Probsolv Reason Language

8/17/2019 Probsolv Reason Language

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Steps in Problem Solving

1. Preparation: Find and frameproblem

2. Production: Develop good

problem-solving strategies(subgoals, algorithms,heuristics)

. !valuate solutions". #ethin$ and redefine problems

and solutions over time





©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Hufman: Psychology in Action !e"

% am'les o( Heu#istics

1. eans!end analysis: breaking problem downinto series of sub!problems.". Analogies: using past e#perience as model forcurrent problem!solving$esearch on use of analogies (past e#perience)contradictory.

fi#ation! using a prior strategy only

functional fi#edness! fixated on usual functions





When is 'ast e 'e#ience

ha#m(ul)%unker (1&' ) ake a lamp problem.





*hin+ing -i$e ey /a##ie#s

to P#o lem Sol$ing". unctional i#edness:thinking of an ob*ect as

only functioning in itsusual way+an you use these supplies

to mount the candle on thewall so that it can be lit in anormal way without topplingover





*hin+ing -i$e ey /a##ie#s

to P#o lem Sol$ing

-unctional -i e1nessontinue1"-o overcome functional

fi#edness, think of thematchbo#, tacks, andcandle all functioning

in new ways.





When is 'ast e 'e#ience

ha#m(ul)ental set: retaining a old successfulproblem!solving procedure even though it isnot effective in its current conte#t. ater *are#ample here/





Experimental testing for mental set:Luchin’s (1942 !ater "ar problem:





*hin+ing -i$e ey /a##ie#sto P#o lem Sol$ing

1. ental 0et: persistence in usingstrategies that haveworked in the past

sing no more than fourlines, can you connect allnine dots without liftingyour pencil from thepaper





*hin+ing -i$e ey /a##ie#sto P#o lem Sol$ing 3entalSets ontinue1"

-o overcome

a mental set you must2think outsidethe bo#34 literally/





#hen is past experience helpful toproblem solving$

1. 5ick 6 Holyoak (1&78) studies of problemssolving with and without past e#perience". +hi9s (1&7 ) studies of e#pertise andproblem solving





P#o lem sol$ing in Physics '#o(esso#s $s.stu1ents: P#o lem catego#i4ation





P#o lem sol$ing in Physics '#o(esso#s $s. stu1ents: P#o lem catego#i4ation





P#o lem sol$ing in Physics '#o(esso#s $s. stu1ents: P#o lem catego#i4ation





%raming E&ects in Problem solving

magine that the .0. is preparing for the outbreak of anunusual;disease which is e#pected to kill <88 people. -wo alternativeprogramshave been proposed. Assume that the e#act scientific estimateof the conse=uences of the program is as follows:

f >rogram A is adopted, "88 people will be saved.

f >rogram ? is adopted, there is a 1@ probability that <88people will be saved and a "@ probability that no people willbe saved.

hich of the two programs would you favor

magine the identical situation with the following choices:f program + is adopted, '88 people will die.f program % is adopted, there is a 1@ probability that nobody

will die, and a "@probability that <88 people will die.

hich of the two programs would you favor



'ecision )a*ing +iases

%onfirmation &iassearch only for info that supports our ideas

'indsight &iasreport falsely that we predicted an outcome

vailabilit 'euristicpredict probability based on ease of recall

&ase-#ate Fallacignore info about general principles

#epresentativeness 'euristicmake *udgments based on stereotypes



,easoningmental activity of transforming information to reachconclusions

inductive reasoning! driven by data; bottom-up; specific general

deductive reasoning! driven by logic; top-down; general specific 0yllogistic reasoning: premises B conclusion

+onditional reasoning: if!then statements used drawconclusions



,easoning





Syllogistic #easoning

>remise: statement assumed to be true forsake of argument, not necessarily empiricallytrue

>remise: All boys are athletes>remise also usually e#presses arelationship between certain concepts, soboys are related to athletes in that all boysare a member of the category athletes.






