Proceedings of The Academic Conference of African Scholar Publications & Research International on Challenge and Prospects Vol. 8 No. 1. 10th December, 2015 – Bauchi State University, Gadau, University

Assembly Hall, Main Campus, Itsa-Gadau, Bauchi State.

ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF WATER SCARCITY IN NIGERIA: - AN ENGINEERING APPROACH

DR. ENGR. GANA A.J & Dr. Engr. Ojediran J.OCivil Engineering Department, College of Science and Engineering, Landmark

University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State.

Abstract Water is the most widely occurring substance in the world. Over 72% of the earth’s surface is covered by water. This means that the bodies if water were evenly distributed, it would have covered the globe. Even the soil and rocks of the earth’s crust hold water in chemical combination with different mineral substances, so much that most of the land areas of the earth would be submerged if water were suddenly returned to the ocean. Yet so far as human beings are concerned, water is unfortunately unevenly distributed. In some regions, it is in abundant and properly utilized, while in some others, it is wasted and polluted, and in the remaining regions, it is scarce or completely lacking. This paper examines water scarcity in Nigeria, water needs and demands, water resources planning, water supply and human health, factors associated with scarcity of water in Nigeria and the way forward.

Keywords:- Scarcity, Water resources, Management, Nigeria

Introduction:Water plays a significant role both in society and in the natural systems in the landscape. The hydrological features and human interventions in natural water pathways influence vital parameters in society, like human health, food production, industrial opportunities etc. Water also have implications for composition and functioning of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The management of water resources is one of the most crucial challenges facing the world today. It is difficult to think of a resource more essential to the health of human communities or their economies than water. Human beings cannot live for more their several days without water, shorter than for any source of sustenance other than fresh air. In meeting the demand of human beings, for water, societies usually exact vast quantities

of water from rivers, lakes, wetland, and underground aquifers to supply the requirements to cities, farms and even industries. There is also growing recognition that functionally intact and biologically complex fresh water ecosystems provide many economically valuable commodities and services to society beyond simple direct water supply. These services include flood control, transportation, recreation, purification of human and industrial wastes, habitat for plants and animals, and production of fish and other foods and marketable goods [Flint, 2004].Water is said to be scarce if there are problems in meeting water needs due to water availability constraints. Water scarcity is a major threat to development and food availability in many parts of the world including Nigeria. Every day thousands of people die all over the world due to lack of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. Water quality deterioration is causing health problems to human beings and to the environment. In Nigeria especially, rapid population growth has not been accompanied by an even increase in the delivery of essential urban services such as water supply.

Discussion:- Water scarcity Water is said to be scarce if there are to meet water to the problem of water scarcity can be understood in two different perspectives as explained below:-(i) Aridity hydro climatic condition:- when the annual rainfall is lower than the

evaporative demand of the atmosphere, when the wet season is arid and the natural way of life is nomadic

(ii) Water scarcity in the soil:-This refers to plant production, when plant requirements are higher than the water available in the soil, the plant production will be constrained

Water needs and demandsWater needs and demands are driven by population growth of a society, urbanization and industrialization, reduction of poverty, which is aimed at increasing expectations for quality life and for more water request. Water provision to meet the needs and demands of the people involves the bringing of water from where it is available in the landscape to where it is to be used. The return usually flows back either untreated and disposed of on the land or into the water course, or it either goes to the treatment plant for pollution load reduction.

Nigeria water ResourcesNigeria is a country that has large green and blue water resources, with subsequent long periods of the year from the water perspective. However, the water sector is unevenly

distributed across the different regions of the country with surplus in some regions and heavy scarcity in other regions. This is an indication of the need for efficiency in the use and productivity improvement in the water scarce regions. It is observed that in the dry land areas of the north, human habitation relies heavily on ground water resources that are recharged from fresh water percolation and run off during the rainy season. Anything that upsets this balance affects the people who live in such places. The table below shows the water resources, (Table 1), major Inland water resources (Table 2), and sample of water use patterns (Table 3), by available water sources in Nigeria.

