Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India ... · National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site, due to its location in the lowland– highland transitional zone,

Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 14, No. 3, 2010 (217–243)217

AbstractThe Northeastern Hill region of India, comprising Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,Tripura, and parts of the Cachar district of Assam, has been proposed as anotherNational Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site, due to its location in the lowland–highland transitional zone, richness in species and crop genetic diversity, diversetopography with a hilly-sloping terrain, and the prevalence of traditional shifting andbun cultivation. To circumvent the difficulties of the hilly terrain, the local communitieshave developed unique indigenous farming systems such as zabo, alder, and swidden,based on local resources, which facilitate conservation as well as effective and efficientuse of natural resources. Over time, the systems have been further improved with systems,such as terrace-panikheti. The region is inhabited by a number of tribes, evolved fromdiverse racial stocks, such as Mongoloids, Indo-Mongoloids, and Austrics, with theinfluence of Aryan culture and both Hindu and Christian religions, evolving a complexculture. The local communities have conserved a large number of species in their baris(backyard gardens), and in the process of cultivation, the environmental and humanselection pressures have helped evolve useful genetic diversity in important crops.Consequently, the region has made a significant contribution to international agricultureby making available landraces, such as ‘Latisail’, which has contributed its germplasmto 80% of the semi-dwarf rice varieties cultivated in Asia. The article discusses thesefacts in depth to justify the propostion as per the indices for identification and assessmentof agrobiodiversity heritage sites.

The physiography divides the northeasternregion of India into three divisions: theMeghalaya plateau, the Northeastern Hills,and the Brahmaputra Valley. TheNortheastern Hills account for 65% of the

total land area. This region is unique, beingpart of the area where the land mass of thesouthern hemisphere met with that of thenorthern hemisphere, formulating thetransition zone of lowland–highland with the

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites inIndia: VI. The Northeastern Hills of Nagaland,Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura

Anurudh K Singh

2924, Sector 23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

218 Biodiversity heritage site in India

highest diversity of biomes and ecologicalcommunities, where the species diversitieswithin these communities is extremely high.The region constitutes a geographical‘gateway’ for much of India’s flora andfauna, consequent to which, the region isone of the richest in biological values. Theregion is also bestowed with rich naturalresources of soil, water, and climate.

The northeastern region is characterized byunique but difficult hilly terrain, undulatingtopography with prevalence of primitiveforms of food production systems – shiftingcultivation and bun cultivation. Shiftingcultivation is still practiced, despite itscontribution to accelerated soil erosion andrunoff from the agricultural fields. However,the farmers of certain localities have adaptedindigenous technical knowledge to facilitateconservation of soil and water, and toenhance soil productivity. The zabo system,the alder system, and rice cultivation interraces-panikheti in Nagaland are someof the examples of excellent application ofindigenous technical knowledge for resourceconservation and effective use. Additionally,puddling of the bottom of the waterharvesting ponds in the catchment areas,followed by plastering the bottom and sidesof the pond with a paste of clay, rice husk,and cow dung, to help water conservation,are some other ingenious technologiesevolved by local farmers, while interactingwith the hilly and sloping landscape. Thesetime-tested systems were developed by thelocal tribal farmers using their ingenuity andskill based on their long experience ofgenerations, under the prevailing soil, climate,and remote situations of the region. The useof locally available materials and organic

sources of nutrients make these systemssustainable. Therefore, this region can beconsidered as a co-inventor of the shiftingcultivation (jhum) system along withMeghalaya hills, with suitable improvisationreconciling with the landscape, to facilitateconservation of bioresources. Unfortunately,this traditional knowledge has remainedconfined to their place of origin and has notspread further. Moreover, the economicconstraints and some biophysical limitationshave confined the agriculture mostly to asubsistence level. Nevertheless, the region,because of these technological innovationsand diverse ecologies, has been able tocultivate a large number of crop species,particularly in horticultural crops, and evolvea wide spectrum of genetic variability.

In addition to being one of the most enrichedregions in terms of its flora and fauna, andtechnology, the region has a distinct cultureand is home to various indigenous tribalcommunities belonging to the Austro-Asiaticlinguistic family. This complex culture hasinfluenced the locals both socially andagriculturally. For example, the Nepalesealder is a socially valued species withnitrogen fixing capacity, conserved bytraditional societies of this region with itsintegration in their shifting agriculture plots.Therefore, it is a social ‘keystone’ species.The swidden farming system adopted by theAngami tribal community of Nagaland,involving cultivation of 15 to 30 crop speciesin the same plot of land after jhum forestclearing, is a unique method practiced bythe women of the region to facilitate theconservation of agrobiodiversity. In the oldendays, hunting/trapping was practiced withconsiderable prudence and had many taboos

Asian Agri-History Vol. 14, No. 3, 2010219

and restrictions. For example, the AnaalNaga in Manipur did not consume turtle ortortoise meat. The Maram Naga did not eatpork, and the Thangkhul Naga did not eatany member of the cat family. This facilitatedthe conservation of these species and themaintenance of the ecological balance.Unfortunately, such taboos do not hold anysway among the people now.

Therefore, the Northeastern Hill region ofNagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura– given its rich species and crop geneticdiversity, unique and effective technologiesfor sustainable and integrated bioresourceconservation and use, including uniquecomposite irrigation and fertilization systems– deserves to be designated as anotherNational Agricultural Biodiversity Heritagesite based on the criteria suggested by Singhand Varaprasad (2008). Many other factsare worth a mention to support justification:

• Nagaland has an agrarian economy withover 70% of the population dependenton agriculture, and maintains a richgenetic diversity in crops such as rice,millet, maize, pulses, sugarcane, potato,coffee, cardamom, tea, etc.

• Manipur has rich genetic diversity incrops such as paddy, wheat, maize,pulses, oilseeds, and rubber, and

occupies a unique position among Indianhandicrafts (including cane and bamboocrafts).

• Mizoram has a rich and unique bamboogenetic diversity (covering 12,544 sq kmof the state), contributing to 14% of thenational bamboo production.

• Tripura is the second largest producerof rubber in the country (265 km2 of thestate is under rubber).

Location and extentThis agricultural biodiversity heritage siteincludes the northeastern hilly states ofNagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura,and the adjoining districts of Cachar andNorth Cachar of Assam (Fig. 1). The state

The physiography divides thenortheastern region of India into threedivisions: the Meghalaya plateau, the

Northeastern Hills, and theBrahmaputra Valley. The

Northeastern Hills account for 65%of the total land area.

The northeastern region ischaracterized by unique but difficulthilly terrain, undulating topographywith prevalence of primitive forms of

food production systems – shiftingcultivation and bun cultivation.

Figure 1. Location and extent of theNortheastern Hill Region.


of Nagaland extends between 25°05’ and27°10’ N latitude, and 93°28’ and 95°05’ Elongitude. The hills of Nagaland are in parallelfolds running from north to south. TheSaramati Peak (3,841 m) is the highest. Thestate of Manipur lies to the south of Nagaland,and in continuation extends between 23°50’and 25°41’ N latitude, and 92°59’ to 94°47’ Elongitude. Manipur has a hilly terrain rangingfrom 850 m to 3,000 m, with folds ofmountains running in the same north to southdirection, in continuation of the Patkoi andNaga hills. Mizoram is located further down,between 21°58’ and 24°35’ N latitude, and92°16’ and 93°29’ E longitude. It hasinternational borders with Myanmar on theeast and south, and with Bangladesh on thewest. Manipur lies to its north and Tripura toits west. The mountain ranges again runparallel in continuation, from north to south.The Phawngpui mountain, rising up to 2,165m, is called the Blue Mountain of Mizoram.Tripura is bordered by Bangladesh on threesides, whereas Mizoram and Assam lie onthe eastern side. The state is located between22°56’ and 24°32’ N latitude, and 91°10’ and92°21’ E longitude.

LandscapeThe landscape of the region is dominatedby the diverse range of hills, valleys, gorges,

lakes, and a network of streams and riversrunning across the states, supporting richbiodiversity in the form of forests. Nagalandis a hilly state with high mountains, deepgorges, lush valleys, and winding streams.The dominant geographic feature of thelandscape is the Naga Hills, which run allthe way through the state and contribute tothe mountainous terrain. Manipur boasts ofan exotic landscape with gently undulatinghills, emerald-green valleys, blue lakes, anddense forests. Mizoram too is a land of hills,which run in ridges from north to south. Theyhave an average height of 900 m, the highestpoint being the Phawngpui, the BlueMountain (2,165 m). The Tropic of Cancerpasses near the capital, Aizawl. There area number of rivers in Mizoram. Theimportant ones in the northern part of thestate are the Tlawng (Dhaleshwari), theTuirial (Sonai), and the Tuivwal, which flownorthwards and fall in the Barak River inthe Cachar district of Assam. These threerivers are navigable. In the southern part ofMizoram, the Chhimtuipui (Kolodyne) is animportant river having four tributaries – theMat, the Tuichang, the Tyao, and the Tuipui.

Geographically, Manipur can be divided intotwo parts – the Imphal Valley and thesurrounding hills. The Imphal Valley is fullof small lakes and swamps. The hills, termedas sub-Himalayan ranges, are covered withrich forest cover that includes rubber, tan,oak, ash, teak, and palm. Many differentvarieties of bamboo are also found all overManipur. Eeril and Thobal are the two bigrivers of Manipur that originate from thehills and flow down into the valley. The BlueHills surrounding the valley and covering therest of the state give an enchanting look to

In addition to being one of the mostenriched regions in terms of its flora

and fauna, and technology, the regionhas a distinct culture and is home to

various indigenous tribal communitiesbelonging to the Austro-Asiatic

linguistic family.


the landscape. Most of the land in Manipuris barren and considered uncultivable.Tripura is a landlocked hilly state withaltitudes varying from 15 to 940 m abovesea level. The state is covered by picturesquehills and dales, deep and green valleys, whichadd to the beauty.

