Heidi Brown

Parliamentary Internship

Recidivism Reduction Strategies between the United States

and the United Kingdom

12 December 2014

Recidivism Reduction Strategies between the United

States and the United Kingdom

The United States and the United Kingdom apply similar principles to their

prison systems, but the ways in which they are implemented are quite dissimilar. The

purpose of this project is to compare and contrast how the issue of recidivism is

tackled between the United States’ prison system, Her Majesty’s Prison Service, and

the Scottish Prison Service. The goal was to extract from each the policies within

specific divisions and try to conclude what may be contributing to high reoffending

levels as well as which methods seem to work best in terms of reducing recidivism.

To accomplish this I examined the different prison systems’ history, work

programmes, types of offenders, and recidivism rates within the prisons. Prison

histories and policies are reflected upon as necessary. There are of course many

factors which correlate with recidivism; ethnicity, gender, age, type of offence,

support offered within the prison, etc. Each aspect is worthy of investigation.

However, for reasons related to necessity of brevity and efficiency, the focus remains

upon work programmes, type of offence, and how those factors may affect recidivism

rates. My findings are perhaps unsurprising but, in several senses, rather alarming.

There is much to be improved within international prison systems. Through

investigating three justice systems which rely upon a similar premise (common law,

history, modernity) it is possible to identify weaknesses from some and draw upon

strengths of the others.

The Problem

Recidivism is a massive issue internationally within the criminal justice

system. A study from the US’ National Institute of Justice shows that three quarters

of released prisoners were arrested within five years of their release.1,2 One of the

highest categories for recidivism was drug offenders, which were rearrested at a rate

of 76.9%.3 Overcrowding is a problem exacerbated by high rates of recidivism.

According to Cabinet Secretary for Justice Kenny McAskill, 30% of prisoners held

within the Scottish Prison Service are residing in overcrowded conditions.4

According to the UK Drug Policy Commission, 30-50% of new inmates are

estimated to be problem drug users.5 This is a significant portion of the prison

population. If inmates in for drug offences have the highest rates of recidivism and

overcrowding of prisons is such a known issue, then there must be services

specifically provided for these types of inmates. Before diving into the exact policies

in place, which will explain what reportedly occurs within the prison, it is helpful to

reflect upon the general mission statements of each prison system to gain an

understanding of why these policies might be in place. Mission statements show the

displayed priorities of the prison services.

1 "Recidivism." National Institute of Justice. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.nij.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism/Pages/welcome.aspx. 2 Durose, Matthew R., Alexia D. Cooper, and Howard N. Snyder, Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010 (pdf, 31 pages), Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, April 2014, NCJ 244205. 3 "Recidivism." National Institute of Justice. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.nij.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism/Pages/welcome.aspx. 4 "SPS Corporate Plan 2012 - 15." SPS Corporate Plan 2012 - 15. July 31, 2012. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/Publication-4191.aspx. 5 "Reducing Drug Use, Reducing Reoffending." UK Drug Policy Commission. March 1, 2008. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.ukdpc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Policy report - Reducing drug use, reducing reoffending (summary).pdf.

Mission Statements

The mission statement for Her Majesty’s Prison Service is, “To serve the

public by keeping those in custody who are so committed by the courts…and to

provide the very best prison services so that we are the provider of choice…Our duty

is to look after them with humanity and help them lead law-abiding and useful lives in

custody and after release.”6 It is worth noting the emphasis on the responsibility

acknowledged by the government, as well as the worth of the prisoners themselves.

The “provider of choice” bit was an interesting choice of words, implying that

prisoners have the freedom to choose where they are held. Overall the message is

one of understanding but firm in serving the public with the best means available.

The mission statement of the Scottish Prison Service reads, “To keep in

custody those committed by the courts; to maintain good order in each prison; to

care for prisoners with humanity; to encourage prisoners to take opportunities which

will reduce the likelihood they re-offend and help reintegrate them back into their

community.”7 This statement closely follows that of Her Majesty’s Prison Service,

even down to the order of priorities. It does however add specific allusions to

programmes available to prisoners to help with their re-integration into society.