Table 1: Water Resources in NigeriaWater resources Year Amount UnitAverage precipitation 2005 1150 Mm/yrTotal precipitation 2005 1062,336 Km3/yrInternal renewable water resource-total

2005 221,000 Km3/yr

External renewable water resources-water

2005 65,200 Km3/yr

Total water resources 2005 286,200 Km3/yrIrrigation water requirement 2000 1650 Km3/yrWater withdrawalAgriculture 2000 5507 Km3/yrDomestic 2000 1687 Km3/yrIndustrial 2000 810 Km3/yrTotal 2000 8000 Km3/yr

Source: Aqua sat, 2005

Table 2: Major Inland Water Resources (including brackish and freshwater flood) of NigeriaWater Body Surface Area (ha)Major rivers:Anambra River 1,401,000Benue River 129,000Cross River 3,900,000Imo River 910,000Qwa Iboe River 500,200Niger River (less kainji &Jebba lakes) 169,800Ogun River 2,237,000

Oshun River 1,565,400Subtotal 10,812, 400Major lakes and reservoirs:Lake Chad 550,000Kainji lake (man-made) 127,000Jebba lake (man-made) 35,000Shiroro lake (man-made) 31,200Goronyo lake (man-made) 20,0008 other (man-made) 90,400 Subtotal 853,000Floodplains 3,221,500Total, major fresh water resources 14,886,900Other fresh water bodiesDelta and estuaries, brackish 858,000Other (minor reservoirs, fishponds) 104,400Miscellaneous wetlands suitable for rice 4,108,100Total, all inland water bodies 19,958,000

Source: Ita et al, 1985; Ita, 1993; Olagunju, 2007

Table 3: Sample of water use patterns by available water sources in Nigeria (FGN,2000). Spring/stream 32%Hand dug well (w/apron) 30%Hand dug well (w/out/apron) 27%Rain 20%River 16%Pipe borne 14%Borehole 14%vendors 6%

Source: Ita et al, 1993, 1995, olagunju 2007

Development of water resourcesThe development of water resources of any region requires the conception, planning, design, construction and operation of various facilities to be utilized, and control water and to maintain water quality. Because each water development project is unique, it is not possible to give a standard solution. The special condition of each project should be

tackled through an integrated application of the fundamental knowledge of many disciplines.In the process of water resources development, important questions that may likely arise are as follows:

(i) How much water is needed?(ii) How much water is available?(iii) How are the requirements satisfied by the supplies?(iv) How is the used-up water disposed off.?

Challenges Facing Water Resources Engineers in NigeriaThe challenges facing water resources engineers in Nigeria us as follows:-

(i) The inability to identify the essential characteristics of given water resources problems

(ii) The inability to recognize feasible alternatives for resolving water problems(iii) The inability to systematically evaluate all feasible alternatives in terms of

the goals and objectives of the decision makers.(iv) The inability to present a clear and concise representation of the trade offs

that exist between various alternatives.

Water Resources Decision MakingSince large scale planning development and management of water resources system usually take place in the government public sector, the individual or individual, responsible for taking decisions, or selecting from a set of development alternatives are usually not the engineers who perform the technical analysis related to a given problem domain. The decision making topology is rather more like that presented below:

At the top of the topology are the decision makers, who usually elected officials by the government. These individuals assume the responsibility for selecting a course of action that best achieve the goals and objectives of the intended action. During the course of decision making, the decision maker interacts with the interest parties, such as local, state and federal government agencies, independent organization or groups. At the bottom are all data that relate to the problems domain, including hydrological data, economic and other cost data, demographic and historic data, and information about relevant structural and management technologies. The water resources engineers then select from a wide range of modeling those that can best evaluate these data and provide the decision makers with information about the trade-offs that exist among multiples and conflicting management objectives.

Water Resources PlanningWater resources planning is the orderly consideration of various aspects of water resources data from the original statement of purpose to the final decision on a course of action. Various alternatives are usually evaluated before taking the final decision. The planning aspect usually forms the basis of proposed water resources project. It is the most important aspect of the engineering for the project. It includes all the works associated with the design of a project except the detailed engineering of the structures required.

The Purposes of Water Resources PlanningWater resources are planned to serve various purpose. These are:

a. Main (Multi) purposes with a concentration on the following:(i) Irrigation: dams, Reservoirs, wells, Canals Distribution systems, drainage

facilities, grading, etc

Other Interested parties/group

Decisions Makers

Decisions

Water Resources Engineers

Exploratory Data analysis

Non-procedural reasoning models

Optimization

Decision

Domain Data

SimulationModels

(ii) Hydropower/Electricity: generators, transformers, transmission lines, turbines, etc

(iii) Flood control: prevention or reduction of flood damages, river regulation, floodways, storage reservoirs, flood walls, channel improvements, re-charging of water, etc.