While the landscape in the other states isdominated by lofty mist-clad hills, Tripurahas rolling verdant valleys. The principal hillranges are the Jampoi, Sakham Tlang,Langtarai, Athara Mura, and Bara Mura.The highest peak of the state is Be-talang-Shiv (975 m) in the Jampoi hill range. Anumber of broad and elongated valleys –Agartala, Udaipur, Sabrum, Khowai,Teliamura, Amarpur, Silachari, etc. – arelocated between the north-south trending,parallel to sub-parallel high ranges(topographic highs), such as the Baramura,Deotamura ranges, Atharamura ranges,Langtari ranges, Sakham ranges, and theJampui hill ranges. The Khowati, Manu,Haorah, Muhuri, and the Gomati are someimportant rivers of Tripura.

AgroclimateAs in Meghalaya, the Northeastern Hillregion is a warm perhumid ecoregion withred and lateritic soil. The climate of theregion in general is characterized by warmsummers and cold winters. During thewinter months (October–February), thetemperatures range between 4ºC and 24ºC;the summer months (March–June) take thetemperatures up to 16–31ºC. Filling the gapbetween those months, the monsoon seasonsees heavy rains and the weather becomesslightly cooler than in the summer. The mean

annual precipitation of the region varies from1,600 to 2,600 mm, while potentialevapotranspiration (PET) is 1,400–1,600mm, leading to a moist perhumid moistureregime for most of the year. The hill regionsof Manipur, Tripura, and Mizoram receiveheavy rainfall (more than 2,000 mm) andthe climate is extremely humid. The lengthof the growing season with availability ofmoisture exceeds 270 days. The short waterdeficit occurs during the postrainy season,causing seasonal dry spells. The major soilof the region includes shallow to very deep,loamy, red and lateritic, and red yellow soils.They are highly acidic in reaction and havemoderate bases (Sehgal et al.,1992).

Tripura has a tropical climate. The climateof this state is generally hot and humid. Theaverage maximum temperature is 35ºC inMay–June, and the average minimumtemperature is 10.5ºC in December–January. The average annual rainfall is

The landscape of the region isdominated by the diverse range ofhills, valleys, gorges, lakes, and a

network of streams and rivers runningacross the states, supporting richbiodiversity in the form of forests.

Nagaland is a hilly state with highmountains, deep gorges, lush valleys,and winding streams. The dominant

geographic feature of the landscape isthe Naga Hills, which run all the waythrough the state and contribute to the

mountainous terrain.


around 2,300 mm. The monsoon startsgenerally in April and continues up toSeptember. Summer starts in March andcontinues up to May, and is followed by therainy season extending over about three–four months (May–August). The pleasantseason lasts only for about two months(September–October). It is then followedby winter, which continues up toFebruary. In Tripura, the soil in the valley isfertile with rich alluvial deposits, andtherefore suitable for the cultivation of paddy,jute, oilseeds, pulses, fruits, and vegetables.About 54.5% of the land is under forest.

Floristic diversityNortheastern India consists of twobiodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier et al.,2004): the Himalaya and the Indo-Burma.The Northeastern Hill region, comprisingNagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura, ispart of the Indo-Burma hotspot, which has awide variety of ecosystems, including hillytracts. The Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspotcomprises around 7,000 endemic plantspecies. Around 8,550 floral species havebeen recorded from this region, of which 2,500are from Manipur, 2,250 from Nagaland, 2,200from Mizoram, and 1,600 from Tripura.

The natural vegetation comprises evergreenand tropical moist deciduous forests. Theforest types are: (1) Tropical evergreenand semi-evergreen forests withdominant species, Castanopsis indica

(Roxb. ex Lindl.) A. DC. (= Castaneaindica Roxb.), Bischofia javanica Blume,Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem., T.arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.,Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., A. chamaBuch.-Ham., Elaeocarpus floribundusBlume, E. rugosus Roxb., Polyalthiacerasoides (Roxb.) Hook.f. & Thomson,Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F.Gaertn., D.macrocarpus Vesque, Amoora wallichiiKing., etc.; (2) Tropical moist and drydeciduous forest with dominant species,Albizia procera Benth., Anthocephaluschinensis Hassk., Sterculia villosa Roxb.,Tectona grandis L.f. , Shorea robustaC.F.Gaertn., Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb.,etc.; (3) Temperate forest withLithocarpus fenestratus Rehder, Quercusgriffithii Hook.f. & Thomson ex Miq.,Schima wallichii Choisy, Betula alnoidesBuch.-Ham., Michelia doltsopa Buch.-Ham. ex DC., Castanopsis hystrix A. DC.,Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon., etc.;(4) Bamboo forest with Bambusa tuldaRoxb., B. pallida Munro, Melocannabaccifera Skeels, Dendrocalamushamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex Munro., etc.;(5) Subalpine forest with Berberismicropetala T.S.Ying, B. manipurensis(Takeda) Laferr., B. wardii C.K.Schneid.,B. sublevis W.W.Sm., Rhododendronwattii Cowan, Aconitum elwesii Stapf,Spiraea callosa Thunb., etc.

Mizoram has the second highest forestcover (62%) of the region. It is a land ofunending natural beauty with a variety offlora and fauna. The word “Mizo” meanshighlander. The state is a storehouse ofexotic flora and fauna. The hills here canbe seen covered with bamboo and banana

Geographically, Manipur can bedivided into two parts – the ImphalValley and the surrounding hills.


trees along with a wonderful array of pinetrees. The forests also house some of therare varieties of orchids that are found onlyin this region of the country. In Manipur, theforest area is sharply declining. The croppedarea in Manipur and Nagaland is 8.32% and12.40% respectively. While in Tripura, onlyabout 24.3% of the area is available foragricultural use.

Agriculture andagrobiodiversityAgriculture is the main occupation and themain source of income and revenue for theregion. The traditional farming system isjhum (shifting cultivation). In addition, thetribal communities widely practice terracecultivation. According to Ramakrishnan(1992), a typical jhum system is a mixedcropping system where seeds of all the cropsthat require planting are mixed at the seedstage and broadcast in the field during thefirst rainy days of the season on the landprepared after burning the forest land. Maizeand rice seeds are dribbled in furrows atregular intervals. Tuber crops such as aroids,ginger, and tapioca, and banana are plantedor sown throughout the growing season. Thecastor plant (Ricinus communis L.) isplanted along the borders for rearingsilkworms. The crops are routinelyharvested at different seasons and they arereplaced by other seasonal crops [Ipomoeabatatas (L.) Poir., Eleusine coracana

Gaertn., Dioscorea alata L. , Coixlacryma-jobi L.] at regular intervals. Thistraditional jhum cultivation is followed bymost subsistence farmers.

Terrace cultivation is widely practiced by thetribal communities. The major crops includerice, maize, millets, pea, oilseeds (rapeseed/mustard and niger), fibers, sugarcane,tobacco, potato, etc. The farmers also cultivatea variety of temperate, subtropical, andtropical vegetables, which includes pea, carrot,chili, onion, melon, spinach, cucumber, brinjal(eggplant), tomato, Brassicas, yam, and arumsin home garden as well as in terraced field.They may be a monocrop or in mixed croppingsystem with diverse ingredients. Theimportant cropping systems are rice–mustard,rice–pea, maize–mustard, niger–mustard.

Because of diversities in topography,altitude, and climatic conditions, the regionoffers a great scope for cultivation of a widevariety of horticultural crops, such as fruits,vegetables, tuber and rhizomatous crops,spices, flowers, and medicinal plants oftemperate, subtropical and tropical nature.Commercially, temperate, subtropical, andtropical fruits and vegetables, bothindigenous and exotic, are doing well in thisregion. Commercial cultivation of temperatefruits such as plum, peach, and pear are seenin the higher elevations of Mizoram,Manipur, and Nagaland. Other promisingtemperate fruits, such as walnut, almond,and cashewnut are grown in Tripura. Theplain and valley land of Tripura and Manipurare suitable for most of the tropical andsubtropical fruits, such as banana, pineapple,citrus, coconut, mango, jackfruit, papaya,litchi, guava, etc. However, banana,

Tripura has a tropical climate. Theclimate of this state is generally hot

and humid.


pineapple, citrus, papaya, plum, peach, apple,etc. are widely grown in the hills of Mizoram,Manipur, and Nagaland. The cultivation ofpineapple is concentrated in Manipur.Among Citrus, commercial cultivars ofmandarin orange and lemon are beinggrown. Arecanut, betel-vine, and severalspice crops are grown throughout the region.In addition to tea, coffee, cardamom,coconut, arecanut, and rubber are theplantation crops grown mainly in Tripura(Fig. 2). Enormous variations of crops aswell as practices of growing vegetables canbe seen both in the kharif and rabi seasonsin the region.

One of the unique features practiced all alongthe mountain slopes is the use of split bamboosas water-carrying channels or pipes forirrigating the crops, suggesting co-evolutionof this type of irrigation system along withadjacent Meghalaya and Assam. This is acost-effective, indigenous practice developedby the farmers for irrigation of plantationcrops such as coffee, tea, and cardamom.Agriculture has been flourishing in this areabecause of the development of such irrigation

facilities. Split bamboos provide uninterruptedirrigation and control of the water channels.

