ABSTRACT

The idea that architecture is a cultural entity has long been denied by various designerswithin the field of Computer Aided Architectural Design (CAAD). They rather prefer todescribe architectural design as a unity of intuitive accidental processes. Their designstrategies strictly follow the software programs, which are not produced for architecturalpurposes in general. As a result of these, within the limits of the software, they tend to pro-duce architectural artifacts by means of the translation of data into meaningful form. Oneof the most significant consequences is that, this process extends the production line fromthe represented idea to the actual field, and closes the gap between the design and the pro-duction phases in architecture. However, as opposed to this popular idea of the early years,today design strategies and methods of CAAD has been transforming from the intuitivenotions to the cultural or the intentional one. After making a short history, which isgrounded onto the intuitive nature of the CAAD, pioneers of this movement has urged torenew their notions. One of the most significant examples of this situation is Greg Lynn.In his paper Calculated Variations in the catalogue of the exhibition Architectures NonStandard (Centre Pompidou-2003), he announces the end of an entry-level response tonew digital techniques and proposes to start concentrating on cultural means in architec-tural design in addition to his former intuitive design period. On the bases of these, thisstudy proposes to concentrate on the problems of intuition in Computer Aided Architec-tural Design in architecture with reference to Greg Lynn’s paper Calculated Variationsand, modifications of his design strategy by means of his former and later design phases.Furthermore, in reference to Allan Colquhoun, Lynn’s paper is taken as a case for the cri-tique of reductionism in architectural design.

Keywords: Intuition, CAAD, Calculated Variations, Scientific Reductionism

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PROBLEMS OF INTUITION IN COMPUTER AIDEDARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Ülkü ÖztenFaculty of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, Turkeyoztenu@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION

In painting, auto design or any other field that has an expert discourse about form,meaning and performance, at the moment a new technique arises, it becomes theexclusive subject of discussion for the first few years. Once the ability for thattechnique to produce effects in a given discipline has been discovered, oftenthrough automatic processes and happy accidents, then the next task for the fieldis to begin to reproduce those effects with rigor accompanied by an aesthetic,social, cultural and technical discourse. This exhibition announces the end of theformer and the beginning of the later. Working by happy accident for perpetuitydoes not work; once you do something by accident then you have to do it by inten-tion the next time. (Lynn, 2003, 90)

In his one of the most recent exhibition paper Calculated Variations Greg Lynnannounced that because his technique is now on the verge of a consciousnessaccompanied by an aesthetic, social, cultural and technical discourse; manifest-ed intuitive processes as parts of a learning exercise and a pseudo-scientism wasleft behind. With his essay therefore Greg Lynn accepts that architecture is morethan a smoothly processed algorithmic conclusion, yet rather a cultural product.As grounded onto this shifting point this study focuses on Greg Lynn’s formerand later design phases.

With these regards at the initial parts of this study and as a base for the generalframework, problems of intuition will be discussed as one of the most vital partof the CAAD discourse and design methodology. Then roots of generic algorith-mic forms and their contemporary architectural formal responses under the guid-ance of high-end computer software will be introduced. Then by followingLynn’s essay Calculated Variations, former and later phases in his design strate-gy will be clarified. Because declaration of this two-folded strategy is so new, fol-lowing Eisenman’s criticism dangers of the earlier situation will be exemplified.In that sense because Greg Lynn uses the scientific variation method for provid-ing geometric description of variable deformation in architectural form, D’ArcyThompson’s scientific variation method will be analyzed by means of an entire-ly smooth and curvilinear former design phase. Then, as a significant case for theclarification of the later phase in Lynn’s design strategy, Art Nouveau with itsnon-Euclidean and cultural means will be examined.