(iv) Domestic and industrial water supply: provision of safe and adequate water for domestic, industrial, commercial, municipal uses. Dams, reservoirs, wells, conduits, pumping plants, distribution system, etc.

(v) Navigation: inland navigation facilities for transportation of goods and passengers, dams, reservoirs, canals, locks, channel improvement, harbour improvement, etc

b. Secondary purpose with a concentration of the following:(i) Recreational use of water: Reservoirs, swimming pools, facilities for boating

and water sports, preservation of sceneric beauty, etc.(ii) Fish and wild life: wild life refuges, fish hatcheries, fish ladders, reservoirs,

regulation of stream flows, pollution control, land management, etc.(iii) Drainage control: Ditches, tile drains levees, pumping stations, etc(iv) Watershed Management: sediment reduction, run-off retardation forest and

grass land improvement, soil conservation practices, forest and range management practices, debris detention small reservoirs, farm ponds, etc.

(v) Salinity control: Reservoirs for augmentation of low stream flows, barriers, and ground water re-charge coastal jetties, etc.

(vi) Sediment control: soil conservation, afforestation, desisting works, revetment works, and bank stabilization, check dams, etc.

(vii) Pollution abasement: Treatment facilities, legal measures to control pollution, insect control, recreational values, drainage extermination measures, cleaning of polluted rivers, etc.

(viii) Artificial precipitation: cloud seeding equipment, meteordogical instrumentation, etc.

Miscellaneous purpose with a concentration on the following:I. Employment Opportunity:

The objective is to provide employment and other sources for increased income in backward areas having a lot of unemployment problems.

II. Acceleration of Public Works: The objective is to accelerate the construction of various public works for the

development of regions. Sometimes, water projects are planned so that they may

be executed on cost-sharing basis among various agencies, such as central government, state government, local bodies and private organizations to accelerate the development.

III. Development of New Water Resource policies, initiation of new policies for the development, composition, formulation and execution of other water resources projects.

Comprehensive Water Resources PlanningComprehensive Water Resources Planning is generally conducted in several separate but related phases, requiring input from a wide range of specialists, such as civil engineers, architects, sociologists, real estate agents, urban and regional planners, economists, financial planners, government agency personnel, citizens groups, hydrologists, environmental specialists, etcThese individuals are involved in one or more of several planning and management phases as

Establishment of project goals and objectives Collection of relevant data Identification of feasible best compromise alternative solution Preliminary impact assessment(s) Implementation (detailed structural design, construction, and/or policy

implementation) Operation, management and sustainment.

Classification of Water Resources Engineering ProjectsThe Water Resources Engineering projects are usually classified on the basis of the

number of purposes such as:-1. Single Purpose Projects: These are usually designed and operated to serve only

one basic purpose or function.2. Multi Purpose Projects: These projects are designed and operated to serve two or

more purposes. It may be noted that a projects which is designed for single purposes but which also serves other purposes is not a multi purpose projects.

Water requirements for Multipurpose ProjectsWater requirements for Multipurpose Projects are designed to serve a number of purposes. The purposes usually served are irrigation, hydropower, flood control, water supply, navigation, recreation, fish and wild life sanitation. The water requirements for these functions are quite different. The successful use of stored water in a multipurpose

project can be made for various purposes after studying the various requirements. If these requirements are compatible, the stored water is then used more effectively because it would simultaneously serve more than one purpose. The water requirements for the above functions are discussed in detail below:-1. Irrigation: Water requirement for irrigation is generally higher in a year of LOW

rainfall. But the average demand does not vary greatly from year to year, if the irrigated area remains the same. Because irrigation is a sort of insurance against drought, it is desirable to reserve as much storage as possible for irrigation use.

2. Hydropower: Water requirement for hydropower depend upon the type of the area served. The power demand generally has a marked seasonal variation. However, most of the hydropower plants are connected to a power grid and, therefore, there is considerable flexibility in their operation. The water requirements for hydropower can generally be coordinated with other uses of water. When hydropower production is low, thermal and nuclear plants can be run to full capacity.

In addition, hydropower production does not make consumptive use of water as the water released for hydropower can serve other purpose. Thus hydropower production is quite compatible with other uses. Water released for irrigation and water supply may be used to produce hydropower.3. Flood Control: The basic requirement for flood control is that there should be a

lot empty space in the reservoir. Other uses which require that adequate water should be stored in the reservoir however, the flood control requirement is seasonal as it is only during the rainy season.