Further, to support sustainable agriculture, thefarmers of the region have developed severalimproved indigenous farming systems(Sharma and Prasad, 1994). Some of theimportant ones are: Zabo farming system,which is practiced in the Phek district ofNagaland. This is a composite farmingsystem with a combination of forestry,agriculture, livestock, and fisheries. Zabomeans impounding of water. This farmingsystem is followed in areas coming under therain-shadow zone. Due to deforestation orless density of forests, the rainfall in theseareas has been adversely affected.Therefore, tribal farmers of the areadeveloped this system with their ingenuity,skill, and the experience gathered over a longtime. Forestry is an important component ofthis system. It is common on the hill slopes,up to 100%. Under this system, the firstcomponent consists of the top of the hill andup to some area below, where forests aremaintained. This works as the catchmentarea for rainwater harvesting. The secondcomponent consists of the area, a little downbelow, where the water is collected in pondsthat are dug according to the size of thecatchment and expected quantity of water.These ponds are used as de-siltation tanksand, after keeping the water for 2 to 3 daysin these ponds, it is transferred to a largermain tank. The de-siltation ponds are de-silted

Mizoram has the second highest forestcover (62%) of the region. It is a land

of unending natural beauty with avariety of flora and fauna.

Figure 2. Adoption and intensification ofrubber plantation in Tripura.


every year and the material, which containsa good amount of organic matter and nutrients,is put in the terraced rice fields to improvethe fertility. The third component consists oflivestock enclosures, where the tribal farmerskeep their animals in bamboo enclosures alittle below the main water storage tank.Generally, a few families keep their animalstogether in one enclosure. The fourthcomponent is the rice fields, which, at thetime of irrigation, get the water from the maintank. The water is passed through thelivestock enclosures, to enable carrying thedung and urine of the animals to the fieldsalong with the flow. Consequent to theavailability of sufficient amount of nutrients,which are added to the water used forirrigation, the farmers get a yield of 3 to 4tons of rice per ha without the additionalapplication of fertilizers. Also, the fields getenriched with organically rich water. Underthis system, the half-moon terracing of fieldsis useful in slope stabilization and also inallowing the percolation of rainfall into theground (Fig. 3). This ingenious system helpsin soil stabilization and enhances soil fertilityand thus provides optimum crop yield.

Under the zabo system, keeping the majorportion of the top of the hill slopes as forestsalso helps in perpetuation of grasses, whichare used for feeding the cattle and otheranimals. Further, it helps in keeping the soilerosion to a minimum, thereby maintainingthe ecological balance in the area andensuring environmental benefits. The tribalfarmers themselves take care of the forestland and other components of the systemthrough tribal laws, which are very strict andfollowed by everyone dutifully. No one isallowed to cut trees or destroy vegetation,and proper care is taken collectively for theprotection of the forest land.

Another system, called the alder system, isalso followed in Nagaland. This involvesplanting of the alder trees to enhance thesoil fertility with crops such as maize, Job’sTears, millet, potato, chili, pumpkin, barley,etc. (Fig. 4). The alder grows well on landsvarying in altitude from 800 to 3,000 m. It isa non-leguminous tree that fixes atmosphericnitrogen through nodules on the roots.Besides fixing atmospheric nitrogen, thelitter of the trees add to the soil phosphorus,

Figure 3. Half-moon terracing in the zabofarming system for greater soil stabilizationand percolation of rainfall.

Figure 4. Stumps of alder (Alnus nepalensis)under the alder agroforestry farming system.


potassium, calcium, and other nutrientsthrough the addition of biomass (Sharma andSingh, 1994). Alder is a multipurpose treethat, besides improving soil fertility, providestimber for furniture and fuelwood. The valueof the alder tree was recognized by the tribalfarmers a long time ago, as trees that aremore than 200 years old can be seen in thearea. Agricultural crops, together with thealder trees, help form a very remunerativeagroforestry system, and the ability of thetree to develop and retain soil fertility hasbeen fully utilized by the tribal farmers ofthe Angami, Chakhasang, Chang,Yimchaunger, and Konyak tribes (Gokhle etal., 1985). The Knononome village in theKohima district of Nagaland is proud of itsalder plantation and alder tree-basedagriculture.

Recognizing the importance of the alder,its multiplication through the process ofpollarding has been developed andpracticed. The alder tree is ready forpollarding after 6 to 8 years, when the barkis rough and develops fissures. The alder

is pollarded at a height of 2 to 2.5 m by thefarmers, and the leaves and succulent twigsare incorporated in the field. The trunk thensprouts, giving new shoots called coppices.One alder tree sprouts approximately 100to 200 coppices after pollarding. About 5to 6 coppices are left on the main trunk forregeneration. It has been estimated that ifa village of 100 families could set asideabout 120 ha of land to grow alder trees,all families would get sufficient cereals,vegetables, firewood, etc. The pollardingis done from November to January, and thefresh cut is covered with stone to protectit from frost injury. Maintenance of aldertrees is necessary for their long life. Thetrunk of the tree needs to be kept free ofparasitic growth. In addition, there arepractices such as swidden farmingsupported by women folk facilitating theconservation of crop diversity.

Representative crop species invarious crop groups

Cereals, pseudocereals, and millets.Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), chenopodium(Chenopodium album L.), Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (soft-shelled forms), fingermillet (Eleusine coracana), foxtail millet[Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.], grainamaranth (Amaranthus hypocondriacus L.,A. paniculatus L.), maize (Zea mays L.),rice (Oryza sativa L.), sorghum [Sorghumbicolor (L.) Moench], wheat (Triticumaestivum L.).

Legumes and oilseeds. Castor(Ricinus communis), cowpea (Vignaunguiculata (L.) Walp., mustard [Brassicajuncea (L.) Czern.], niger (Guizotia

Further, to support sustainableagriculture, the farmers of the region

have developed several improvedindigenous farming systems.

Terrace cultivation is widely practicedby the tribal communities. The major

crops include rice, maize, millets, pea,oilseeds (rapeseed/mustard and

niger), fibers, sugarcane, tobacco,potato, etc.


abyssinica Cass.), pigeonpea [Cajanuscajan (L.) Druce], rice bean [Vignaumbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi],winged bean [Psophocarpustetragonolobus (L.) D.C.] and a few otherIndian beans.

Fiber and forage. China grass[Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich., B.platyphylla D.Don, B. macrophyllaD.Don], jute (Corchorus capsularis L.),kuduzu vine [Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi(syn. P. montana (Lour.) Merr), P.thunbergiana Benth., P. edulis Pamp., P.lobata (Willd.) Ohwi var. thomsonii]:forage and medicinal, Nepal hemp(Maoutia puya Wedd.), sunnhemp(Crotalaria meeboldii Dunn).

Vegetables and tuber crops. Ashgourd [Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.],bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var.grossum Sendt.), bitter gourd (Momordicacharantia L.), brinjal (Solanummelongena L.) and other Solanum spp.used as vegetables and medicine (S.xanthocarpum Schard & Wendl; S.indicum L., S. berbisetum Nees), broccoli(Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera),cabbage [Brassica oleracea L. var.capitata (L.) Alef.], carrot (Daucus carotaL.), cassava (Manihot esculenta L.),cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var.botrytis L.), chili (Capsicum annuum L.var. avicular), cho-cho [Sechium edule(Jacq.) Sw.], cucumber (Cucumis sativusL.), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.),kankro (Momordica dioica Roxb. exWilld.), knoll-khol (Brassica olearacea var.gongylodes), long pepper (Capsicumannuum var. longum Sendt.) and other

introduced cultivated Capsicum species [C.chinense Jacq, C. eximium Hunziker, C.frutescens L., C. minimum Roxb. (syn. C.fastigiatum Bhumme), C. pubescens Ruiz.and Paron], meetha karela [Cylantherapedata (L.) Schrader], Moghania vestitaBenth ex Bak., okra [Abelmoschusesculentus (L.) Moench], pea (Pisumsativum L.), pointed gourd (Trichosanthesdioica Roxb.) in Tripura, pumpkin(Cucurbita pepo L.), sem (Dolichos lablabL.), snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguinaL.), sponge gourd (Luffa cylindricaM.Roem.), sweet gourd [Momordicacochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng.], swordbean [Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC.],tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.);leafy vegetables – amaranth (AmaranthusL. spp.), lai [Brassica juncea (L.) Hook.f.& Thomson], lafa (Malva verticillata L.),spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), puroi sag(Basella rubra and B. alba), sorrel (Rumexrasicarius); root and tuber vegetables –arvi/taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott],chives (Allium tuberosum Rottl. Ex Spreng.),East Indian arrowroot (Curcumaangustifolia Dalzell & A.Gibson), elephant-foot yam (Amorphophallus bulbifer Blumevar. bulbifer, A. bulbifer Blume var. atro-viridi, A. bulbifer Blume var. tuberculiger),garlic (Allium sativum L.), giant taro[Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) G.Don], greateryam (Dioscorea alata L.), lesser yam[Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill], onion(Allium cepa L.), potato (Solanumtuberosum L.), potato yam/ratalu(Dioscorea bulbifera L.), radish (Raphanussativus L.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas),taro (Alocasia indica Schott.; syn. Arumindicum Roxb. Sans), turnip (Brassica rapa


L. ssp. rapa), and yam bean (Pachyrhizuserosus): also a tuber crop (Edison et al.,2005). In addition, edible bamboo shoot inManipur only is consumed at approximately60 kg/person/year. Cruciferous vegetablesnamely cauliflower, cabbage, knoll-khol, etc.,were introduced during the days of the EastIndia Company in the 14th to 15th centurywhen European traders visited this region(Seshadri and Srivastava, 2002).

