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Principles of Interpretation
Discuss facts
Appeal to the imagination and reason
Give flesh and blood to cold facts
Make life stories of inanimate objects
Deal with principles rather than isolated information
Give biographies rather than classifications
Principles of Interpretation Appeal to the visitors first interestInformation is the raw material of interpretationThrough interpretation, understanding; through understanding, appreciation; through appreciation, protectionWisdom is not knowledge of many things, but the perception of the underlying unity of seemingly unrelated things.Children absorb facts and instances, not abstract processes
Principles of Interpretation
Interpretation sometimes uses “judicious silence”
In other words allow the beauty of the item to speak for itself
The process of interpretation
Communication:Unidirectional
• Usually one-way communication via stories, images, or ideas
• Common form of communication in interpretation
Multidirectional• High level of exchange among the participants
• They share their experiences, knowledge or discoveries.
• Usually less formally structured
Group structures
Didactic StructureInterpreter informs the listeners
• Speeches, film etc.
Interpreter
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor Visitor
Visitor
Group structures
Tutorial StructureLet me see how you are coming and help you over any barriers
Interpreter
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Interpreter
Task
Task
Task
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Individual Task Structure
Individual Task StructureInterpreter assigns tasks to individuals
Small Group task structure
Interpreter assigns tasks to groups check on progress
Compare when you are finished
InterpreterTask Task
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
VisitorVisitor
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Small Group Task Structure
Conference Structure
Interpreter allows free discussion among visitors, then stays out of the way
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Conference Structure
Group Meeting Structure
Interpreter enters as a member of the conference structure, raises problem, but remains nonjudgmental
The Problem
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Visitor
Interpreter
Group Meeting Structure
Socratic structure
Interpreter poses questions, promotes discussion/dialogue
http://www.nps.gov/search/query-meta?q=interpretation&v%3Aproject=NPS&as_sitesearch=
How do we learn?
Give a man a fish, you feed him for a day
Teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime
But!!!!!
Teach a man to learn, he doesn’t have to eat fish all of the time.
How do we learn?
How do we absorb general information
5 sensesSight 75%
Hearing 13%
Touch 6%
Taste 3%
Smell 3%
How do we learn?
Modalities for learningVisual
Auditory
Kinesthetic
Symbolic/abstract
Learning Theories
Learning DomainsCognitive Domain
• Deals with rational mind and processing information
• Classifications, concepts etc
Affective Domain• Emotional/feelings
Learning Theories
Learning DomainsKinesthetic Domain
• Involves motor skills
Cognitive Development Theory
PiagetStage I Sensorimotor (0-2 years of age)
Develops organized patterns of behaviorUses sensory and motor activities as a primary means of learning
Stage II Preoperational (2-7 years of age)Masters symbols (words)Centers attention on one thing at a time
Cognitive Development Theory
Stage III Concrete Operations (7-11 years)Generalizes from concrete experiences
Unable to mentally manipulate conditions not yet experienced
Stage IV Formal Operations (>11 years)Able to form hypothesis
Deals with abstractions
Cognitive Development Theory
Finalistic or functionalWhat is the purpose of the plant
Causal or logical
Anthropomorphic
Purposive or utilitarian
Social Cognition Theory
Egocentric (3-6)
Subjective (5-9)Look at things from own perspective
Self-reflective (7-12)Can look at things from others perspectives
Mutual (10-15)Can look at things from a third person perspective
In-depth and societal
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy
KnowledgeFacts
ComprehensionUnderstands information and can translate it
ApplicationTakes information from several sources and relates them to new situations
Bloom’s Taxonomy
AnalysisBreaking down ideas into components
SynthesisCreating new ideas from old components
EvaluationAppraises or judges information
Moral Development TheoryPreconventional morality
Fear on punishmentMaximizing pleasure/minimizing pain
Conventional MoralityWhat significant others thinkWhat society thinks
Postconventional MoralityJustice and fairnessSelf-respect
Learning styles
Action oriented (Dionysian)Existential approach to lifeActual-spontaneousThey like to experience thingsLectures are boring
Epimethean temperament (Actual routine)Doesn't like to be rushedLikes lectures & traditional learning
Learning styles
Promethean temperament (conceptual-specific)
Enjoys thinking and learning
Like to collect, organize and classify
Research oriented
Can focus on a specific topic/point for long periods of time
Doesn’t like routine and structure
Learning styles
Appollonian temperament (conceptual-global)Seek significance of events and try to discover meanings and relationships
Breakdown (pg 138)Actual spontaneous (38%)
Actual routine (38%)
Conceptual-Specific Learners (12%)
Conceptual-Global Learners (12%)
Cognitive Map Theory
??????