Problems of Intuition

Following the article Typology and Design Method written by Alan Colquhoun inJune 1967, this study argues that problem of intuition consists of a tensionbetween the two contradictory ideas: biotechnical determinism, and free expres-sion (Colquhoun, 1967, 46). It is an outcome of the involuntary decisions thatemerges at the end of the processes of the pure technological design approacheswhich are grounded onto the solid determinisms.Yet, our senses of place and rela-

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tionship are not dependent on any objective fact that is measurable; they are phe-nomenal. As such, in short, intuition can be described as a vacuum that is creat-ed by the exclusion of cultural means from the design processes (Colquhoun,1967, 46). In the article, Colquhoun criticizes the idea that as a result of the indus-trial age production process has radically changed and craftsmanship becameless necessary. After arguing that there need to be developed a more comprehen-sive method to understand and solve the complexity of problems in the field ofdesign methodology, he proposes to reinvestigate the aesthetic realm (Colquhoun,1967, 43). Then, Colquhoun compares his view as opposed to the mainstreamcriticisms that suggest the conflict between craft and science in architectural pro-duction. On the bases of these, he reinterprets the craftsmanship as a case fortypological processes which are focusing on tradition, habit, and imitation. Then,he argues about the exchange value generated by the process of the craftsmanshipas the key element to construct system of communication within society(Colquhoun, 1967, 43). In the light of these, Colquhoun proposes that “in spite ofthe scientific method, we must still attribute social or iconic values to the prod-ucts of technology and recognize that they play an essential role in the generationand development of the physical tools of our environment.”

Besides the argument that is summarized on the above Colquhoun brings forwardthe main sources of the contrary views. The first one of those is the theory ofbiotechnical determinism which is known as the origin of scientific methods ofanalysis and classification (Colquhoun, 1967, 45). Then, he comments on theidea of biotechnological determinism by pointing out the unconscious and teleo-logical process as defined by the Spencerian evolutionary theory (Colquhoun,1967, 45). Subsequently, he underlines that, on behalf of the functional doctrineof modern architecture, the main idea as adopted from the two theories is that“architectural form as something which was achieved without the consciousinterference of the designer but as something which nonetheless was postulatedas his ultimate purpose” (Colquhoun, 1967, 45). On that point, Colquhoun notesthat “the literature of modern architecture is full of statements which indicate thatafter all the known operational needs have been satisfied, there is still a wide areaof choice in the final configuration”, and gives the example of the two designerswho use mathematical methods to arrive at architectural solutions. Then, heclaims that “purely teleological [or unconscious] doctrine of technico-aestheticforms is not tenable” (Colquhoun, 1967, 46).

On the basis of this assertion this study focuses on the three interrelated issues.First, the study concentrates on the pre technological design process of GregLynn’s Embryological Houses as it was presented by Lynn; second, the studyhighlights Peter Eisenman’s critique as a case for the critique originated by

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Colquhoun discussed above; and the third, in light of these critiques the studyfocuses on the discursive changes in Greg Lynn’s design methodology.

Curved Space

As a result of the non-Euclidean geometry curved space, has affected contempo-rary architectural form creation in the place of the forms derived from discreteEuclidean geometry. On this regard, in relation with the non-linear systems AliRahim at the introduction of the special issue of the AD magazine clarifies thatcontemporary techniques are loop-like structures which have strong impact onarchitectural processes and end products themselves:

Contemporary techniques are part of a complex feedback loop. They produce neweffects which act on or influence an object, affecting human behavior and techni-cal performance […] Contemporary techniques thus constitute the beginning andthe end, of the loop, which is perpetuated and proliferated by technology. (Rahim,2002, 5-8)

On the bases of these, it can be useful to remember the differences of the twokinds of geometry under the category of Euclidean and, non-Euclidean: the termnon-Euclidean geometry describes both hyperbolic and elliptic geometry, whichis contrasted with Euclidean geometry. It can be stated that the essential differ-ence between Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry is the nature of parallellines. As in (Figure 1), in Euclidean geometry, the two lines are constantly paral-lel, while in non-Euclidean geometry, however, they either curve away [hyperbol-ic] from each other or curve toward [elliptic] each other and eventually intersect(Stewart, 2001).