Spices. Bayleaf/tejpat (Cinnamomumtamala T.Nees & Eberm.), Bengalcardamom (Amomum aromaticum Roxb.),large cardamom (Amomum subulatumRoxb.), camphor tree [Cinnamomumglanduliferum (Wall.) Meisn., C.pauciflorum Nees], snap ginger [Alpiniacalcarata (Roscoe) Merrill, A. malaccensis(Burm. f.) Roscoe], ginger (Zingiberofficinale Roscoe), kaempferia(Kaempferia galangal L.), black pepper(Piper nigrum L.), long pepper (Piperlongum L.), P. peepuloides Roxb.,turmeric (Curcuma longa L.).

Fruits. Almond [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) DAWebb.; syn. P. amygdalus Batsch.], aonla(Emblica officinalis Gaertn), apple (Malussylvestris L.), apricot (Prunus armeniacaL.), bael (Aegle marmelos Correa), banana(Musa acuminata Colla., M. balbisianaColla., M. flaviflora), chestnut(Castanopsis indica Roxburgh ex Lindley),China-Brime [Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai; P.serotina Rehd.] is grown semi-commerciallyin Manipur and other places, grape (Vitisvinifera L.), guava (Psidium guajava L.Links), Himalayan bird cherry [Prunuscornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud.], ichangpapeda (Citrus ichagensis Swingle),

Indian crab apple (Docynia indica Decne.,D. hookeriana Decne.), jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) growsabundantly in Tripura, Khasi papeda (Citruslatipes Hook.f. & Thomson ex Hook.f.),litchi [Litchi chinensis (Gaertn.) Sonne.],low chilling peaches [Prunus persica (L.)Batsch], mandarin (Citrus reticulataBlanco), mango (Mangifera indica L.),mangosteen (Garcinia L. spp.), melon(Cucumis melo L.), papaya (Caricapapaya L.), passion fruit (Passiflora edulisSims) (recent introduction), peach (Prunuspersica Benth & Hook.f.), pear (Pyruscommunis L.), pineapple [Ananas comosus(L.) Merr.], plum (Prunus domestica L.),sour cherry (Prunus cerasoides D.Don) inManipur, sour orange (Citrus aurantium L.),starfruit (Averrhoa carambola L.),strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.).

Beverage, plantation, and othercrops. Arecanut (Areca catechu L., A.nagensis Griff., a rare substitute), blackcardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.),coconut (Cocus nucifera L.) in Tripura,coffee (Coffea arabica L.), dye – Rumexnepalensis Spreng. (roots), Mahonianepalensis DC. ex Dippel (bark), Dichroafebrifuga Lour. (fruits), Symplocosglomerata King ex Gamble (leaves), indigoleaves (Indigofera tinctoria L., I. dosuaWall., I. heterantha Wall.), Bixa orellanaL. (fruits); rubber [Hevea brasiliensis(Willd ex A. Juss.) Mull.Arg.]; sugarcane(Saccharum officinarum L.), tea(Camellia sinensis L.), tobacco (Nicotianatabacum L., N. rustica L.).

Timber. Agar (Aquilaria agallochaRoxb.), alder/utis (Alnus nepalensis


D.Don); arjun (Terminalia arjuna),Artocarpus chama, bahera (Terminaliabellirica Roxb.), chir pine (Pinus roxburghiiSarg., P. wallichiana A.B.Jacks.), gamar(Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm.), garjan(Dipterocarpus turbinatus) in Tripura,Himalayan cypress (Cupressus torulosaD.Don), Himalayan hemlock (Tsugadumosa Eichl.), hollock (Terminaliamyriocarpa van Heurck & Muell.-Arg.),hollong (Dipterocarpus retusus Blume),Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonicaD.Don), koroi/siris (Acacia lebbeckWilld.), red cedar (Toona ciliata M.Roem.),sal (Shorea robusta, S. assamica Dyer),teak (Tectona grandis) – Tripura, walnut(Juglans regia L.).

Bamboos and canes. A number ofspecies of bamboo occur and are cultivatedin the region; the dominant ones are anthibans (Dendrocalamus strictus Nees),Arundinaria callosa Munro, A. hookeriMunro ex Keng, Bambusa kingianaGamble, B. nana Roxb., B. nutans Wall.ex Munro, B. oliveriana Gamble, barak(Bambusa balcooa Roxb.), bari (Bambusapolymorpha Munro), Dendrocalamuscalostachys Kurz., D. giganteus Munro,D. hookeri Munro, D. longifimbriatusGamble, D. sericeus Munro, dolu[Schizostachyum dullooa (Gamble)R.B.Majumdar], kailyai (Gigantochloarostrata K.M.Wong), kanak kaich(Bambusa affinis Munro), lik[Sinarundinaria intermedia (Munro)C.S.Chao & Renvoize], makal (Bambusapallida), mautak (Melocanna baccifera;syn. M. bambusoides), Neomicrocalamusprainii (Gamble) Keng f., paora(Bambusa teres Buch.-Ham.), phar

(Chimonobambusa callosa Nakai),phulrua/pecha (Dendrocalamushamiltonii), rawmi (Dendrocalamussikkimensis Gamble ex Oliv.), rawnalrupai (Dendrocalamus longispathusKurz), rawngal [Schizostachyumcapitatum (Munro) R.B.Majumdar], rawte(Bambusa khasiana Munro), rawthing tial[Gigantochloa albociliata (Munro) Kurz],rawthing/mritinga (Bambusa tuldaRoxb.), sairil [Dinochloa compactiflora(Kurz) McClure], sairil/wadu bamboo(Melocalamus compactiflorus Benth.),Schizostachyum fuchsianum (Gamble)R.B.Majumdar, S. polymorphum (Munro)R.B.Majumdar, Sinarundinaria elegans(Kurz) C.S.Chao & Renvoize, S.griffithiana (Munro) C.S.Chao &Renvoize, S. nagalandiana Naithani, andS. rolloana (Gamble) C.S.Chao &Renvoize. Almost all the species ofbamboos of northeastern India are availablein Manipur. Manipur has bamboo forestsof 11,700 km2, which is 5.7% of the totalarea of the country. In canes, this regionhas the highest diversity with species ofCalamus, Daemonorops, andPlectocomia (Thomas, 2002).

Other economic plants

Minor vegetables. Amaranth(Amaranthus caudatus L., A. viridis L.,A. lividus Hort. Petrop. ex Hook.f., A.retroflexus L., and A. spinosus L.), bambooshoots (Bambusa tulda), Canavaliaensiformis (L.) DC., Clinogyne dichotmaSalisb. (edible tubers), fern [Diplaziumesculentum (Retz.) Sw.], jilmilsag(Chenopodium album L.), kalmou sag(Ipomoea reptans Poir.), Polygonum


alatum Hamilton ex D.Don, P. hydropiperL., sessile joyweed [Alternanthera sessilis(L.) R.Br. ex DC.], Solanum torvumSwartz. (W), Vigna vexillata (L.) A. Rich.,legume-cum-tuber crop in Tripura.

Minor fruits. Burmese grape (Baccaurearamiflora Lour.), chaplaish (Artocarpuschaplasha), chocolate fruit (Diospyroslanceafolia Roxb.), Clausena dentata(Willd.) M. Roemer, C. excavata Burm. f.(fruits edible), elephant apple (Dilleniaindica, Linn), elephant ear fig tree (Ficusauriculata Lour.), fig (Ficus carica L., F.pomifera Wall. ex King), hazelnut (Corylusferox Wallich), kayaphal (Myrica esculentaBuch.-Ham. ex D.Don), khachur (Cornusmacrophylla), lacpche kawala (Machilusedulis King ex Hook.f.), mangosteen[Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex T.Anderson,G. pedunculata Roxb. (large edible fruitsused in curries), G. sopsopia (Buch.-Ham.)Mabb. (fruits edible and stem used as arootstock for mangosteen), G. stipulataT.Anderson, G. xanthochymus Hook.f.],monkey jack (Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb.),mullberry (Morus alba L.), Pegia nitidaColebr., persimmon (Diospyros nigrescens),phalsa (Grewia oppositifolia Roxb.),Prunus napaulensis (Ser.) K.Koch, P. rufaSteud., Pyrularia edulis A.DC., Pyruswattii (Koehne) Bennet, Rubus ellipticusSm., saklang (Elaeocarpus lanceafoliusRoxb.), Salacia roxburghii Wall. (fruitedible), Saurauia cerea Griff. ex Dyer, S.punduana Wall., S. roxburghii Wall. (fruitedible), silverberry (Elaeagnus latifolia L.and E. pyriformis Hook.f.).