+onclusion: to be valid must be necessitatedby the premises. ust be only possibleconclusion drawn base on relationships

e#pressed in premises.+onclusion: a valid conclusion cannot *ust bereasonable or plausible based on premises, it

must be necessary.






>1: All boys are athletes>": All athletes are muscular +: All boys are muscular

Calid: se Cenn %iagrams to determine.






>1: All boys are athletes>": All muscular people are athletes+: All boys are muscular people

Calid

0ee website for more reasoning problems





on1itional #easoning

f: antecedent condition-hen: conse=uent

hen the antecedent condition is met, theconse=uent will occur (no =uestion about it/)

Dbservation B what condition is actuallypresent+onclusion: (valid or not valid)





on1itional #easoning

f she has red hair -hen she buys new shoesDbservation: she has red hair (affirmingantecedent)+onclusion: she buys new shoes (valid )





f she has red hair -hen she buys new shoesDbservation: she has not red hair (denyingthe antecedent)+onclusion: she buys not new shoes (valid )





f she has red hair -hen she buys new shoesDbservation: she buys new shoes (affirmingthe conse=uent)+onclusion: she has red hair (valid )

ore conditional reasoning problems at mywebsite.





f she has red hair -hen she buys new shoesDbservation: she buys not new shoes(denying the conse=uent)+onclusion: she has not red hair (valid)





Wason Selection *as+

$ule: if there is vowel on one side then there is an evennumber on the other side of the card





A st#act #easoning $s. Social cont#acts#easoning





Social cont#acts $e#sion o(Wason Selection tas+



©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007Hufman: Psychology in

Action !e"

5anguage

hat is language: a symbolic rule!basedsystem of communication shared by acommunity

Euestion: can one person have language



Structure of Language

Phonology ! basic phonemes (sounds)>honeme : smallest unit of speech or sound

Morphology ! rules for word formationorpheme: smallest meaningful unit of language

Syntax ! rules for combining words to form phrases andsentencesSemantics ! meaning of words and sentencesPragmatics ! use of language

Fote: 5rammar includes all these




Action !e"

P#o'e#ties o( language

1. Arbitrariness: fundamental units oflanguage have arbitrary relationship to whatthey represent e.g. dog G

". 5enerativity G from a set of finitefundamental units, infinite meaning is

possible. 5enerational transmission: passed on from

one generation to the ne#t




Action !e"

P#o'e#ties o( language

'. %isplacement: can communicate aboutideas not in here and now

. 0emanticity: meaningfulness drives allcommunication




Action !e"

Stu1ies in Animal 5anguage

A number of species have been studies:dolphins, parrots, whales, etc

ost studies have involved nonhuman apes:+himpan ees, 5orillas, ?onobos

hy: close relatives of humans, big brains,highly social




Action !e"

Histo#y o( A'e language stu1ies

+ross!fostering: raising an ape as a humanbaby1& 89s Ieith and +athy Hayes: Ciki pro*ect,teaching a chimpan ee to speak. ?ig

disaster.

?eatri# and Alan 5ardner: ashoe pro*ect,

teaching an ape sign language




Action !e"


rancine >atterson andIoko: A gorilla learns signlanguageHerb -errace and Fim+himpsky




Action !e"


0ue 0avage!$umbaugh and the bonoboIan i




Action !e"

What 1o a'es +no6 a outlanguage)

0ome elementary synta#0ome evidence of displacement188!"88 word vocabulary

se is primarily utilitarian, not for sharinge#perienceJ &8K of Ian i9s utterances arere=uests@commands

About at level ". child




Action !e"

5anguage e$elo'ment

>relinguistic 0tage:crying, cooing, andbabblingLinguistic 0tage: single!utterances, telegraphicspeech, and learning therules of grammar




*heo#ies o( 5anguagee$elo'ment

Fature >erspective: language is an inborncapacity that develops primarily by maturation

B +homsky9s language ac=uisition device

(LA%)

Furture >erspective: language develops from acomple# system of rewards, punishments, andimitation

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Probsolv Reason Language