Learning Theories
Constructivist How people make meanings
Everyone has a “construct” of information and attitudes that they bring to any learning process
“visitors make meaning in the museum; they learn by constructing their own understandings.”
Learning Theories
Stage Purpose Quality Benefits
1 Awaken Enthusiasm
Playfulness and alertness
Builds child’s love of play
Creates involvement
Provides direction and structure
2 Focus Attention
Receptivity Increases attention span
Calms the mind
Develops observation skills
3 Direct Experience
Absorption People learn best by personal discovery
Foster wonder, empathy, love
4 Share inspiration
Idealism Clarifies & strengthens personal experiences
Gives reinforcement
So what do we need to know about learning theories? Common sense reminders
1. Learning is an act of structuring and relating information and experiences
2. People process information differently, at different ages, and among different individuals and cultural groups
3. A sense of comfort and security affects a person’s readiness to learn
4. When people feel good about the person facilitating the learning experience, they care about and remember the information presented
So what do we need to know about learning theories?5. Most people learn more easily when they use many of
their senses6. Many people tend to remember most what they do, and
less of what they see or read, and least of what they hear.7. A variety of approaches to a subject enhances the learning
process by making it more interesting and by meeting then needs of the learners
8. Self-discovery is a powerful motivator9. An organized presentation of information and activities
helps many people learn10. Repetition can effectively facilitate learning.
Writing for Interpretation
Writing is the hardest work in the world not involving heavy lifting
Writing is an essential skill for interpreters It allows you to put into writing key elements It also allows you to get your point across
Writing for Interpretation
All writing is communication Creative writing is communication through revelation
--- it is the self escaping into the open
Keys to good writing (communication) Never put more than one idea in a sentence Use short words Use short sentences Use short paragraphs
Writing for Interpretation
Keys to good writing (communication) Write action verbs (avoid to be etc) Appeal to the five senses when appropriate Use accurate colorful words Think rhythmically when combining and
choosing words
Preparing to Write Know the purpose
What are your objectives? Define them before you start Avoid tangents
Know the audience Target the audience If you have children, write in a language they will understand If you have a learned group, write accordingly
Know the subject Do you homework Get beyond the basic facts Interpreter should be able to shape and mold the message (comes
with knowledge
Writing (Structure) Structure
Very important in writing since it directs the reader toward where the writer intends them to go
Lead Captures the readers attention, indicates the general
theme Transition
Tells the reader about the subject and its relevance Moves the reader smoothly from the lead into the body
Writing (Structure) Development
The body of the work Key points are addressed or discussed Chronological order is important if discussing
historical events Deductive order takers the reader from the familiar to
the unfamiliar Inductive order draws general conclusions from
specific facts Strong ending
Summarize the article in a thematic, colorful way.
Print Media Brochures, flyers, newsletters, signs, booklets Brochures
Most commonly used form of written interpretation Estimated that 4,000 brochures come from federal
agencies Advantages
Easy to distribute Low cost comparatively
Disadvantages Reading issues Cold, impersonal
Print Media
Here is a nice formula that I don’t expect you to remembger
Fraction of selection=
Expectation of reward/effort required
Print Media
Tips for brochures Title Color Layout Composition Margins Font
Print Media
Tips for Signs and Labels Contrast Lighting Lettering
Museums and Visitor Centers
American Association of Museums (1998) 7,700 museums in the united states
Visitor Center Visitor center, interpretive center, nature
center, trailside museum, history center
Museums and Visitor Centers
They are often used interchangeably Museums
Contains original objects, brought in for display in a convenient place
Visitor Centers also have original objects, but they come from
right outside the door. In other words, the visitor center is near the genus
loci
Museums and Visitor Centers
Both serve as orientation and education instructions to the greater world around them.
Their intention is to make the visitor more aware of the historic phenomenon, or items being presented
Historic building or site Often located right on site and serve as a visitor center
or museum of the site.