Medicinal plants. Agarwood/agor(Aquilaria agallocha), bayleaf/tejpat

(Cinnamomum tamala), Bengal cardamom/van elaichi (Amomum aromaticum),bhandhanya (Eryngium foetidum L.),black myrobalan/harar (Terminaliachebula Retz.), black turmeric/blackzeodory/yaimu (Curcuma caesia Roxb.),chab (Piper brachystachyum Wall.),chireta (Swertia paniculata Wall., S.macrosperma C.B.Clarke), common yew/thuno (Taxus baccata L. var. wallichiana),curculigo (Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.),East Indian arrowroot/yaipal (Cucurmaangustfolia), Flame of the Forest (Buteamonosperma Kuntze), galanga (Alpiniagalanga Willd.), giloe [Tinosporacordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. & Thomson],ginger lily (Hedychium coronariumJ.Koenig), ginseng (Panax schinseng),hadjod [Cissus quadrangula L.; syn. Vitisquadrangula (L.) Wallich ex Wight &Arn.], heimang (Rhus semialata Murr.),Hodgsonia macrocarpa Cogn. (syn.Trichosanthes macrocarpa), Indianberberry (Berberis lyceum Royle, B. feddiiAhrendt., B. micropetala Schneider, B.wardii Schneider), costus (Costusspeciosus Sm.), Indian sichuan pepper(Zanthoxylum rhetsa D.C.), kuthap(Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp.),mango ginger (Curcuma amada Roxb.),moirang khanambi (Clerodendrumserratum Spreng), narrow-leaved Indianmulberry (Morinda angustifolia Roxb.),notoginseng [Panax pseudoginseng(Burkill.) Hoo. & Tseng.]; nux-vomica(Strychnos nux-vomica L .), Rhusjavanica L. , sarpagandha (Rauvolfiaserpentina L.), Smilax lanceaefolia Roxb.,spiked ginger lily (Hedychium spicatumSm.), sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.), wild


turmeric (Curcuma aromatic Salisb.),winged treebean [Vitis quadrangularis (L.)Wall. ex Wight & Arn.], zedoary/kachoora(Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.).

Ornamentals. The native species oforchids usually belong to genera, such asAerides Lour., Arundina Blume,Cymbidium Sw., Dendrobium Sw.,Paphiopedillium Piftzer, Phaius Lour.,Renanthera Lour., and Vanda Jones exR.Br. etc., having ornamental value andmarket potential (Borthakur, 1992). Othercommon ornamental species are: Himalayanflowering dogwood [Benthamidia capitata(Wall.) H. Hara.], ginger lily (Hedychiumcoronarium J.Koenig, H. greenii W.W.Sm.var. urophyllum, H. speciosum Wall.), ixora(Ixora acuminate Roxb., I. undulataRoxb.), jasmine (Jasminum attenuatumRoxb., J. azoricum Hook. & Arn., J. flexileDesf. ex DC., J. lanceolarium Roxb.), palm(Livistona jenkinsiana Griff.), Manipur lily(Lilium mackliniae Sealy), dancing girl(Mantisia saltatoria Sims), Micheliachampaca L. , pinga palm (Pinangagracilis Blume, P. griffithii Becc.), rose[Rosa odorata Sweet (syn. R. giganteaCollett ex Crép.), R. longicuspis Bertol.,R. macrophylla Lindl., R. sericea Lindl.],and orchids – Arachnis labrosa Rchb.f.Bulbophyllum guttulatum (Hook.f.)Balakr., Clesostoma racemiferum,Cymbidium elegans Lindl., Coelogynecorymbosa Lindl., Dendrobiumchrysanthum Wall., D. heterocarpumWall. ex Lindl., D. longicornu Lindl., D.nobile Lindl., D. ochreatum Lindl., D.wardianum Warner, Paphiopedilumhirsutissimum Pfitzer, Pleione maculataLindl. & Paxton, P. praecox D.Don, Red

Vanda (Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe,Rhynchostylis retusa Blume.), Blue Vanda(Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl.) andrhododendron – Rhododendron triflorumHook.f. var. bauhiniflorum (Watt exHutch.) Cullen, R. wattii Cowan, R.formosum Wall., R. johnstoneanum Wattex Hutch., R. macabeanum Watt ex Balf.f.,and R. elliottii Watt. In addition, speciesbelonging to Mannolia, Cassia, Erythrina,Calustemom, Dacasenda, Myrica,Bauhinia, etc. have necessary potential.

Multipurpose species. The commonmultipurpose species are alder (Alnusnepalensis), rudraksh (Elaeocarpusf lor ibundus) , Ficus cunia, phalsa(Grewia opposit i fo l ia) – frui t ,medicinal, castor (Ricinus communis),mulberry (Morus alba L.) – rearingsilkworm, and seed/fruit, Zanthoxylumrhetsa (Roxb.) DC. – essential oil andspice. In parts of Manipur and Mizoram,the tree bean (Parkia roxburghii G.Don.; syn. P. timoriana) is one of themost common multipurpose tree speciesyielding good timber, and also providesedible flowers and pods that are highlyprized (Kumar et al., 2002). In the hillyareas, tree tomato (Cyphomandrabetacca), a perennial shrub producingred tomato-like vegetables, is also grownand used as such. Another tree growingin the lower altitudes is the drumstickor horse-radish, locally called sajina(Moringa olei fera Lam.). Manyorchids have been used as medicinalagents by the tr ibals of Nagaland,Meghalaya, and Mizoram. For example,the juice of the Vanda flower is used aseye drop to cure glaucoma.


Wild relatives of crop species.Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G. Don, A.macrorhiza Schott., Camellia caudata,Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC., C. virosa(Roxb.) Wight & Arn. (Manipur, Mizoram),Citrus jambhiri Lush., C. indica Tanaka,C. macroptera Montrouz., Coffeabengalensis Roxb., Corchorus pseudo-olitorius Islam & Zaid, Cucumishardwickii Royle, C. hystrix Chakrav.,Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb., C. brogValeton, C. comosa Roxb., C. latifoliaRosc., C. sylvatica Valeton, C. soloensisValeton (Ravindran et al., 2005), Diospyroslotus Linn., Dioscorea alata L., D.brevipetiolata Prain & Burkill, D.lepcharum Prain & Burkill, D. pentaphyllaWall., D. decipiens Hook.f., D. hamiltoniiHook.f., D. hispida Dennst., D. lepcharumPrain & Burkill, D. nummularia Lam., D.prazeri Prain & Burkill, D. pubera Blume,D. trinervia Roxb. ex Wall., D. wattii Prain& Burkill) , Dolichos falcatus Klein exWilld., Garcinia cowa Roxb., G.lanceaefolia Roxb., G. spicata Kurz exTalbot, Gossypium arboreum L., Hibiscusfurcatus Roxb., Erianthus ravennaeP.Beauv. (syn. Saccharum ravennae L.),Indigofera dosua Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don.,Himalayan indigo (Indigofera heteranthaBrandis), Leersia hexendra Swartz.(Manipur), Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. , L.graveolens Roxb., Malus baccata (L.)Borkh., Mangifera sylvatica Roxb.,Miscanthus nepalensis Hack., M. nudipes(Griseb.) Hack., M. taylorii Bor, M. wardiiBor (hybridized with Saccharum),Momordica macrophylla Gage, M.subangulata Blume, Mucuna bracteata,Musa acuminata L., M. balbisiana Coll,

M. itinerans Cheesman, M. superba Roxb.(Manipur), M. flaviflora, M. nagensium(Nagaland), Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham.ex D.Don, Narenga fallax (Balansa) Bor(hybridized with Saccharum), Nicotianaexcelsior (J.M. Black), Olea dentata Wall.ex DC., Oryza granulata Nees et Arn. exSteud. (foothills), Phoenix acaulis Buch-Hum., P. robusta Hook.f., P. rupicolaT.Anderson, Piper attenuatum Buch.-Ham. ex Wall., P. aurorubrum C.DC., P.falconeri C.DC., P. hamiltonii C.DC., P.makruense C.DC., P. meeboldii C.DC., P.sylvaticum Roxb., P. wallichii Hand.-Mazz., Prunus acuminata Hook.f., P.arborea (Blume) Kalkman, P. jenkinsiiHook.f., P. undulata Buch.-Ham., Pyruspashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Rumexdentatus Wall., Saccharum longisetosuma(Anderson) V.Naray ex Bor, S. procerumRoxb., S. rufipilum Steud., Sclerostachyafusca A.Camus (hybridized withSaccharum), Solanum khasianumC.B.Clarke, S. bracteatum Thunb., S.kurzii Brace ex Prain, S. spirale Roxb., S.torvum, Sorbus aucuparia L., S. vistita,Trichosanthes cucumerina L. , T.wallichiana Wight, T. bracteata Voigt, T.cordata Roxb., T. himalensis C.B.Clarke,T. tomentosa Chakrav., Vigna capensis(L.) Walp., V. clarkei Prain, Vigna radiata(L.) Wilczek var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc,Ziziphus funiculosa Buch.-Ham. ex M.A.Lawson, Bengal ginger (Zingiber rubensRoxb., Z. casumnar Roxb.) (Arora andNayar, 1984, and others).

Endemic species. The followingeconomically important species have beenreported endemic from the region: Agrostiswardii Bor., Albizia kalkora (Roxb.),


Areca nagenis Griff., Berberis borealisTakeda var. parryii Ahrendt, B. feddiiAhrendt, B. micropetala, B. sublevis var.sublevis, B. wardii, Capparis cinereaJacobs, Carex asraoi D.M.Verma,Cotoneaster nagensis Klotz, Crotalariameeboldii Dunn, Dalbergia wattiiC.B.Clarke, Derris lushaiensis Thoth,Eulalia manipurensis Bor, Hedychiumgratum, H. venustum, Impatienscuspidifera Hook.f., Lilium imacklineaeSealy, Maesa macrophylla Wall. var.magnidentata Nayar, Mahonia magnificaAhrenett, M. roxburghii (DC.) Takeda,Pimpinella evoluta (Clarke) P.K. Mukh.,P. flaccid Clarke, P. nervosa C.B.Clarke,Piper aurorubrum C.DC. (S&M), P.falconeri C.DC., P. liantakanum C.DC.,P. makruense C.DC., P. meeboldii C.DC.,P. muneyporensis C.DC., P. phalagenseC.DC., Rhododendron elliottii Watt exBrandis, R. johnstoneanum Watt exHutchinson, R. macabeanum Watt exBalf.f., R. trifolium Hook.f. var.bauhiniflorum (Watt ex Hutch.) Cullen, R.wattii Cowan, Rhynchosia meeboldiiSatyan. & Thoth., Saussurea nagensisC.E.C. Fischer, Trichosanthes tomentosaChakravarty (Nayar, 1996). Table 1 listssome representative economic plant speciesendemic to the region.