The US Federal Bureau of Prisons’ mission statement is, “To protect society

by confining offenders in the controlled environments of prisons and community-

based facilities that are safe, humane, cost-efficient, and appropriately secure, and

that provide work and other self-improvement opportunities to assist offenders in

6 "About HM Prison Service." About Her Majesty's Prison Service. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.justice.gov.uk/about/hmps/. 7 "Equality and Diversity." Scottish Prison Service. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/EqualityandDiversity/equality-and-diversity.aspx

becoming law-abiding citizens.”8 All of these statements end with the hope that

offenders will go back to their lives as useful citizens and underline the necessity of

incarceration for the public’s safety. However, the language that the US uses is a bit

stricter with more emphasis on ensuring that prisoners are held away from regular

society while they are in prison. There is an emphasis on control, whereas with HM

Prison Service and the Scottish Prison Service there is an element of flexibility

between the courts, the prisoner, and the prison. The US BOP also mentions cost-

efficiency, which comes as little surprise from the very capitalist nation.

The mission statements are only what the government wants one to believe,

however; it is necessary to delve further to see whether these prisons live up to their

mission statements. The first step is to understand the backgrounds of these prison

services.

Her Majesty’s Prison Service Background

Her Majesty’s Prison Service manages 109 out of the 123 prisons in England

and Wales (due to asymmetrical devolution, Wales does not have its own prison

service).9 In 1991 the Prison Service decided to become an agency. This decision

was made partly due to prison riots in 1990 at Manchester Prison, nicknamed

“Strangeways.” The riots began during a sermon when a prisoner took the

microphone and called out for the prisoners to take the prison until they were

8 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Agency Pillars. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/agency/agency_pillars.jsp. 9 "About - HM Prison Service - GOV.UK." HM Prison Service. Accessed December 10, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/hm-prison-service/about.

promised better living conditions.10 The prisoners, through various plots and

makeshift weapons, were able to gain control of the prison within the hour. Guards

were ordered to withdraw. Prisoners went to the roof and threw down bricks and

pieces of roofing. They lit the prison on fire. Sex offenders and injured prisoners

were largely evacuated to nearby jails as they were in great danger. Most of the

prisoners surrendered that first day, but about two hundred of them held out. A

national inpouring of police officers occurred but the military did not become

involved. The roofs were doused with water; food supplies were cut off; home videos

of the prisoners’ families pleading to give themselves up were played. Even with all

this, the most determined held out for a total of 25 days. Two deaths resulted from

these riots.11

As a response to riots there was an investigation into the Prison Service,

which resulted in a review that was published in 1991. In the report it was

recommended that prisons reduce overcrowding and stop “slopping out”—a practice

which uses chamber pots in cells without sanitation (even with this report, slopping

out was only entirely stopped five years later in 1996).12 The changes recommended

in that review are largely what leave us with Her Majesty’s Prison Service as it

currently stands.

10 "Strangeways Riot: 'Let's Take the Prison'... Spark That Triggered Britain's Worst Jail Siege." Manchester Evening News. April 17, 2012. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/strangeways-riot-lets-take-the-prison-686812. 11 "Strangeways Riot: 'Let's Take the Prison'... Spark That Triggered Britain's Worst Jail Siege." Manchester Evening News. April 17, 2012. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/strangeways-riot-lets-take-the-prison-686812. 12 "1990: Rioting Inmates Take Over Strangeways." BBC News. April 1, 1990. Accessed December 10, 2014. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1/newsid_4215000/4215173.stm.

Now there is an emphasis on rehabilitating a prisoner from his life of crime to

one of productivity as a citizen. This is accomplished largely through work

programmes within the prison. Studies have shown that the extent and frequency of

offending diminish when offenders gain employment, and offenders with stable and

quality employment are less likely to reoffend.13 These work programmes attempt to

help lower recidivism while also benefitting the prison.

