Process technology

OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies

A. What Are Process Technologies

B. Application For Individual Instruction

C. Application For Small-Group Instruction

D. Application For Large-Group Instruction

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OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies





1. Galbraith, definition, “the systematic application of scientifics or other organized knowledge to practical tasks.”

2. Importance of Practice and Feedback

3. Organization of This Chapter


OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies




Programmed Instruction

Programmed Tutoring

Personalized System of Instruction

Learning Centers



OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies




Cooperative Learning

Games

Simulation

Simulation Games



OUTLINE :

ProcessTechnologies




Mastery Learning

Programmed Teaching



Introduction

In Chapter One, we provided a definition to technology that differentiated between hard technologies products such as computers and satelites – and soft technologies-process or ways of thingking about problem. In This chapter focuses on technology as a process.

Galbraith, definition, “the systematic application of scientifics or other organized knowledge to practical tasks.”

The behaviorist perspective propose that individuals learn what they do – that is, learning is a process of trying various behaviors and keeping those that lead to favorable results.

Cognitivists propose that learners build up and enrich their mental schemata when their minds are actively engaged in struggling to remember or apply some new concept or principle.

The sociopsychological perspective stresses the importance of interpersonal communication as the social basis for knowledge acquisition

Importance of Practice and Feedback

Organizing of This Chapter

1. Application for Individual Instructiona. Programmed instructionb. Programmed tutoringc. Personalized system of instructiond. Learning centers

2. Application for Small-Group Instructiona. Cooperative learningb. Gamesc. Simulationd. Simulation games

3. Application for Large-Group Instructiona. Mastery learningb. Programmed teaching

Advantages Limitation

Self PacingPractice and feedba

ckReliableEffective

Program DesignTediousLack of Social Inter

raction


Application :

Developed by B.F. Skinner.

Skinner’s initial inventions vere elaborate machines that would mechanically present chunks, of “frames”, of information; wait for a response to be written or a button to be pressed; then compare the response with the correct answer. If the answere was correct, the machine would display the next frame. Research and practical experience soon indicated, however, that students learned just as well when the sequence - information, question, response, answer – was presented in book form.

Linear Branching

1

2

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2 2a

33a

4

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Advantages

Self Pacing


Programmed instruction allows individuals to learn at their own pace at a time and place of their

choice

Advantages

Practice and feedback


It requires the learner to participate actively in the

learning process and provides immediate feedback for each

practice attempt

Advantages

Reliable


This technology provides a reliable form of learning, in that

the instructional routine is embodied in print so that it can

be mass produced and experienced by many people in

exactly the same form.

Advantages

Effective


Hundreds of research studies compare programmed

instruction with conventional instruction.

Limitation

Program Design


Some programmed materials are poorly designed and have little

value

Limitation

Tedious


The repetition of the same cycle and plowing through an endless series of small steps taxes the attention span and patience of

many students. It can be tedious.

Limitation

Lack of Social Interraction


Most programmed materials are meant to be used by one individual at the time.

Advantages Limitations

Self-pacingPractice and feedba

ckReliableEffective

Labor intensiveDevelopment cost

Programmed Tutoring

Application :

Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring is a one-to-one method of instruction in which the responses to be made by the tutor are programmed in advance in the form of carefully structured printed instructions.


Self-pacingPractice and

feedbackReliableEffective


Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring shares with programmed instruction

the characteristic of individualized pacing.





Programmed Tutoring

The use of a live tutor as a mediator adds immensely to the

flexibility of the feedback system, and it adds another major

advantage over printed self-instructional material by

employing social reinforces in the form of praise rather than just

simple knowledge of result.





Programmed Tutoring

Compared with unstructured tutoring, programmed

tutoring has higer reliability because there is a

predetermined pattern to the tutor’s action.





Programmed Tutoring

The effectiveness of programmed tutoring has

been well established through the evaluation studies carried out by its originator, Douglas

Ellson.





Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring depends on the availability of volunteer

tutors. In school, tutoring is usually done by peers, older

students, or parents.





Programmed Tutoring

The success of programmed tutoring depends on the

design of the tutoring guides; their development requires an

investment of time and expertise.


Self-pacingMasteryEffective

Development costBehaviorist commit

mentSelf-discipline


Application :


The Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), one of the best-known individualized instruction system, can be described as a template for managing instruction.

The esential idea of PSI is that the learning materials are arranged in sequential order and the student must demonstrate mastery of each unit before being allowed to move on to the next.



Development costBehaviorist

commitmentSelf-discipline


PSI allows students to progress at their own rate and to take full

responsibility for determining when, where, and how they study.