In the first pages of her book The Fourth Dimension: and Non-Euclidean Geom-etry and the liberating effect of the invention of the curved space onto the earlytwentieth century modern art:

The two types of non-Euclidean geometry (deriving either from alternatives to theparallel postulate or from questions of congruence) shared a critical and provoca-tive idea: the possibility of curved space. The suggestions that space beyond ourimmediate perceptions might be curved or that the appearance of objects movingabout in an irregularly curved space might change had a natural appeal to earlymodern artists. The existence of curved space would necessarily invalidate the lin-

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Figure 1. Representation of Hyperbolic, Euclidean and Elliptic Geometry

ear perspective system, whose dominance since the Renaissance was being chal-lenged by the end of the nineteenth century. (Henderson, 1983, 6)

As a base for discussing contemporary calculus-based non-standard intricateforms in architecture, we need to be familiar with the mathematical models ofthese two types of curvatures that are defined above. On this basis, as shownbelow in (Figure 2), the first alternative to Euclid’s fifth postulate which is calledparallel postulate leads to the hyperboloid geometry [negative curvature] devel-oped by the Russian N. I. Lobachevsky in 1826 independently by the HungarianJanos Bolyai in 1832. The second alternative leads to the elliptic geometry [pos-itive curvature] developed by the German Bernhard Riemann in 1854.

In that sense, it can be stated that, theclear effect of this two types of algorith-mic curvatures which were defined andmodeled in the early 19th century onto thecomputerized gestaltic organizationsshould not be neglected. As a part of thisatmosphere, yet different than that of themathematical openings of curved spacethe term curvilinearity seems to be impor-tant for the expression of the formal char-acteristics of these inventions within thefield of art and aesthetic. These can alsobe traced from the definition of the curvi-linear:

Curvilinear: Consisting of, or contained by, a curved line or lines; having the formof a curved line. (Opposed to rectilinear and in Gothic Archit. to perpendicular, asapplied to window-tracery.) Hence curvilinearity is the state of being curvilinear.(Oxford English Dictionary)

Because state of being curvilinear seems to be the most critical architectural qual-ity in creating generic algorithmic forms in CAAD design in general and in GregLynn’s design specifically, in the next part, autonomous quality of Greg Lynn’scomputer-based produced curvilinearity effects (Lynn, 2003) and their gestaltorganizations (Mennan, 2003, 8) will be examined.

The Former Phase: Greg Lynn and Curvilinearity Effect

In his essay The Folded, The Pliant and The Supple Greg Lynn seems to set up aglossary of the curvilinearity by giving the definitions of the fold, pliable, plexus,smooth space, supple, viscosity: as well as introducing some important figureslike Edmund Husserl, D’Arcy Thompson, Gilles Deleuze, Spinoza, Rene Thom(Lynn, 1998, 109-134). In this way he constructs scientific and philosophical base

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Figure 2. From Left to Right, BeltramiPseudosphere, as a Hyperboloid Modelof Non-Euclidean Geometry, and Rie-mannian Sphere, as an Elliptic Modelof Non-Euclidean Geometry (Banchoff,1990; Berger & Gostiaux, 1988)

of the non-Euclidean curvilinear geometry dominant in his architecture. Yet, onthe basis of the same study it can be stated that by means of a direct applicationof his variation methods into Lynn’s architectural design processes zoologistD’Arcy Thompson has a privileged over other names.