HM Prison Service Work Programme

There are many studies showing that work programmes do improve an

inmate’s chances of finding work, and thus reduces the likelihood of reoffending,

upon release14,15,16; this is largely why work programmes were one of the factors

selected in this investigation. With that concept in mind, I examined the work

programmes in each of the prison systems selected.

A prisoner held within HM Prison Service may work for a maximum of ten

hours a day but, rather unusually, a minimum number of hours is not specified.17 A

Medical Officer examines each prisoner to ensure that he or she is fit for work and,

13 "Transforming Rehabilitation: A Summary of Evidence on Reducing Reoffending." Ministry of Justice. January 1, 2013. Accessed December 9, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/243718/evidence-reduce-reoffending.pdf. 14 Davis, Lois, Jennifer Steele, Jessica Saunders, and Jeremy Miles. "Education and Vocational Training in Prisons Reduces Recidivism, Improves Job Outlook." Evaluating the Effectiveness of Correctional Education: A Meta-Analysis of Programs That Provide Education to Incarcerated Adults. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR266.html. 15 "Offender Behaviour Programmes (OBPs)." Offender Behaviour Programmes (OBPs). Accessed December 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov.uk/offenders/before-after-release/obp. 16 "6 Evidence-based Practices Proven to Lower Recidivism." CorrectionsOne.com. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.correctionsone.com/re-entry-and-recidivism/articles/2030030-6-evidence-based-practices-proven-to-lower-recidivism/. 17 Loucks, Nancy. "Prison Rules: A Working Guide." Prison Reform Trust. January 1, 2000. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/Portals/0/Documents/prisonrulesworkingguide.pdf.

once deemed healthy enough, places them into a category of heavy, medium, or

light work. Prisoners are not to be required to work in a category which does not suit

them. Another somewhat unusual aspect is that the prison management is not

punished if it fails to provide work; however, if there is work available and an inmate

refuses to partake, then the inmate will face consequences.

Prisoners in 2008 in HM Prison Service were paid an average of 30p an hour

for a 32-hour work week.18 Funds received can go towards home, food allowance,

victim reparation, court fees, child support, etc. (this goes for HM Prison Service,

Scottish Prison Service, and the US Federal Bureau of Prisons). Through the work

programme they are encouraged to interact with others and get outside their cells.

In 2004 the National Offender Management Service was created through HM

Prison Service and the National Probation Service.19 This Service is accountable for

how public prisons are run in England and Wales. They also supervise probation

delivery in England and Wales. Two of the main responsibilities within this service

are rehabilitation services for prisoners leaving prison and ensuring that support

geared toward lowering recidivism is available to prisoners upon release. Once again

this acknowledges the major problem of recidivism and attempts to address it. The

service implements communication between agencies as well as providing on-going

support, both factors which are mentioned in the strategies for lowering recidivism.

Scottish Prison Service Background

18 "Captive Labour." Corporate Watch. January 1, 2010. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/magazine/45/winter-2009-2010/captive-labour. 19 "National Offender Management Service." Gov.uk. Accessed December 7, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/national-offender-management-service/about.

The Scottish Prison Service is an agency of the Scottish Government and was

established in 1993.20 It currently has thirteen public prisons and two private prisons.

The Scottish Prison Service also places an emphasis on prisoners’ rehabilitation. In

2012 the Prison Service came out with a report, the “Vision for Correctional

Excellence,”21 which outlines the Prison Service’s plan for the next three to five

years. This report underlines the importance of reducing recidivism rates, both in

order to make Scotland a safer place and to ensure that taxpayers’ money is not

going to waste on prisons. This Vision recommends putting in place some form of

measurement to determine that Scotland is indeed becoming a safer place. This

measurement will show the Scottish public that the Scottish Prison Service is indeed

something worth paying for. The Vision has five key themes: leadership in

correctional service; a prison estate that is fit for the purpose; highest standards of

service; respect for the staff; and value for money for the taxpayer.22

The Scottish Prison Service already incorporates many of these themes in

interacting with prisoners. The Scottish Prison Service is aware of the importance of

outside contact, especially with family members, to each prisoner. Outside contact is

encouraged through letters, phone calls, and even a specific “email a prisoner”

system. The prisons attempt to communicate clearly and effectively to both the

prisoners and their families. For example, each family is initiated into the prison

visiting life through a Family Induction, which can take the form of an informative

booklet, a personal meeting with staff, or both. In addition to visiting hours the