Museums & Visitor Centers
Chapter 10 Stuff
MuseumsAAM (American Association of Museums)- 7,700 museums in US in 1998AAM-15,800 members in 20012,300 museums in CanadaSeveral hundred in Mexico5,000 museums in Europe
2,000 in Britain
Africa has some of the oldest & newest museums.Many on Tourism
The former USSR and eastern Europe made museums out of churches & castles.
Visitor Centers
AAM lists only a few of the US interpretive centers.
These facilities occur throughout forests, parks, zoos, refuges, and communities.
Most feature interpretive programs & exhibits.
The names visitor center, interpretive center, trailside museum, history center, & orientation center are use interchangeable.
Visitor Centers
482 “Federal Visitor Centers” in the US in 2001.
Operated by BLM, NPS, Army Corps of Engineers, Fish & Wildlife Services, & Forest Service.
State agencies & Canada’s Provinces operate hundreds of centers within state/provincial historic sites, state parks, forest, & wildlife areas.
Private nonprofit, industrial, & other groups maintain interpretive centers at their facilities.
DifferencesMuseums
The approach toward the matterContain original objects, brought in for display & study in a convenient place.Displays the artifacts and messages indoorsServes as the destination for the visitor
Visitor Centers or interpretive center
Present original objects and concepts that come from just outside.Located at or near the resourcesServes as an orientation, an invitation to the living museum.At a natural or historical resource area serves to make the visit more meaningful.A center may keep collections
Museums or Visitor Centers?
Both can interpret
Both serve as orientation & educational institution
Another kind of interpretive structure, is the historical building or site.
Located wherever history put it, often accompanied by a separate visitor center or museum.
Battlefield or building itself serves as a form of museum.
Museums or Visitor Centers?
A related facility is the tourist information center.Often accommodations & attraction information, as well as orienting visitor to recreational & interpretive opportunities.
Location relates to travel patterns• At portals of a state or providence
• Major road junction of a local area
Use historical structure as their venues
Many contain interpretive exhibits & organized interpretive programs.
Types of Museums Simplest classification divided into 4 types-- art- historical- science- generalSome examples of museum types- zoos- art museums/ galleries- history museums- sports halls of fame- military museums- science & tech. museums
History of Museums
The word museum stems form a Greek word meaning temple of the Muses
To collect, conserve, & exhibit "things" seems to be human nature; Although modern museums may be somewhat new, the basic idea o exhibiting collections of things goes back to ancient times
History of Museums
European colonization of Africa produced numerous natural, mineral, &cultural specimens for the growing number of show places in Europe
History of Museums
Most early museums had little or no educational function.Modern museum and exhibit center traditions have mostly developed since the late 1700's & 1800's.Interpretive or educational museums in the US trace back to painter/collector/public educator Charles Wilson Peale in Philadelphia
History of Museums
The Wagner Free Institute of Science in Philadelphia pioneered as a strongly educational museum; William Wagner sponsored its construction
A list of early major museums is on page 183
History of Museums
Some nations have used museums as political & social tools
Today, most North American states, provinces, counties, & cities have 1 or more public museums to offer interpretation about the area
US Government Museum Development
Many early government interpretive museums & visitor centers started with private impetus & funding, often with individual benefactors, curators, or rangers taking the initiative.Congress acted slowly to fund the National Park Service's early efforts, although agency officials believed in the idea of park interpretive museums
US Government Museum Development
Among the notable early contributors, besides park rangers and superintendents, were the Yosemite Museum Association, the American Association of Museums, the Carnegie family, & the Rockefeller family
Table 10.2 on P.186 lists National Park Museum Starts and their funding sources
What A Museum DoesThe American Association of Museums defines interpretation as:
The activities through which a museum carries out its mission and educational role.
In 1895, George Brown Goode defines a museum as:An institution for the preservation of those objects which best illustrate the phenomena of nature and the works of man.
Museum staff try to make objects meaningful to people.A museum takes objects out of context and then tries to restore context to allow them to speak directly to visitors
The Nature of MuseumsMuseums function primarily as places for people, not just places for storing artifacts and collections
Functions and ObjectivesThe functions that characterize a museum, according to National Park Services Museum expert Ralph Lewis include:
Assembling and preserving objectsProviding opportunities for objects- centered research Interpreting through contact with the real things in it
Museums special roles include:To explainTo reflect what humans have and valueTo examine the ways people describe the universe, existence, and themselvesTo evaluate the consequences of choices past, current and future
Museum Facilities and ServicesServices and facilities offered by museums range widely:LibraryBookstore/Gift ShopBooks, brochures and research reports printed by the museumsMember reception rooms Restaurant and lunch roomsMobile exhibit vansGuided tours of museums and grounds Field excursions and travel club programs
Types of Museums
Historical Museums
Philosophy of Historical Museums: Preserving facts and giving perspective to memory.