At the Conference of Growth and Form: the Engineering of Nature, about themore recent influences of D’Arcy Thompson on science and contemporary aes-thetics Ryszard Sliwka states that:

D’Arcy Thompson’s explorations in On Growth and Form was influential in thepositivistic debates crucial to the birth of the early modernism. However it can alsobe seen as a pivotal bridge between the nineteenth century attempts to establish aunity between scientific, aesthetic and spiritual life, and the more recent develop-ments in science, biology and mathematics. (Sliwka, 2001)

D’Arcy Thompson examines such matters as the curve of frequency or bell curvewhich explains variations in height among 10-year-old schoolboys, the florets ofa daisy, the distribution of darts on a cork board, the thickness of stripes along azebra’s flanks, or the shape of mountain ranges and sand dunes. On this basis, thetwo examples which are shown below (Figure 3) exemplify transformation of theprototype baboon skull geometry into skulls of other primates or humans; and ofa frog into Apollo:

In these regards, D’Arcy Thompson and his vari-ation method can be highlighted as the boldestfigure throughout the embodiment of the curvedspace in Greg Lynn’s design terminology. Yetalthough technically they are the same, it is notproper to say that Lynn’s computer generatedalgorithmic form variation processes may easilybe classified as in the same category as D’ArcyThompson’s attempt to reduce biological phe-nomena to mathematics. On the contrary, D’Arcy

Thompson’s variations are from biological phenomenon to mathematics, where-as Greg Lynn’s are from architectural/cultural phenomenon to mathematics.

Shifting point in Lynn’s design strategy is mainly grounded onto this difference.Although in Calculated Variations Lynn recently indicates that architecturaldesign is more than a variation process and criticizes the production of mereprocess (Lynn, 2003); his earlier works indicate that he not only produced mereprocesses but also clearly defended them. At this point, it will be useful toremember a preparatory event towards shifting Lynn’s design line. It is the mem-orable discussion about Embryologic Houses (1998) (Figure 4) between GregLynn and Peter Eisenman which corresponded to Lynn’s earlier phase.

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Figure 3. Darcy Thompson,transformation of frog intoApollo. (Lynn, 1998)

Embryologic Houses project is important for two reasons: first it significantlyexemplifies Greg Lynn’s fundamental design approach which is borrowed main-ly from Henri Bergson and D’Arcy Thompson; and second, it is exactly the mainreason that Peter Eisenman criticizes him. On this basis, following Greg Lynn’swords Embryologic Houses can be described as:

The Embryologic Houses employ a rigorous system of geometrical limits that lib-erate models of endless variations […] This [variation] marks a shift from a mod-ernist, mechanical technique to a more vital, evolving, biological model of embry-ological design and construction. (Lynn, 2000)

The 6th Discussion

As the final meeting of the ANY Conferences, the 6th discussion held at theSolomon Guggenheim Museum in New York City on June 2000. The reason thatthis study links to the 6th Discussion is that it helps to clarify Lynn’s recent posi-tion and underlines one of the crucial problematic between CAD design andArchitecture. In these regards, the spectacular dialogue between Eisenman andLynn in the discussion is this:

- (Eisenman) In this profession we don’t talk to one another anymore…When Gregpresents his work, I want to know what the design principles are that operate in hiswork so that we can have a critical debate.

- (Lynn) I am resistant to talking here.

- (Eisenman) I’m just asking you a question. I’ve asked it in private; I asked it inpublic. How do you chose the one out of 169; how do you know when you’ve got-ten there, and what makes it more than just an illustration of architecture? Whatkind of interiority of the discourse does it have? Just because it shelters does thatmake it architecture?

- (Lynn) No.

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Figure 4. Embryologic Houses, represented as series, (Lynn, 2000)

- (Eisenman) And I’ve asked you in many occasions to tell me how I would knowthat what you do could better or worse.

-(Lynn)[…] In terms of evaluating and picking which one is best, the whole pointis that I don’t want to have to do that. (Anything, 2001: Discussion 6)

Peter Eisenman criticizes dominance of Lynn’s dogmatic positivist approach overthe design process. As constructed in this paper grounding idea under Eisenman’scriticism can be summarized as: if D’Arcy Thompson’s systematic variationmethod is taken as an immense architectural process under the guidance of a soft-ware program for a highly autonomous and smooth continuation of the architec-tural conclusions, the result will only be digitally delayed simultaneous gestaltformations (Mennan, 2003). And for the reason that there is a chosen one, thewhole production strategy of a series is lost. Below (Figure 5) the chosen one aspresented by Greg Lynn.