20 "Scottish Prison Service." SPS Corporate Plan 2012 - 15. July 31, 2012. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/Publication-4191.aspx. 21 "Vision for Correctional Excellence." Scottish Prison Service's Vision for Correctional Excellence. July 16, 2012. Accessed December 5, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/AboutUs/vision-for-correctional-excellence.aspx. 22 "Vision for Correctional Excellence." Scottish Prison Service's Vision for Correctional Excellence. July 16, 2012. Accessed December 5, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/AboutUs/vision-for-correctional-excellence.aspx.

prisons also promote activities such as homework clubs, family days, and other

special events and holidays. Outside contact is, according to the Scottish Prison

Service, essential in reducing recidivism rates.

SPS Work Programme23

As is the work programme. As soon after a prisoner is incarcerated as

possible, the prison’s Governor must obtain a report regarding each prisoner’s

specific needs and desires. Each report is ideally personalised to the prisoner and

thus can serve each prisoner as well as possible. The Governor uses each report to

set out a specific programme according to the abilities and wishes of each prisoner.

The programme incorporates work, education, and counselling. The goal behind

these programmes is to show prisoners that they are still respected and valued as

human beings, as well as to encourage them to gain skills that become applicable to

the outside world. Both these aspects promote self-respect and, hopefully, attitude.

Every prisoner is required to work so long as they are able. They may be

deemed unfit for work due to health reasons or if they have behaved particularly

badly, but for the most part all the prisoners work when they can. A typical prisoner’s

work week is forty hours—one may work overtime, receiving extra pay, if one so

chooses but it is not necessary per the rules of the prison. Each prisoner is afforded

religious breaks and holidays according to their own religion so long as it is deemed

reasonable by the prison. The Governor is required to try to ensure that prisoners’

work is always meaningful. This means striking a balance between work that must

23 "Prison Rules." Scottish Prison Service. Accessed December 5, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/PrisonRules.aspx.

be done for the operation of the prison and incorporating what the prisoner is likely to

do after he or she has been released.

United States Federal Bureau of Prisons Background

The US Federal Bureau of Prisons was established in 1930 with the goals of

providing a more progressive and humane type of care for federal inmates, to

professionalise the prison service, and to “ensure consistent and centralized

administration of federal prisons.”24 There are currently 116 prisons managed by the

US Federal Bureau of Prisons; more than 4,500 prisons in the US are managed

privately.

The Federal BOP originally had only to deal with eleven federal prisons. This

number grew quickly throughout the century. The number of prisoners were greatly

inflated, due largely to the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984. This Act established

determinate sentencing, abolished parole, and reduced the concept of good time

(sentence reduction based on an inmate’s good behaviour). There were several

supporting measures throughout the ‘80s and ‘90s which further increased prisoners’

time spent incarcerated by implementing minimum mandatory sentencing provisions.

From 1980 to 1989, the federal prison population more than doubled with an

increase from 24,000 to nearly 58,000. This doubling occurred again through the

1990s, raising the number of federal inmates from 58,000 to 136,000 by 1999.25 The

population has continued to increase to our current number of over 212,000 inmates

24 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: About the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/. 25 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Historical Information. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/history/.

total in the federal prison system (this includes privately-run federal facilities, though

most are contained within the GOP).26 The US’ current total prison population,

including pre-trial detainees, is over 2.2 million.27

US BOP Work Program

The federal prison system is the largest correctional service in the US,

growing by 2.6% each year.28 To be deemed a correctional service rather than

simply a housing block there have to be programmes in place to keep prisoners

active in a way that is geared toward success upon release. In the US BOP all

prisoners must work unless excused based on security, educational, or medical

reasons. There are two main options an inmate may undertake for work: an

institutional job assignment or UNICOR work assignment.