Threatened economic species. Somerepresentative economic species reportedunder threat are: Anoectochilus tetrapterusHook.f., Bulbophyllum rothschildianum(O’Brien) J.J. Smith, Calantheanthropophora Ridley, Capparis cinereaJacobs, Ceropegia angustifolia Wight,Ceropegia arnottiana Wight, Ceropegialucida Wall., Dendrobium auranticum

Rchb.f., Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. exGriseb., Diplomeris hirsuta (Lindl.) Lindl.,D. pulchella D. Don, Elaeocarpusprunifolius (C. Muell.) Mast., Ixonanthuskhasiana Hook.f., Lagerstroemiaminuticarpa Debberm. ex P.C. Kanjilal,Lilium macklineae Sealy, Magnoliagriffithii Hook.f. & Thoms., M. gustaviKing, Mangifera khasiana Pierre,Pachylarnax pleiocarpa Dandy,Paphiopedilum spicerianum (Rchb.f. exMasters & T.Moore) Pfitz., P. venustum(Wall.) Pfitz. ex Stein, P. villosum (Lindl.)Stein, P. wardii Summerh., Papilionanthevandarum (Rchb. f.) Garay (= Aeridesvandarum Rchb. f.), Phoenix rupicola,Picea brachytyla (Franch.) Pritzel var.complanata (Masters) Cheng ex Rehder,Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe,Rhododendron elliottii, R. formosumWall., R. johnstoneanum, R. wattii, andVanda coerulea (Nayar, 1996). Citrusindica and C. macroptera are the wildendangered species of Citrus occurring innortheastern India, including Mizoram(Malik et al., 2006). Recently, Singh andSingh (2009) reported that 14 plant speciesof medicinal value, sweet flag (Acoruscalamus L.), agarwood/agor (Aquilariaagollocha), Flame of the Forest (Buteamonosperma), bayleaf/tejpat(Cinnamomum tamala), kuthap(Clerodendrum colebrookianum),moirang khanambi/bharangi(Clerodendrum serratum Spreng.), EastIndian arrowroot/yaipal (Curcumaangustifolia), black zeodoary/yaimu(Curcuma caesia), ginger lily (Hedychiumcoronarium), spiked ginger lily (Hedychiumspicatum Sm.), ginseng (Panax schinseng),


Table 1. Representative agriculturally important species endemic to the NortheasternHills: Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura.

Species Family Habit Distribution Use

Albizia kalkora Mimosaceae Tree Nagaland and Wild genetic resourceJaintia hills

Areca nagensis Arecaceae Tree Nagaland Masticatory, solitaryplant at the IndianBotanical Garden

Berberis feddii BerberidaceaeShrub Manipur hills; Medicinal, golden2500 m yellow flower

Berberis micropetala BerberidaceaeShrub Naga hills Medicinal, white flowerBerberis sublevis BerberidaceaeShrub Manipur hills; Medicinalvar. sublevis 1,500–2,500 mCarex asraoi Cyperaceae Herb Nagaland ForageCotoneaster nagensisRosaceae Shrub Naga hills Cane, used for making

basketsDalbergia watii Fabaceae Tree Manipur Wood, used for fuelImpatiens cuspidifera Balsaminaceae Herb Nagaland OrnamentalDerris lushaiensis Fish poisonLilium mackinliae Liliaceae Bulbous Narrow endemic, Pinkish white flowers,

herb found in the eastern “Shirhoy Lily”; leavesborder area of Manipurused to treat skin disease

Maesa macrophylla Myrsinaceae Large Nagaland Source of light woodvar. magnidentata shrubMahonia magnifica BerberidaceaeSmall tree Manipur hills Medicinal, with yellow

flowersMahonia roxburghii BerberidaceaeShrub Manipur hills MedicinalPiper aurorubrum Piperaceae Climbing Manipur Spice and medicine, as

shrub uterine stimulantRhododendron elliottiiEricaceae Small treeNaga and Manipur hillsMultipurposeRhododendron Ericaceae Shrub Manipur and Multipurposejohnstoneanum Lushai hillsRhododendron Ericaceae Tree Manipur and Multipurposemacabeanum Naga hillsRhododendron Ericaceae Shrub Manipur; Multipurposetriflorum var. 2,450–2,750 mbauhiniflorumRhododendron wattii Ericaceae Shrub or Manipur; Multipurpose

small tree 2,700–3,000 mSaussurea nagensis Asteraceae Herb Naga hills, Medicinal

NagalandTrichosanthes CucurbitaceaeScandent Naga hills, Wild genetictomentosa herb Nagaland resource


sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina),heimang (Rhus semialata Murr.), commonyew (Taxus baccata L. var. wallichiana;thuno), available in Manipur, have beenlisted by the International Union for theConservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN) as endangered species.Table 2 lists some economic plant speciesreported to be under threat.

Associated cultureNortheastern India in general, and theNortheastern Hills in particular, are abouquet full of unique treasures of MotherNature, least explored and the mostpristine. Besides, being the most enrichedregion of flora and fauna, and distinctculture, it is home to various indigenoustribal communities belonging to the Austro-Asiatic linguistic family. It is predominantlyinhabited by Mongoloid, Indo-Mongoloidand Austric races, with the influence ofAryan culture and both Hindu and Christianreligions. For example, Nagaland only hasover 20 tribes, the largest being theKonyaks, then the Aos, Tangkhuls, Semas,Angamis, etc. Over time, these tribesremained relatively isolated from each other,and even today do not view themselves asone unified people. Despite this, they doshare common cultural characteristics thathelp to create the loose, generic culture,which may be referred as “Nagalandculture”. The tribes associated withagriculture are Airnol, Anal, Angami, Mao,Any Mizo, and Gongte in Manipur; Kuki,Nagas, Angami, and Kachan in Nagaland;Bhil, Bhim, Chakma, Kuki, and Khasia inTripura; and Lushais in Mizoram. Themajor tribal communities of the region are:

Angami tribal community: Angami is oneof the major tribal communities ofNagaland. Angamis are also found inManipur. They have a huge population of12 million. Their main occupation isagriculture. Every year they produce nearabout 20 varieties of paddy. Another majoroccupation of the Angamis is wood carving.Angami men are excellent craftsmen andmasons, whereas women are expertweavers. Most of the Angami people followChristianity.

Rengma tribal community: Rengma isanother Naga tribal community. Thiscommunity is found in both Nagaland andAssam. The Rengma community has a totalpopulation of nearly 51,000 in entireNagaland. Rengmas are divided into thesubcategories of Eastern Rengmas andWestern Rengmas. They are expert terracecultivators.

Lushais tribal community: Lushais arethe aboriginal tribal community of Mizoram.Lushais are one of the major subgroups ofthe Mizos. They mostly inhabit the northLushai hills and some parts of Assam andManipur. These people are engaged in thecollection of forest products and basketpreparation. They follow Christianity.

Riang tribal community: Riang is a tribalcommunity of Tripura. The Riangs mainlyreside in the North and South Tripura districtsand are engaged in jhum cultivation. Theyhave a distinct culture and tradition and payhomage to 14 gods and goddess of theTripura state.

Tribals have maintained and conserved thegenetic diversity of wild and less-known


Table 2. Representative agriculturally important species under threat in theNortheastern Hills: Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura.

Species1 Family Habit Threat level2 Use

Anacolosa densiflora Oleaceae Tree R Wood for toys and postsCapparis cinerea* Capparidaceae Shrub I Fruit, genetic resourceCeropegia lucida* Asclepiadaceae Twiner EN/EX OrnamentalCitrus indica Rutaceae Tree or shrub EN Fruit, genetic resourceC. macroptera Rutaceae Tree or shrub EN Fruit, genetic resourceDendrobium Orchidaceae Herb VU Epiphyte, ornamentalauranticum*Dioscorea deltoidea* Dioscoreaceae Herbaceous EN Medicinal, tubers rich in

climber saponin, used for washingElaeocarpus Elaeocarpaceae Tree VU Edible fruitprunifolius*Ixonanthus khasiana*Ixonanthaceae Tree VU Wood for cabinet makingLilium mackinliae* Liliaceae Herb EN OrnamentalMagnolia gustavii Magnoliaceae Tree VU OrnamentalMangifera khasiana AnacardiaceaeTree I Wild, genetic resourcePaphiopedilum Orchidaceae Herb CR Ornamentalspicerianum*Papilionanthe Orchidaceae Epiphytic herb I OrnamentalvandarumPhoenix rupicola* Arecaceae Tree CR Wild, farinaceous pith

edibleRenanthera Orchidaceae Epiphyte VU in Ornamentalimschootiana* Mizoram

andNagaland

Rhododendron elliottii Ericaceae Tree or shrub VU MultipurposeRhododendron Ericaceae Shrub VU MultipurposeformosumRhododendron Ericaceae Shrub R MultipurposejohnstoneanumRhododendron Ericaceae Shrub or tree EN Multipurposetriflorum var.bauhiniflorumRhododendron wattii Ericaceae Shrub or tree EN MultipurposeVanda coerulea* Orchidaceae Epiphytic herb CR Ornamental

1. * = Also listed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Governtment of India.2. CR = Critically endangered; EN = Endangered; EX = Possibly extinct from wild;

I = Indeterminate; R = Rare; VU = Vulnerable.


crop species in their baris (lands attachedto their houses and huts), kitchen gardensand in their backyard fields. Some examplesof such cultivated crops are Piperpeepuloides, Parkia roxburghii, Vignaumbellata, Inula racemosa Hook. f., Coixlacryma-jobi, and Digitaria cruciata var.esculanta Bor. Tribal communities cultivateseveral species of Alocasia,Amorphophallus, Colocasia, andDioscorea in their backyard home gardens.Another dimension for assuring the securityof agrobiodiversity is the swidden farmingadopted by the Angami tribal community ofNagaland. This involves the cultivation of15 to 30 crop species in the same plot ofland after jhum forest clearing. This isalso called the “female farming system”as the women folk of the village areinvolved in sowing, manuring, weeding,seed selection, harvesting, and storage(Raju and Sarin, 2001).