On these bases, it can be claimed that one ofthe reasons that Greg Lynn changed hisdesign strategy is this kind of critiques thathe was confronted with. On the basis of that,in this paper Alan Colquhoun’s impressiveanalysis and critique will be taken as a focalpoint in solidifying and clarifying Eisen-man’s critique.

Alan Colquhoun in his essay Typology andDesign Method criticizes the reductionisttheory and its problem solution process asthe process of exclusion. On this base andfollowing Colquhoun’s own words, Lynn’sexpressionist attitudes which were dominat-

ed by believing in freedom and intuition those which belong to his former designphase can be criticized as untenable. On this regard, after clarifying that there isa close relationship between the pure functionalist or teleological theory andexpressionism Alan Colquhoun states that:

By insisting on the use of analytical and inductive methods of design, functional-ism leaves a vacuum in the form-making process. This it fills with its own reduc-tionist aesthetic-the aesthetic that claims that intuition, with no historical dimen-sion, can arrive spontaneously at forms which are the equivalent of fundamentaloperations. (Colquhoun, 1986)

In Calculated Variations Lynn makes a self-criticism and calls his designapproach as: former. For the reason that Calculated Variations exemplifies asharp difference in Lynn’s position, before entering into the second part of this

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Figure 5. Embryologic Houses, rep-resented as the chosen one, (Lynn,2000)

study it will be useful to remember its logical self-critical structure. In this shortpaper Greg Lynn confirms that: First, Architecture is more than a smoothlyprocessed algorithmic conclusion. Second, there is already a non-Euclideanshape class through which producing the infinite numbers of gestalt organizationsor effects is possible. Third, within the existence of this formal framework theformer phase of the design strategy is for mastering over the software based for-mal variation techniques to reproduce these effects more smoothly. And fourth,the later phase is for reproducing these effects with rigor accompanied by an aes-thetic, social, cultural and technical discourse.

The Later Phase: Art Nouveau

Lynn’s exploration of the harmonics and proportion of new geometries iscombined with the variation and mutation possible with forms defined bycalculus. These two qualities, mutation and proportion, gives the workdecidedly organic, animistic appearance. The new technologies of undu-lating surfaces are developed with rigor and precision along with a keenawareness of history, including Art Nouveau, Secessionist and Jugendstildesign and architecture. (www.glform.com, 2004)

In the Official web page of Greg Lynn it is underlined that for Lynn awareness ofhistory of form is as important as the calculated form definition process. Further-more, as it can be followed so literally through the lines of Calculated Variations,he underlines act of reproducing the Art Nouveau effects as accompanied by ArtNouveau as a cultural product. These two examples seem to support Lynn’stransformed terminology on architectural design. In that sense, following the con-notations and etymology of the word we can trace both formal and cultural effectsof Art Nouveau on Lynn’s design strategy. According to the Oxford English Dic-tionary Art Nouveau effect is characterized by “the organic or foliate forms andby its flowing (i.e. non-Euclidean) lines and curves”. In addition to this, culturalmeans of Art Nouveau can be described through its historical and geographicalfeatures. for example, it flourished between 1890 and 1910 throughout Europeand United States. It was employed most often in architecture, interior design,jevelry, and glass design, posters and illustrations. Art Nouveau developed first inEngland and soon spread to the European continent, where it was called Jugend-still in germany, Sezessionstill in Austria, Stille Floreale (or stile Liberty) in Italy,and Modernismo (or Modernista) in Spain. On these bases, it can be stated that,Art Nouveau provides both a supportive atmosphere, and also an aesthetic, social,cultural and technical discourse for the curvilinear class of shapes. In CalculatedVariations Lynn discusses curved space and curvilinearity under the term newclass of shapes. He defines them as “calculus based-that is, built out of intercon-nected and interacting variables, and having a high degree of continuity and intri-cacy” (Lynn, 2003).