Museums
Rural and Agricultural Museums
Skansen Folk Museum(1891): 1st open air museum exhibiting old structures, farm implements, and appropriately dressed people to tell the story of rural Swedish life styles.
Benefits
Benefits for the Visitor:
First hand experience with that specific time era
Gives a realistic sense of the farm life
Allows the visitor to be immersed physically and emotionally
Art Museums
“Art museums present all types of artistic accomplishments, from the great masters to the work of very young beginners.”
Philosophy of Art Museums: Allowing the art to interpret itself and allowing the individual to develop skills.
Art Museums Con’d
Benefits for the Visitor:
Allowing common experiences between the artist and the patron.
Allowing the patron to leave with a new perception and understanding of the exhibit.
Specialized Museums
Specialized museums focus on certain topicsThe history of an individual, group of people, business, or industry
• Tribal groups like the Malki Museum in California or the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center in Connecticut
The museums use films, videos, interactive programs, exhibits, archival material, and other interpretive methods.
Museums can be virtual, or online.
Museum Philosophy
There was once tension between curators and educators in museums, but that has mostly changed.
Museum responsibilities includeCollecting and preserving the past.
Recording and educating the present.
Providing perspective and inspiration for the future.
Museum Philosophy
Defining the ClienteleMost museums now allow the entire public to see and study the exhibits, rather than just the upper class.There should be a balance between adding knowledge (research) and extending knowledge (education and interpretation).There are various books about subjects like methods of outreach and different influences on programming.
Museum Programming
Depends on resources of managed areas, artifact dig sites, well persevered objects of a past culture within a museum that requires a visitor to be more involved .
These museums can provide smelling, touching, tasting, hearing, & seeing.
Museums/ Visitor Center Design
Look to serve the visitor by being accessible to all energy efficient constructed at all cost & having low physical & visual impact on the site.
The design helps to express the message of the museum.
Entry & Theme
Sense of place or genius should be the main focus of the museum's entrance.
The Wright Brother’s memorial near Kitty Hawk theme simply states, “Here man first flew”.
Character & Components
A developed center may include entry or gathering area, parking, information desk, ect.
Open centers that are exposed to the public all the time may present problems for an actual interpreter to function as normally as they would in a developed center on the site.
Projection
In a mulit-purpose room with a white wall give the most flexible and attractiveness.
Slideshows
Are cheep, flexible, & easily edited without high tech equipment.
Video Type Presentations
Video projection & production equipment makes a major contribution to museums orientation programs.
Video laser disks, PowerPoint & new devise are becoming a favorite in museums.
These devises offer great assistance for interpreters.
Administrators Face
Policy & Management decisions
Structure & development
Monetary support & problems
Membership
Space & housing
Security of collections & exhibits
Marketing & Developing
Publicity for programs
Development of funding resources
Who Owns & Influences Museums & Centers
Private Donors
Public Agencies
Visitor Centers in Public Agencies
They look at:Staffing
Budgeting
Fee collection
Design & value engineering review
Estimates long-term costs
Collections
Major task:Acquiring, preserving, restoring, & cataloging
Decide to show or not, & how to show/interpret
Collections Accessions & Management:Controlled accession requires acquisitions policy that guides staff in selecting or declining donations.
An accession helps with complex cases.
Conservation
Museums should have a conservation workshop & a contract with a professional conservator & restorer, because restoration, etc requires special skills.
Exhibit Rotation Policy
Exhibits need to be rotated to keep visitors interested, & some exhibits lose their value it they stay up too long.
Hours of Operation
Weekend draws visitors more than 9 to 5 hours.
But a few places don’t employ people able to open on weekends & evenings- when most people can visit.
Interpretation As An Administrative Priority
With these combinations of things museums make their programs known, which opens changes for learning, & lets museums know what public likes/wants.
Education & research
Publications & other media
Marketing & public relations
Exhibitions
Public programs
Interactive & emerging technology use