Institution work days are typically seven hours, not including the lunch break.

In the federal prison system inmates earn somewhere between twelve and forty

cents per hour. Job duties includes tasks such as food service, orderly, plumber,

painter, warehouse worker, groundskeeper, etc. Inmates may receive 12-40 cents an

hour for institutional work assignments.29

The other option is UNICOR, run by Federal Prison Industries. FPI is a federal

government corporation which does not receive funding from Congressional

26 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Population Statistics. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/population_statistics.jsp. 27 "Highest to Lowest - Prison Population Total." International Centre for Prison Studies. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total?field_region_taxonomy_tid=22. 28 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Population Statistics. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/population_statistics.jsp. 29 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Work Programs. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/inmates/custody_and_care/work_programs.jsp.

appropriations. About 16% of work-eligible inmates work with UNICOR, receiving

anywhere from 23 cents to $1.15 per hour.30 UNICOR assures the public that the

primary focus is on correctional service rather than business. Inmates are to learn

skills which will help them once released as well as run a self-sustained service

which produces marketable products. It’s supposedly a win-win situation for both

UNICOR and the prisoners.

With both options comes the inmate financial responsibility programme. This

is a programme which requires inmates to make payments to anything urgent that is

due; this can be anything from child support to victim restitution to court-ordered

fines. Prison staff are supposed to take into account each prisoner’s ability to learn,

interests, needs, eligibility, and availability of assignments. Assignments often benefit

the prison’s operational functions.

Prison staff may not discriminate against prisoners based on race, religion,

sex, national origin, disability, or political belief. Inmates are expected to show up on

time to each job and are not allowed to leave without permission. If an inmate

dodges work in any way the staff will take retribution. The goals of the work

programme focus on the benefits of both the prisoner and the prison itself.

Necessary prison operations and services will be worked by prisoners; prisoners’

work performance are to be evaluated and will provide the reasoning for awarding

Performance Pay; if an inmate works exceptionally well, he or she will receive

additional pay or other types of recognition; “idle crime” will be reduced; and

30 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: UNICOR. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/inmates/custody_and_care/unicor.jsp.

prisoners will have a better shot at getting a job once released due to skills and work

habits learned.31

Drug Offences

Though less than 1% may not seem a huge amount, it is worth noting that

America’s inmate population is seven times higher than that of England/Wales and

Scotland. Of that prison population, 48.7%32 of inmates are incarcerated for drug

offences. This compares to England/Wales’ rate of 11% or 14.3%33 incarcerated for

drug offences (depending which source is used). This is obviously a huge disparity

and could be a major contributor to recidivism. Many criminals have a mind-set

where they are used to the criminal life and that environment; upon release into

society many go right back to where they came from, which may not be the most

supportive of a law-abiding life. However, drug users face harsh challenges in that

they are literally addicted to an illegal substance. With an emphasis on appearing

“tough on crime” rather than trying to help drug addicts, naturally the prisons become

overfilled and recidivism rates are high.

The United States is a particularly obvious example of sentencing being

disproportionate to the crimes on the basis of appearing tough on crime rather than

attempting to alleviate the actual problem. As an example of the lack of evidence

31 "Legal Resource Guide to the Federal Bureau of Prisons." US Department of Justice. January 1, 2014. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/resources/pdfs/legal_guide.pdf. 32 "Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP Statistics: Inmate Offenses. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/statistics_inmate_offenses.jsp. 33 prison-pop-tables-q4-2012

used within the US regarding drug laws, the classification of marijuana can be

examined.

Medical marijuana has been used medically in state dispensaries since 1992

and yet it is still considered a Schedule 1 drug.34

Schedule I.—

(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.

(B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in

treatment in the United States.