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Below, Figure 6 shows aesthetic, social, cultural and technical continuity inLynn’s later phase design. Selected Art Nouveau class of shapes and Lynn’s newclass of shapes are compared with each other through their gestalt formations oreffects. On this basis it can be stated that, although two groups of production arebelong to the completely different production processes, as followed through theimages they share same gestalt principles.

CONCLUSION

This study intends to discuss the cultural means of architecture on the context ofthe CAAD. Since most of the familiarized examples of CAAD seem to excludecultural means and includes closed processes of technological design loops onbehalf of a solid scientific determinism, the study concentrates on the word intu-ition which discerns the differences between the design approaches of these twodiscourses. Following the critique of intuition as developed by Alan Colquhoun,the study then focuses on one of the significant discursive transformations with-in the CAAD culture. Therefore the main objective of this study can be summa-rized as rereading Greg Lynn’s exhibition paper Calculated Variations with ref-erence to his former discourses.

Contrary to the former assertions of Lynn, Calculated Variations announces thatarchitecture is a cultural product. Although Lynn seems to transform his termi-

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Figure 6: Art Nouveau class of shapes: upper figures from left to right Art Nouveau Tro-pon Poster - Henri Van de Velde 1898, Art Nouveau style Louis Comfort Tiffany vase; ArtNouveau silver stamp detail, 1908.

Below figures from left to right: Art Nouveau porcelain vase, 1900; detail of Hotel Solvay,Brüssel, Victor Horta, 1895-1900; detail of Hotel Solvay; Louis Comfort Tiffanyvase,1896; Art Nouveau glass vase, 1901. (Schmutzler, 1977; Selz & Constantine, 1975;Miller, 2004.)

nology and develop a sensibility to the architectural culture as seen from the exhi-bition paper, he still seems to confuse analyzing his design objects and denies the200 years non-Euclidean formal tradition behind the class of shapes throughwhich they have produced. Even though, he refers non-Euclidean geometry as asystem in mathematics, he ignores the fact that in the 19th century, this systemgenerated a new class of shapes as new gestalt entities and chanced the percep-tion as well. In this regard, Lynn’s new class of shapes which is appointed to hisseries of production for Alessi is not new. Yet, origin of the formal codes of thenew class of shapes can be found in non-Euclidean geometry. From the point ofview of the Gestalt psychology new class of shapes is a calculus based gestalticorganization. Since these organization still follows 19th century non-Euclideanformal codes, no matter how they were produced differently [i.e. produced by theCNC machine], they can be classified under the same principles of Gestalt psy-chology: those are law of continuation, simultaneous figure and ground reversal,and pragnanz. On the other hand, functional origins of these productions can befound in Art Nouveau movement. Yet, what makes Lynn’s production different ornew is then not in their gestalt formation, or in their function, but in the produc-tion process itself. Since he did not say so, this study worked on some possibleparadoxical points in Calculated Variations.

