete with floating layer – 55 mm screed, timber boarding nailed to timber battens Timber with floating layer – resilient mineral fibre INSULATION AGAINST EXTERNAL NOISE

Mainly provided by the shell of envelope of the building Depending on

The mass of the enclosing structure The continuity of the structure

INSULATION AGAINST EXTERNAL NOISE Problems due to window open for ventilation Window cannot provide dual function insulation against noise and ventilation Double glazing can improves properties of window as sound insulation increases with the distance between

glazes unit Existing windows should be caulked or sealed with airtight gasket INSULATION AGAINST EXTERNAL NOISE Exterior doors should be provided with resilient gasket especially sliding doors Replace existing hollow core entrance door with solid door equipped with parameter gaskets Seal all opening particularly around water and gas pipes, electrical cables SOUND REDUCTION BY THE ENVELOPE OF BUILDING Roof of traditional construction - acceptable level of sound insulation Thermal insulation in roof will benefit sound reduction – inherent absorbing properties TYPES OF SOUND RESISTING SEPARATING WALLS Solid masonry

1 brick thick 190mm in-situ concrete, 215 mm concrete block work + 13 mm plaster both sides

Cavity masonry 50 mm cavity for brickwork 75 mm cavity for lightweight concrete brickwork

Masonry between isolating panels – 1 brick thick + 30 mm plasterboard Timber frame – 200 mm mineral fibre + 30 mm plasterboard THERMAL INSULATION A barrier to a natural flow of heat from an area of high temperature to an area of low temperature.

In building – generally from interior to exterior HEAT TRANSFER Conduction – vibrating molecules come in contact with adjoining molecules and set them vibrating faster

and hence become hotter. – no displacement of particles Convection – transmission of heat within a gas or fluid causing it to become less dense and rise up thus set

up a circulation Radiation – transfer of heat from one point to another without rising the temperature of the medium which

it travels HEAT TRANSFER In building, heat transfer by all three methods Heat conducted through the fabric of the building and dissipated in the internal surface by convection

and/or radiation. Traditional construction use solid building material thus had a natural resistant to the passage of heat. Today, lighter, thinner material has low resistant to heat transfer therefore use combination of materials. ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL INSULATION: Reduction in the rate of heat loss Lower maintenance cost for cooling/heating equipment Less replacement cost of heating/cooling equipment Lower power cost Reduction of condensation and draught thus improving the comfort of the occupants BUILDING REGULATIONS

L1 States that reasonable provision shall be made for the conservation of fuel and power in buildings. Satisfied by limiting the area of roof light and windows and by not exceeding the maximum U values for

element. U = thermal transmittance coefficient= overall heat transfer in watts through one meter square of structure

for one unit of temperature difference between the air on the two sides of the structure. U express in Kelvin per metre thicknessW/m2K Thermal transmittance – U value EMISSIVITY, ABSORPTIVITY Emissivity – the fraction of energy radiated compared to that radiated by a black body at the same

temperature Absorptivity - the fraction of energy absorbed compared to that absorbed by a black body at the same

temperature THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - K A measure of the rate at which heat is conducted through material Define as the heat flow in watts across a thickness of 1m for a temperature difference of 1oC and a surface

area of 1m2

THERMAL RESISTANCE – R unit m2K/W A measure of the resistance to heat transfer officered by a particular component of a building construction 3 Types

Material resistance Surface resistance Airspace resistance

For unventilated cavities R increases with increase in cavity up to 25mm – bigger convection become important

60% of heat transfer in a cavity is by radiant heat INSULATING MATERIALS CONSIDERATION WHEN SELECTING

Thermal resistance of the building Vapour control layer – dampness will loose the insulation properties Availability of material chosen Ease of fixing Appearance if visible Ultimate saving in power and heating insulation Fire risk – restriction of spread of flame over surface of wall and ceiling INSULATING MATERIALS -INSULATING CONCRETE Concrete of low density containing large number of voids. Use lightweight aggregate eg. clinker, foamed

slag, expended clay Introduction of air into the mix Omit fine aggregate use 10-20 mm light aggregate INSULATING MATERIALS -LOOSE FILLS Materials which can easily poured from a bag and leveled off between joist with a shaped trowel Material – exfoliated vermiculite, fiberglass and fibrewool, mineral wool and cork granules. Rot and vermin proof Non-combustible. INSULATING MATERIALS - BOARDS Used mainly as dry lining to walls and ceiling for self finish or direct decoration Types include

metalized polyester lined plasterboard wood wool slabs expanded polystyrene boards thermal backed plasterboard fibreboard

INSULATING MATERIALS -QUILTS Made from glass fibre or mineral wool bonded or stitched between outer paper covering for easy handling Rolls 6000 to13000 long and cut to suit standard INSULATING MATERIALS -INSULATING PLASTER Factory produced premixed plaster which have lightweight perlite and vermiculite expanded minerals as

aggregate Require only the additional of clean water before application INSULATING MATERIALS -FORMED CAVITY FILL Urea formaldehyde resin, hardener, a forming agent and warm water formed at site Form a white cellular material containing 99% by volume air Considered to be impermeable Non combustible water repellent glass or rock wool fibres are alternative cavity fill material The End Thank you

Documents

Principles of Building Construction 2