4. Water Supply: Requirements for domestic water supply are more or less constant throughout the year. With an increase in population, the water demand increases from year to year, and this factor should be considered while planning a water supply project. Adequate reserve should be maintained to avoid water shortage during the periods of drought.

5. Navigation: Requirements for inland navigation are that there should be adequate flow in the river to maintain the required water depth. Water is usually released from a storage reservoir to sustain downstream flow for navigation.

6. Recreation: The basic requirements for recreation is that the reservoir should remain nearly full during the recreation season to permit boating, fishing, swimming and other water sports. In addition, there should not be sudden large draw downs which may create several problems. However, reservoirs are sometimes designed to serve recreation alone.

7. Fish and Wild Life: For protection of fish, there should not be large and rapid fluctuation in water of the reservoir, particularly during the spawing? period. In addition, the flow of water downstream of the dawn should not be completely stopped, as it would lead to the destruction of fish and wild life.

8. Sanitation: The requirements for proper sanitation are that there should be adequate flow down stream of the dam. Sanitation requirements are compatible with other uses, as these can be easily combined with the release of water for other uses.

Water Supply and Human HealthThe saying that “Water is life is found in many cultures around the world. It underscores the fact that clean water is an absolute pre-requisite for healthy living. The importance of water in human welfare cannot be over-emphasized. The normal functioning of the human body depends entirely upon an adequate quantity of water. But if the water is from contaminated sources, it causes numerous water associated diseases.A survey conducted by world Health Organization [WHO 1985, 1996, 1997] revealed that water sources in many African countries [including Nigeria] are contaminated with different water associated diseases. The WHO survey also proved that each day, over 30,000 people die from water related disease, and in developing countries 80% of all illness are a result of water related diseases. The survey reports from WHO on water related diseases is presented below:-

i. Water Communicable Disease and Control Infections related to water supply and sanitations are many and their relationships are complex. However, a conception system for understanding disease related to water and sanitation has been developed.

ii. Water Related Infections A water related disease is one which is in some gross way related to water in the environment (bodies of water containing impurities)

iii. Transmission Routes of water Related Infections Water borne route This is a type of faucal-oral infection. Water borne transmission occurs when the

pathogen is in the water which is infected by a person or animal which may then become infected

iv. Water-washed route

This is also a type of faucal-oval infection. Water washed diseases is the one whose transmission will be reduced by following an increase in the volume of water used for hygienic purposes, irrespective of the quality of that water

Disease caused by unhygienic water(i) Typhoid (ii) Eholeva (iii) Infections Hepatitis(iv) Diarrheas (v) Dysenteries (vi) polio (vii)Ascarrasis (viii) Cholera (ix) Bacillary

Skin and eye infection, scabies, craw-craw, house-bores typhia, fever, trachoma, etc

Preventive Strategy (a) Improve quality of drinking water (b) Prevent casual use of other un-approved sources(c) Increase quality of water used

(d) Improve accessibility and reliability of domestic water supply(e) Improve hygiene.

v. Water Based route a water based disease is one in which the pathogen spends a part of its life cycle in water snail or other aquatic animal. The diseases are due to infection by parasite worms which depends on aquatic intermediate hosts to complete their cycles.Disease Caused(i) Schistosomiasis(ii) Guinea woem(iii) Clonorrchivasis(iv) Paragommense, etcPreventive Strategy(i) Reduce contact with infected water(ii) Control small populations(iii) Reduce contamination of surface water by excreta

vi. Insect Vector RouteThis is spread by insects either in water or near by water

Disease caused(i) Sleeping sickness(ii) Maleria(iii) River blindness(iv) Mosquito born viruses-yellow fever, etc.Preventive Strategy(i) Improve surface water management (drainage)

(ii) Destroy breeding sites of insects(iii) Reduce visit to breeding sites(iv) Use mosquito netting.

Factors Associated with Water Scarcity in NigeriaThere are many factors associated with water scarcity in Nigeria. A few of them are listed and summarized below

1 Lack of unsafe water and poor sanitation and water treatment facilities in the country

2 Flood disasters in some major parts of the country3 Poor investment planning by various governmental agencies involved in the

provision of water supply schemes4 Inadequate and unstable fiscal policies and poor funding for water supply5 Inadequate manpower and insufficient relevant poor remuneration for

professionals involved in executing water projects across the country6 Inadequate training for skilled personnel involved in water supply schemes in

government ministries and other parastatals7 Corruption and bad governance in the country8 Bad preventive maintenance policies:- Lack of formal maintenance policies is

a bane in the failure of water supply sustain ability in Nigeria. This in must cases has caused early decay and breakdown of many water equipment and had resulted into water shortage.