(C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance

under medical supervision.

Heroin, marijuana, and the chemicals used to create bath salts are all in the

same category.

Oddly though, cocaine and meth are labelled Schedule II:

Schedule II.—

(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.

(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in

treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe

restrictions.

34 "Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act." Drug Enforcement Administration. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/.

(C) Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological

or physical dependence.

U.S. Federal BOP Population by Offence 2014

The information in this graph was recorded as of 25 January 2014.35 As can

be plainly seen, the largest category by far is that of drug offences. This could

35 Miles, Kathleen. "Just How Much The War On Drugs Impacts Our Overcrowded Prisons, In One Chart." The Huffington Post. March 10, 2014. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/10/war-on-drugs-prisons-infographic_n_4914884.html.

Dru

g O

ffence

Ba

nkin

g &

Insu

rance

, C

ou

nte

rfeit, &

E

mb

ezzle

men

t

Burg

lary

, Larc

en

y, P

rop

erty

O

ffence

Contin

uin

g C

rimin

al

Ente

rpris

e

Cou

rts o

r Co

rrectio

ns

Exto

rtion

, Fra

ud, B

ribe

ry

Hom

icid

e, A

ggra

vate

d

Assault, &

Kid

na

pp

ing

O

ffences

Imm

igra

tion

Mis

ce

llane

ou

s

Na

tion

al S

ecurity

Ro

bb

ery

Se

x O

ffence

Weap

on

s, E

xp

losiv

es, A

rso

n

possibly be due to the broadness of what applies within drug offences; however, one

finds that the definition for “drug offence” is markedly similar between the US and the

UK. Drug offence in both countries means “possession, use, sale or furnishing of

any drug or intoxicating substance or drug paraphernalia, that is prohibited by law.”36

Yet the US imprisons four to five times more of its citizens for drug offences. The

reason for these mass incarcerations falls upon the US criminal justice system and

how it attempts to deal with drug abuse, as has been addressed above.

Evidence-based approach to lowering recidivism

Lowering recidivism has been proven successful through a number of

avenues. When compiled, the list contains implementing a risk/needs assessment,

individual motivators, appropriate intervention, “rewiring the brain,” positive

reinforcement, and on-going support.37

HM Prison Service’s methods address each of these points with its accredited

Offender Behaviour Programmes. The Prison Service employs a scheme of Offender

Behaviour Programmes.38 The methods used within these programmes are

evidence-based—they use techniques that have been proven to be effective. They

are used according to risk and need. The methods are tailored to suit each prisoner’s

needs but are broken down into general categories. There is Aggressive

Replacement Training, which targets inmates convicted of violent crimes or whom

36 "Drug Offenses Law & Legal Definition." Drug Offenses Law & Legal Definition. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://definitions.uslegal.com/d/drug-offenses/. 37 "6 Evidence-based Practices Proven to Lower Recidivism." CorrectionsOne.com. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.correctionsone.com/re-entry-and-recidivism/articles/2030030-6-evidence-based-practices-proven-to-lower-recidivism/. 38 "Offender Behaviour Programmes (OBPs)." Offender Behaviour Programmes (OBPs). Accessed December 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov.uk/offenders/before-after-release/obp.

are prone to angry outbursts. The programme emphasises taking responsibility for

one’s actions and fully understanding the consequences.

Another is an Alcohol Related Violence Programme, which is of medium

intensity and is designed for those with issues regarding alcohol-related violence.

The goal here is to examine harmful lifestyles and decision-making. A severe

alcoholic is placed into the next category.

Addressing Substance Related Offending is a programme for heavily

dependent substance users with the aim of reducing or stopping the substance

abuse. It attempts to achieve this through a mix of drug and alcohol cognitive

behavioural intervention.