On the bases of these, it can be said that technological determinism cannot cre-ates new gestalt formations. It neither creates them, nor decides or chooses oneof them as an end product. Therefore, the involuntary decision which is createdby technologically deterministic processes once more legitimizes Eisenman’squestion of how one can decide to choose and freeze a particular object in thiskind of processes? As it is discussed earlier, origin of this question is in AlanColquhoun’s critique of intuition. Yet, like Colquhoun, Kurt Koffka in his bookPrinciples of Gestalt Theory also points out the dogmatic positivist tendencyfounded in purely scientific approaches. In this regard, he states that “if weclaimed that the universe and all events in it form one big gestalt, we should beas dogmatic as the positivists” (Koffka, 1963, 22). Like Koffka, Alan Colquhounstates that even though all artifacts have the power of becoming icons or gestaltentities, linking these entities directly with the closed loops of scientific process-es [the idea of one big gestalt] can be described as dogmatism. In representing thesurrounding phenomenal world, science by its nature has always tended to sup-port objectification, reductionism, oversimplification, and therefore dogmatism.Since it has powerful relations with science and technology, CAAD has alwaysbe the field of experience in architectural design under these tendencies. Withthese in mind, On account of Lynn’s changing terminologies accompanied by hisdesign methodology, the study points out that, like science, CAAD also tends toconduct designers to reject questioning social, cultural, and communicationalaspect in their design methodologies. Therefore, even if in one of his latest papers

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Greg Lynn accepts that architecture is a cultural product, it may not be surprisedthat in the same paper he still uses a hybrid terminology, which sometimesreflects his former discourses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many of the ideas presented in this paper were the outcome of the course paper written by theauthor of this study. The name of the paper is Calculus Based Curvilinearity: An Inquiry into‘Calculated Variations’ and were presented to ARCH717 in 2004 in METU.

REFERENCES

COLQUHOUN, A. (1986), Typology and Design Method, in Essays in Architectural Criti-cism: Modern Architecture and Historical Change, Opposition Books, The MIT Press, Cam-bridge Mass., pp. 43-50.

DAVIDSON, C.C. (2001), Discussion Six, Anything, Anyone Corporation, New York, TheMIT Press, Cambridge Mass., London, pp. 264-272.

HENDERSON, L.D. (1983), Non-Euclidean Geometry in The Fourth Dimension and Non-Euclidean Geometry in Modern Art, Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey, pp. 3-6.

KOFFKA, K. (1963), Generality of The Gestalt Category in Principles of Gestalt Psychology,A Harbinger book, Harcourt, Brace & World, United States of America, p. 22.

LYNN, G. (2003), Calculated Variations, English original of “Variations Calculees”, in Migay-rou, F., Mennan, Z. (eds.), Architecture Non Standard, Paris, Editions du Centre Pompidou, pp.90-94.

LYNN, G. (1998), Folds, Bodies & Blobs: Collected Essays, Books-by-Architects Series, Bib-liothéque Royale de Belgique.

LYNN, G. (1999), Animate Form in Animate Form, Princeton Architectural Press, New York,pp. 8-43.

LYNN, G. (2002), Embryologic Houses in Contemporary Processes in Architecture, Rahim, A.(eds.), Architectural Design, (vol. 72, no.1), January, pp. 26-35.

MENNAN, Z. (2003), Of Non-Standard Forms: A ‘Gestalt Switch’, English original of DesFormes Non Standard: Un ‘Gestalt Switch’, in Architecture Non Standard, Migayrou, F., Men-nan, Z. (eds), Paris, Editions du Centre Pompidou, pp.34-41.

RAHÝM, A. (2002), Introduction in Contemporary Techniques in Architecture, Rahim, A.(eds.), Architectural Design, (vol. 72, no. 1), January, pp. 5-8.

RAJCHMAN, J. (1998), Other Geometries in Constructions, Writing Architecture Series, TheMIT Press, Cambridge Mass, pp. 91-107.

RYSZARD, S. (2001), On Growth and Form: Nineteenth Century Intimations in EmergentContemporary Architecture in On Growth and Form: The Engineering of Nature of ACSA EastCentral Regional Conference, School of Architecture University of Waterloo, Canada. Avail-able:

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http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/architecture/frameset/ACSA/abstracts/abstractsAZ.html

STEWARD, I. (2001), Flatterland: Like Flatland Only More So, Perseus Publishing,

http://www.glform.com; Greg Lynn’s home page.

http://referenc.lib.binghamton.edu; Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition

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