9 Obsolete water supply facilities:- A visit to 75% of water supply schemes in different parts of Nigeria will reveal inappropriate and obsolete water supply equipments, particularly water treatment plants, and most of the time the spare parts are not available for replacement.

10 Inadequate Provision of standard bore holes with constant water supply, especially for rural areas with adequate maintenance

The way forwardIn order for Nigeria to achieve sustainable and abundant water supply, aimed at resulting into National and Industrial growth,

(i) Reduction in level of corruption:- This has to do with our political leaders. It should be bear in mind that there was a time in this country that a poor man or ordinary Nigerian citizen was arrested overseas with Billions of dollars of stolen funds. This practice has been on for several years now, and this has affected many areas of National development. Huge amount of money that

would have been used for National development is the one kept some where in other countries.

(ii) Efficient maintenance culture:-maintenance activities within the water sectors (i.e federal and states water resources should be re-planned and re-examined in order to achieved the objectives of maximum water supply systems in the country)

(iii) Expansion of water sources and facilities to the rural areas is of crucial important under this new government administration. This is because people living in the rural areas were used to vote in our political leaders, and with assurance that basic necessity of life (e.g. water) would be provided when voted into power. Rural areas in the country should be allowed to benefit from the gains of democracy

(iv) Visionary Leadership:- This is a charge to our political leaders. If there should be any surplus of water supply in Nigeria, it should be traceable to our leaders and their vision. Nigeria is 55year this year with little or no achievement. The country requires the kind of leaders who would put their visions before them and follow it to the letter. Nigeria has what it takes to become a real giant in terms of abundant water supply, it our leaders would work by their given visions.

ConclusionWater scarcity is indeed a major threat to the development and food security in many parts of world. Every day thousands of people die as a result to lack of safe drinking water in the world. Nigeria is rich in both surface and ground water resources, but it is unevenly distributed across the different regions of the country. The increasing rate of industrialization in the country and also the high rate of population growth have equally placed much needed pressure on water supply, especially in rural areas where supply shortage has already been noted for years now. It is high time we took action in order to avert the menaces of this scarcity in the country.

ReferencesCOREN 19th Engineering Assembly [2010] Nigeria at 50:- Challenges of sustainable

Engineering Infrastructural Development, Book of proceedings 2010, Pgs 106-120

Daily Trust 1st December [2010], 69 million Nigerians lack safe drinking waterGana A.J [2009] Environmental Health Engineering, printed by Nom-Nom, Nigeria, Pgs

14-15

Gana A.J, osueke O.C [2012] Integrated water resources and waste management, published by world Journal of Applied science and Technology, Vol 4, No 2, December 2012, Pgs 301-309

UNICEF [2015] 66m Nigerians have no Access to safe water:- Daily sun, 20 th August, Thursday, 2015

WHO [1985], Guidelines for drinking water quality, Volume 1-3, Geneva, 1985WHO [1996], Guidelines for water quality, health criteria and other supporting

information, 2nd Edition, Volume 2 Geneva, 1996WHO [1997] Guidelines for drinking water quality:- surveillance and control of

community water supplies, 2nd Edition, Volume 3, GenevaAPPENDIX

Source: Daily sun, 20th August, Thursday, 2015The above Assertion is true for the following reasons:-

(i) “Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly should consider the season of the year, the winds and the water in relation to health and diseases” (Hippocrates, 460-354 B.C)

(ii) Water was the root of man’s civilization. Ancient civilization sprang up only where abundant water supply was available. Examples of such civilizations are those which flourished on the banks of the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus, the Ganges and the Yangtze kiang

(iii) The normal functioning of man’s body depends entirely upon adequate quantity of water. About 70% of man’s body weight is water. In order to maintain this level, a healthy man will require an average of 2 liters per day.

(iv) Water is more than a public utility- it differs from others in this respect that its shortage or impurity endangers the life of the community.

(v) The prosperity of a Nation depends primarily upon exploitation of its natural resources. Water is the most important natural resource for entire humanity.

(vi) Many have lived without love, but non have lived without water-W.H. Audu

(vii) What Nigerians need is water, not fuel. Not everybody needs fuel, but everybody needs water. Even animals in the bush need water. You can’t survive without water, but can without fuel.