Technology and productsThe farmers of the region have developedseveral technologies and practices ininteraction with the landscape to facilitateconservation and effective use of naturalresources, and cultivation of economic plantspecies to meet their diverse demands of

food and nutrition. The zabo farming systemof Nagaland combines water conservationwith forestry, animal care, and agriculture.Under this system, as the water runs alongthe slope, it passes through various terracesand gets collected in pond-like structures inthe middle terraces; below are the cattleyards, and towards the foothills are paddyfields, where the runoff water ultimatelymeanders into. Cheo-ozihi is anotherirrigation system practiced in Kwigwmavillage, bringing river water through longchannels. From these channels, manybranch channels take the water to terracesthrough bamboo pipes. Cheo is the personresponsible for laying the channels. Thevillage water budget is shared amongvillagers. In addition, the farmer’s practiceof irrigation using water channels controlledby bamboo sticks, for plantation crops suchas coffee, tea, and cardamom, facilitatingthe efficient use of water and ensuringuninterrupted water supply. The aldersystem is another good example, where amultipurpose tree has been exploited inagroforestry for sustaining the soil fertilityin addition to other economic potential.Alnus nepalensis is also planted alongmargins of farms for increasing the soilfertility in lands that are under shiftingcultivation.

The diverse altitude and climatic conditionsand topography of the region have been ableto support cultivation of a large number ofdomesticated plant species, generating aspectrum of genetic variability under naturalor farmer’s selection pressures. Thelandraces of rice from the region haveshown variability for short stature, gall midgeresistance, waxy endosperm, etc. Latisail,

The tribes associated with agricultureare Airnol, Anal, Angami, Mao, AnyMizo, and Gongte in Manipur; Kuki,

Nagas, Angami, and Kachan inNagaland; Bhil, Bhim, Chakma,Kuki, and Khasia in Tripura; and

Lushais in Mizoram.


a landrace collected from Tripura, has beenused along with the landraces fromIndonesia, namely Intan, Mas, and Peta, andthe Chinese variety ‘Cina’ Peta, as one ofthe parents in the development of IR 8, oneof the outstanding varieties released fromIRRI (International Rice Research Institute).As per one estimate, more than 80% of thesemi-dwarf varieties grown in tropical Asiahave Latisail germplasm, reflecting theoutstanding contribution of the region toworld agriculture.

In grain legumes, the region is known forseveral wild forms and high variability in ricebean (Vigna umbellata), with profusebranching types reported from Mizoram andManipur; higher seeds per pod fromMizoram; higher number of pods perpeduncle, bold seeds and high grain yieldfrom Manipur; higher polymorphism has alsobeen recorded in local landraces for seedcolor. Landraces with a rare uniform lightgreen color occur in the Mao hills.Additionally, Vigna radiata var. sublobatais known for yellow mosaic virus resistance,whereas V. umbellata var. radiata is knownfor resistance to diseases and insect pests.Another interesting species, V. vexillata isgrown by the tribals of Tripura. It is alegume-cum-tuber crop with much variationin edible tubers (Arora and Pandey, 1996).In French bean, climbing or pole type ispopular among the tribals, since it is usedfor mixed cropping with maize, which actsas the support. Jack bean [Canavaliaensiformis (L.) DC.] is also cultivated on alimited scale (CSIR, 1950) whereas, wingedbean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) isconfined to the humid subtropical parts ofthe region (Sarma, 2001). The region is also

known for genetic diversity in the case ofoilseed crops, where significant variabilityhas been recorded in Indian mustard,maximum variability in sesame, and coldtolerance types in case of niger.

The region, because of its diverse landscape,has its own unique combination of livingspecies, habitats, and ecosystems, whichtogether make up its rich resource diversity,especially in horticultural crops, which aremainly managed by local farmers, oftenwomen. Considerable diversity exists amongthe regional horticultural species, particularlyfor plant type, morphological andphysiological characteristics, reactions todiseases and pests, adaptability anddistribution. Apart from the nutritional value,many regional horticultural crops are usedfor medicinal purposes, generating incomeand helping in the poverty alleviationprograms in the rural areas.

In vegetables, the region is part of theprimary center of diversity for cucumber(Cucumis sativus). In addition, wildrelatives of several cucurbits have also beenreported from the region with significantgenetic variability, such as Cucumishardwickii, C. hystrix, Luffa graveolens,Momordica cochinchinensis,Trichosanthes ovata, T. khasiana, etc.(Sirohi et al., 2005) providing a reservoir ofuseful genes. In solanaceous vegetables, theregion is very rich in diversity for Solanummelongena, with several varieties havingexcellent quality of soft flesh, less seeds andlarge fruit size. Additionally, wild species,such as S. torvum, S. indicum, S.khasianum, etc., occur in the region.Solanum khasianum is an important


species of medicinal value (solasodinecontent) and so is S. torvum, extensivelyused in the Ayurvedic medicine system.These species have also been found topossess resistance to shoot and fruit borer,and root diseases respectively (Kalloo et al.,2005). Three tomato varieties namelyManileima, Manikhamnu and Manithoibi,developed using local landraces, werereleased by the State Variety ReleaseCommittee, Manipur, and found suitable forrice-based cropping systems. Lycopersiconpimpinellifolium, naturalized to this region,has also expressed resistance to late blightand tomato leaf curl virus (Seshadri andSrivastava, 2002). The local tribals grow avegetable having red tomato-like fruitsslightly bitter in taste, but related to the brinjaland belonging to the genus Solanum. InManipur, another kind of brinjal, havingroundish fruit and intermediate in appearancebetween tomato and brinjal, is grown. Chilisare known to grow well in the warm to hotand humid climate of Manipur, Mizoram,Nagaland, and Tripura. Due to the longhistory of cultivation, outcrossing, andpopularity of the crop, large genetic diversityhas evolved in the form of a number of locallandraces, with great variability for fruitshape, size, color, and bearing; semi-perennial and perennial habit; and pungency.

In spices, the region is known for variabilityin Piper nigrum, and in turmeric varietieslike Megha turmeric-1 (earlier known asRCT-1) and ginger variety Nadia werefound suitable for the region. Lakadong is aturmeric variety found in this region withhigh curcumin content (7.4%). A unique typeof ginger having rhizomes with a bluish-black tinge inside, called black ginger, is

grown by the inhabitants of Mizoram. Wildrelatives of large cardamom and cinnamonare available in the forests of this region.

Among tropical fruits, the region harbors asignificant amount of variability in the caseof mango, with the dwarf and late-maturingpolyembryonic type cultivar, Moresh, whichbears sweet fruit with high pulp content andstarts fruiting within 2 years from planting,and is free from stone weevil. Additionally,species like Mangifera sylvatica are alsonatural to the region. Being the home ofseveral Citrus species, Citrus indica, C.macroptera, C. aurantium, and C.reticulata, the region presents rich geneticdiversity (Bhattacharya and Dutta, 1956). TheIndian wild orange C. indica is found in theNaga Hills, whereas, lemon (C. limon) isknown with a large number of traditionalcultivars, such as Hill lemon, Assam lemon,Nepali oblong, etc. In addition, a large numberof other tropical and subtropical minor fruitsbelonging to the genera Garcinia,Artocarpus, Phyllanthus, Annona,Averrhoa, Persea, Aegle, Passiflora, etc.are found growing wild in the region. One ofthe indigenous fruits that require attention isjackfruit, which grows abundantly in Tripura.

Among temperate fruits, the locally availablespecies, such as Malus baccata is widely

In vegetables, the region is part of theprimary center of diversity for

cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Inaddition, wild relatives of severalcucurbits have also been reportedfrom the region with significant

genetic variability.


used as rootstock of apple, while Pyruspashia is a common rootstock of pear.Pyrus pyrifolia is grown semi-commerciallyin Manipur and other places. Two speciesof silverberry, Elaegnus latifolia and E.pyriformis, are known to grow in this regionand are edible and used for making arefreshing drink (Pandey, 2002). The fruitsof Docynia indica and D. hookeriana,acidic, greenish with a red-tinge, are eatenfresh and used in pickles, as well as in jellypreparations.

The region is very rich in floristic diversity,particularly orchids, which may be used topromote floriculture. Some of the prizedorchids occurring in this region are RedVanda, Blue Vanda, Slipper orchids, andJewel orchids. Further, the local communitiesof the region have generated rich knowledgeabout the medicinal value of a large numberof indigenous plants. For example, Singh andSingh (2008) have listed around 100 plantswith medicinal value from Manipur alone.This needs experimentation and laboratorytesting for validation of the reported potentialto facilitate promotion of their use on agreater scale and their integration in povertyalleviation programs.