There are nearly fifty accredited programmes in total, each with its own

specific methods and goals. Most issues related to recidivism are addressed:

domestic violence, substance abuse, anger management, sex offenders, cognitive

skills, challenges to change, resettlement, handling relationships, choices, and

emotions, and a particularly interesting one called “chromis.” This last programme is

one of the few non-self-explanatory ones. It is aimed at prisoners whose

psychopathic traits make them unable to respond to treatment. This programme

accepts that inmates may not be fully converted to the regular citizen, but it does try

to reduce and manage the risks of psychopathic traits.

A Drug Interventions Programme was established in the UK in 2003. The

programme has made some promising improvements in regard to recidivism levels

amongst prisoners with substance dependency. Those who have completed the

Drug Interventions Programme have a lower reconviction rate (53%) than those who

do not (91%).39

A report by the UK Drug Policy Commission addresses some of the issues

with imprisoning drug offenders.

“By creating or exacerbating problems such as housing, employment and

family relationships and increasing health risks such as infection from blood-borne

viruses, the chances of successful long-term outcomes are further reduced.

Enforced detoxification without adequate follow-up support also increases the risk of

relapse, overdose and death, particularly on release.”40

The report instead suggests a community outreach approach. It argues that

community sentencing is a better value for money, reduces recidivism, and

diminishes the problems set above. Communication is again emphasised between

community programmes and prison systems to provide support both before and after

release.

This is an issue when drug offenders are receiving such heavy sentences.

There is also a problem with addressing drug abuse swiftly. In the UK in 2009, most

adult drug abusers who were caught faced only a fine. 20% were sentenced to a

community order (the UK equivalent to the US’ community service) and 18% went to

prison.41 A fine does not address the underlying issue of drug dependency at all. For

39 "Reducing Drug Use, Reducing Offending." UK Drug Policy Commission. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.ukdpc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Policy report - Reducing drug use, reducing reoffending (summary).pdf. 40 "Reducing Drug Use, Reducing Offending." UK Drug Policy Commission. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.ukdpc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Policy report - Reducing drug use, reducing reoffending (summary).pdf. 41 "Drug Offenses." Sentencing Council. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://sentencingcouncil.judiciary.gov.uk/docs/Analysis_and_Research_Bulletins_-_Drugs_Offences.pdf.

those guilty of committing crimes in relation to drug use (such as larceny) this could

even exacerbate the problem as then the drug user has a greater need for money.

With community service one has to show up on time and get the work done, which is

a decent habit to form at the very least. By going to prison one may have drug

rehabilitation services available to them, but as the UK Drug Policy Commission

Report noted, going to prison may actually cause one’s drug problem to worsen.

This is worrisome because it shows few possible avenues to actually address

the issue of substance abuse. If a drug user were sentenced to rehabilitation that

may be best for their drug usage, but it causes financial strain on the system and

does not address the implications of breaking the law. A solid compromise, then,

would be to increase support aimed at reducing recidivism. This helps all prisoners,

not just drug users; however, it is specifically tailored according to each prisoner’s

needs which especially benefits those who are dependent on substances.

Recommendations

The evidence-based approaches are a great start for reducing recidivism in

prisoners. Prison systems in the US and the UK ought to ensure that they follow

guidelines established by proven methods and not stray towards the opinion that

prisoners are simply cheap labour. Prisoners are more than the products they create;

they are people. It is the responsibility of all prison systems to treat them as such.

They should be guarded and held in accordance to their crime, nothing more.

Notice must also be taken of the evidence that imprisonment does not make

one less likely to commit future crimes. It is the programmes within prison that may

help to reduce prison; the prison itself can have the opposite effect. This is especially

an issue, as shown, with drug offenders; it must be ensured that prison systems

have appropriate facilities and professionals ready to deal with those addicted to

substances. Through increasing emphasis on evidence-oriented strategies in work

programmes and offering support unique to each prisoner rather than through

cookie-cutter methods, the statistics are encouraging for lowering risks of

reoffending. Ideally each prison system will take on the challenge of offering tailored

services as well as improving work systems through evidence-based methods.

Bibliography

“6 Evidence-based Practices Proven to Lower Recidivism." CorrectionsOne.com. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.correctionsone.com/re-entry-and-recidivism/articles/2030030-6-evidence-based-practices-proven-to-lower-recidivism/.

"1990: Rioting Inmates Take Over Strangeways." BBC News. April 1, 1990. Accessed December 10, 2014. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1/newsid_4215000/4215173.stm.

"About - HM Prison Service - GOV.UK." HM Prison Service. Accessed December 10, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/hm-prison-service/about.

"Captive Labour." Corporate Watch. January 1, 2010. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/magazine/45/winter-2009-2010/captive-labour.

Davis, Lois, Jennifer Steele, Jessica Saunders, and Jeremy Miles. "Education and Vocational Training in Prisons Reduces Recidivism, Improves Job Outlook." Evaluating the Effectiveness of Correctional Education: A Meta-Analysis of Programs That Provide Education to Incarcerated Adults. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR266.html.

"Drug Offenses Law & Legal Definition." Drug Offenses Law & Legal Definition. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://definitions.uslegal.com/d/drug-offenses/.

"Drug Offenses." Sentencing Council. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://sentencingcouncil.judiciary.gov.uk/docs/Analysis_and_Research_Bulletins_-_Drugs_Offences.pdf.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: About the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Agency Pillars. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/agency/agency_pillars.jsp.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Historical Information. Accessed December 8, 2014. htt"Vision for Correctional Excellence." Scottish Prison Service's Vision for Correctional Excellence. July 16, 2012. Accessed December 5, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/AboutUs/vision-for-correctional-excellence.aspx.p://www.bop.gov/about/history/.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP Statistics: Inmate Offenses. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/statistics_inmate_offenses.jsp.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Population Statistics. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/about/statistics/population_statistics.jsp.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: UNICOR. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/inmates/custody_and_care/unicor.jsp.

"Federal Bureau of Prisons." BOP: Work Programs. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/inmates/custody_and_care/work_programs.jsp.

"Highest to Lowest - Prison Population Total." International Centre for Prison Studies. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total?field_region_taxonomy_tid=22.

"Legal Resource Guide to the Federal Bureau of Prisons." US Department of Justice. January 1, 2014. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.bop.gov/resources/pdfs/legal_guide.pdf.

Loucks, Nancy. "Prison Rules: A Working Guide." Prison Reform Trust. January 1, 2000. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/Portals/0/Documents/prisonrulesworkingguide.pdf.

Miles, Kathleen. "Just How Much The War On Drugs Impacts Our Overcrowded Prisons, In One Chart." The Huffington Post. March 10, 2014. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/10/war-on-drugs-prisons-infographic_n_4914884.html.

"National Offender Management Service." Gov.uk. Accessed December 7, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/national-offender-management-service/about.

"Offender Behaviour Programmes (OBPs)." Offender Behaviour Programmes (OBPs). Accessed December 7, 2014. https://www.justice.gov.uk/offenders/before-after-release/obp.

"Prison Rules." Scottish Prison Service. Accessed December 5, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/PrisonRules.aspx.

prison-pop-tables-q4-2012

"Reducing Drug Use, Reducing Offending." UK Drug Policy Commission. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.ukdpc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Policy report - Reducing drug use, reducing reoffending (summary).pdf.

"Scottish Prison Service." SPS Corporate Plan 2012 - 15. July 31, 2012. Accessed December 7, 2014. http://www.sps.gov.uk/Publications/Publication-4191.aspx.

"Strangeways Riot: 'Let's Take the Prison'... Spark That Triggered Britain's Worst Jail Siege." Manchester Evening News. April 17, 2012. Accessed December 9, 2014. http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/strangeways-riot-lets-take-the-prison-686812.

"Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act." Drug Enforcement Administration. Accessed December 6, 2014. http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/.

"Transforming Rehabilitation: A Summary of Evidence on Reducing Reoffending." Ministry of Justice. January 1, 2013. Accessed December 9, 2014. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/243718/evidence-reduce-reoffending.pdf.