Future perspectiveDespite the availability of indigenoustechnologies for conservation ofbioresources, the Northeastern Hill regionis becoming increasingly deforested anddenuded due to shifting cultivation andoverexploitation of resources. Biotic andabiotic interferences have caused furtherdegradation to natural resources such assoil, water, and forests, to the extent that

the flow of rivers becomes destructive duringthe monsoon due to flooding, and due toinsufficient water during dry seasons.Vegetation has a great effect on soil lossdue to runoff. Therefore, soil conservationmeasures and afforestation need to beimplemented immediately to control thedamage caused by excessive runoff. Thismay help reverse the trend of decliningrainfall in the last 10 years due to continuousdeforestation.

There is rampant destruction of forestlandsdue to shifting cultivation (jhum), which isalso causing a tremendous loss of speciesand agrobiodiversity. While the region isrich in species diversity, it is known formany alternative plant sources for food,fuel, forage, medicine, etc. Therefore, thereis a need for a survey of under-utilizedalternative sources of food plants,vegetables, fruits, spices, and medicinalspecies for their further evaluation,domestication, promotion, popularization,and marketing to facilitate regular use. Thiswill help generate new avenues for thefarmers to increase their income withcultivation of well-adopted diverse sourcesof economic value.

Among tropical fruits, the regionharbors a significant amount of

variability in the case of mango, withthe dwarf and late-maturing

polyembryonic type cultivar, Moresh,which bears sweet fruit with high pulp

content and starts fruiting within 2years from planting, and is free from

stone weevil.


The soils of the region are highly acidic; forestproduction on acid soils that are poor in basiccations (Ca, Mg, K) is limited by mineraldeficiencies. The sustained production of theforest ecosystem is closely linked to itsnutrient cycle, particularly in the tropicalregions where a greater percentage ofnutrients are contained in the biomass. Theburning of forest residues practiced duringland clearing is leading to considerable nutrientloss from the ecosystem (Toky andRamakrishna, 1981). Therefore, sustainedforest productivity requires the use oftechniques which reduce nutrient export,increase nutrient accumulation in the biomass,increase efficiency of nutrient absorption andutilization and conservation of water in thesystem. Despite the best efforts of the localpeople with innovative practices, only about18% of the ultimate capacity for providingwater to the land is being used. The irrigationpotential is much larger than the achieved;therefore, greater research efforts are neededto improve the use of water resources. It mayrequire refinement of indigenous knowledgeadopted in the production systems on the basisof the latest know-how, with the participationof the local people for identifying the problemsof resource degradation, and constraints andopportunities available for sustainablemanagement of resources.

Despite being the rich horticulturalbiodiversity heritage site, favorable factorsand the scope for cultivation of horticulturalcrops, horticulture has not gained the desiredmomentum in the region. Horticultural cropscan generate substantial marketable surplusfor which adequate processing facility isnecessary for value-addition and commercialtrading. Therefore, there is a need forcreation of storage, processing, andmarketing facilities. There is enough scopefor increasing farm returns through value-addition, and by use of efficient postharvestmanagement practices, processing, andstorage of produce and products.

References

Arora RK and Nayar ER. 1984. Wild Relativesof Crop Plants of India. National Bureau of PlantGenetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi, India.88 pp.

Arora RK and Pandey Anjula. 1996. Wild EdiblePlants of India: Diversity, Conservation and Use.National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources(NBPGR), New Delhi, India. 294 pp.

Bhattacharya SC and Dutta S. 1956.Classification of Citrus Fruits of Assam. ICARMonograph No. 20. ICAR, New Delhi, India.

Borthakur Dhirendra Nath. 1992. Agricultureof the North Eastern Region with SpecialReference to Hill Agriculture. Beecee Prakashan,Guwahati, Assam, India. pp. 47–58.

Soil conservation measures andafforestation need to be implementedimmediately to control the damage

caused by excessive runoff. This mayhelp reverse the trend of decliningrainfall in the last 10 years due to

continuous deforestation.

Horticultural crops can generatesubstantial marketable surplus for

which adequate processing facility isnecessary for value-addition and

commercial trading.


CSIR. 1950. The Wealth of India. Vol. II. Councilof Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), NewDelhi, India.

Edison S, Velayudhan KC, Easwari Amma CS,Pillai Santha V, Mandal BB, Sheela MN, VimalaB, Unnikrishnan M, and Hussain Z. 2005. Tropicalroot and tuber crops. In: Plant Genetic Resources:Horticultural Crops (Dhillon BS, Tyagi RK, SaxenaS, and Randhawa GJ, eds.). Narosa PublishingHouse, New Delhi, India. pp. 228–250.

Gokhle AM, Zeliang DK, Kevichusa R, AngamiT, and Bendangnugsang S. 1985. The Use ofAlder Tree. State Council of Education Research& Training, Government of Nagaland, Kohima,India. 20 pp.

Kalloo G, Srivastava U, Singh M, and Kumar S.2005. Solanaceous vegetables. In: Plant GeneticResources: Horticultural Crops (Dhillon BS, TyagiRK, Saxena S, and Randhawa GJ, eds.). NarosaPublishing House, New Delhi, India. pp. 19–33.

Kumar Sunil K, Suresh VR, Nagachen SV, andSingh Th. Raghumani. 2002. Tree bean: apotential multipurpose tree. Indian Horticulture,Oct–Dec 2002, pp. 10–11.

Malik S, Chaudhury R, Dhariwal O, and KaliaR. 2006. Collection and characterization ofCitrus indica Tanaka and C. macropteraMontr.: Wild endangered species of north-eastern India. Genetic Resources and CropEvolution 53:1485–1493.

Mittermeier RA, Gil PR, Hoffmann M, PilgrimJ, Brooks T, Mittermeier CG, Lamoreux J, andDa Fonseca GAB. 2004. Hotspots Revisited:Earth’s Biologically Richest and MostEndangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Cemex Bookson Nature, USA.

Nayar MP. 1996. Hot spots of endemic plants ofIndia, Nepal and Bhutan. Tropical BotanicGarden and Research Institute, Palode,Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. 252 pp.

Pandey G. 2002. Popularizing under exploitedfruits for consumption. Indian Horticulture, Oct–Dec 2002, pp. 18–21.

Raju Manju and Sarin Madhu. 2001. Earthscapes:May 20, 2001, Livelihoods. (http://www.thehindu.com/folio/fo0105/01050180.htm)

Ramakrishnan PS. 1992. Shifting Agricultureand Sustainable Development: AnInterdisciplinary Study from North-Eastern India.UNESCO-MAB Series, Paris, France. ParthenonPublishers, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK. 424 pp.(Republished by Oxford University Press, NewDelhi, India, 1993.)

Ravindran PN, Babu KN, Peter KV, Abraham J,and Tyagi RK. 2005. Spices. In: Plant GeneticResources: Horticultural Crops (Dhillon BS,Tyagi RK, Saxena S, and Randhawa GJ, eds.).Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, India. pp.190–227.

Sarma BK. 2001. Under utilized crops for hillsand mountain ecosystems. In: Summer Schoolon Agriculture for Hills and MountainEcosystem. GB Pant Institute of HimalayanEnvironment and Development, Almora,Uttarakhand, India. pp. 308–314.

Sehgal JL, Mandal DK, Mandal C, and VadiveluS. 1992. Agro-ecological Regions of India.NBSS& LUP Technical Bulletin No. 24. 2nd

Edition. National Bureau of Soil Survey and LandUse Planning, Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India. 130 pp.

Seshadri S and Srivastava Umesh. 2002. Evaluationof vegetable genetic resources with specialreference to value addition. In: Proceedings ofInternational Conference on Vegetables, 11–14November 2002, at Bangalore, Karnataka. Prem NathAgricultural Science Foundation, Bangalore,Karnataka, India. pp. 41–62.

Sharma UC and Prasad RN. 1994. PotentialIndigenous Farming Systems of North-Eastern


Hill Region. ICAR Research Complex for NEHRegion, Shillong, Meghalaya, India. 48 pp.

Sharma UC and Singh KA. 1994. Agriculturewith alder – a potential indigenous farmingsystem of Nagaland. In: Proceedings of theNational Seminar on Developments in SoilScience, 28 Nov to 1 Dec 1994, ICAR, New Delhi,India. ICAR, New Delhi, India. pp. 570–571.

Singh Anurudh K and Varaprasad KS. 2008.Criteria for identification and assessment of agro-biodiversity heritage sites: evolving sustainableagriculture. Current Science 94(9):1131–1138.

Singh MS and Singh NR. 2008. Plants used astraditional medicine in Manipur. Asian Agri-History 12(2):153–156.

Singh NR and Singh MS. 2009. Wild medicinalplants of Manipur included in the Red List. AsianAgri-History 13(3):221–225.

Sirohi PS, Kumar Gunjeet, Munshi AD, andBehera TK. 2005. Cucurbits. In: Plant GeneticResources: Horticultural Crops (Dhillon BS, TyagiRK, Saxena S, and Randhawa GJ, eds.). NarosaPublishing House, New Delhi, India. pp. 34–58.

Thomas Sunny. 2002. wikieducator.org/Bamboo_and_Rattan/Rattan/Course-1_Unit-3

Toky OP and Ramakrishna PS. 1981. Runoffand infiltration losses related to shiftingagriculture (Jhum) in North Eastern India.Environmental Conservation 8:313–321.

Documents

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India ... · National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site, due to its location in the lowland– highland transitional zone,