The main claim of PSI is that it prevents the “accumulation of

ignorance”. Student are not allowed to go on to advanced units until they

show that they have mastered the prerequisites.






The effectiveness of PSI has been documented in a large number of

studies comparing PSI and conventional versions of courses






PSI demands a great deal of time in planning and developing materials, since it is essentially an organizational framework

and does not come with a given set of materials.






The instructor adopting PSI must also be willing to adopt its behaviorist structure, including

specification of precise performance objectives,

derivation of tests from these objectives, and selection or

design of material that leads learners efficiently to those

objectives.






Dealing with the freedom of PSI can be a problem for students,

especially younger learners who may need practice in the required self-discipline.


Self-pacingActive learningTeacher role

CostManagementStudent resonsibilit

yStudent isolation

Learning Centers

Application :

Learning Centers

Learning center with many station are found in business, industry, medical facilities, and the armed forces.

Learning centers are independent stations set up throughout the classroom where children can go to actually engage in some learning activity. Children choose the center they wish to work in and decide on the amount of time to spend there.



CostManagementStudent

resonsibilityStudent isolation

Learning Centers

Center encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and allow them to learn at their own pace, thus minimizing the possibility

of failure and maximizing the likeihood of success.





Learning Centers

Learning centers provide for student participaton in the learning

experience, for student response, and for immediate feedback to

student response..





Learning Centers

Learning centers allow the teacher to play more of a coaching role,

moving around the classroom and providing individual help to students

when they need it.





Learning Centers

The equipment and materials used in the center, entali costs.





Learning Centers

Teachers who manage learning centers must be very good at classroom organization and

management.





Learning Centers

Any form of independent study will be successful only insofar as

students are able and willing to accept responsibility for their own

learning.





Learning Centers

Learning cnters need not be limited to individual student use; small groups can be assigned to work

together. If students do work alone, other provisions must be made to provide for the social dimension of

learning

Learning Together Model

Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning



Cooperative learning has gained momentum in both formal and nonformal education from two converging forces: first, the practical realization that life outside the classroom requires more and more collaborative activity, from the use of teams in the workplace to everyday social life, and second, a growing awareness of the value of social interaction in making learning meaningful.

Today’s notion of cooperative learning entails a deeper level of interaction, based on the principle that articulating and negotiating your ideas with others forces you to process information in a way that improves meaningfulness and retention. This new concept of cooperative learning can be defined as the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning.

Two particular formats will be elaborated as example of cooperative learning technologies: Johnson and Johnson’s Learning Together model and Slavin’s Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Learning Together Model

Johnson and Johnson have determined that feedback about your performance-knowing what is working well and what is not – is a critical factor in successful learning.

Johnson and Johnson’s interdependent learning group, also known as the Learning Together model, requires four basic elements:

1. Positive interdependence.2. Face-to-face helpong interaction.3. Individual accountability.4. Teaching interpersonal and small-group skills.


Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Robert Slavin and his colleagues have developed a different format for cooperative learning, Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI), which was developed for mathematics instruction in grades three to six. TAI was specifically intended to avoid some of the problems encountered with individualized programmed instruction.

TAI follow this pattern:1. Teaching group2. Team formation3. Self-instructional materials4. Team study5. Team scores and team recognition


Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning

Computer assistance can alleviate some of the logistical obstacles to using learning methods, particularly the tasks of managing information, allocating different individual responsibilities, presenting and monitoring instructional material, analyzing learner responses, administering tests, and scoring and providing remediation for those tests.

Group-oriented programs of this sort can also deal with the logistical problems of assisting a number of groups simultaneously, as is necessary in the single-computer classroom. The software manages a rotation of the teams so that there is little time lost waiting in line.


A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal. The distinction between play and reality is what makes game entertaining.

Games

Attaining the goal usually entails competition – individual against individual, as in chess; group against group, as in basketball; or individual against a standard, as in golf (with “par” as the standard).On the other hand, striving to attain a challenging goal does not necessarily have to involve competition. Communication games, fantasy games, and encounter games exemplify a whole array of activities in which participants agree to suspend the normal rules of interpersonal communication to pursue such goals as self-awareness, empathy, sensitivity, and leadership development.

Games

Advantages Attractive Novel Atmosphere Time on task

Limitations Competition Distraction Poor design

Games

Simulation and Discovery Learning

Role Plays

Simulators

Advantages - Limitations

Simulations

A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of some real-life or process. In simulations, participants usually play a role that involves them in interactions with other people or with elements of the simulated environtment.

Simulations

Simulations

Simulation and Discovery Learning

One particular value of simulation is that it implements the discovery method as directly and clearly as possible.

In discovery learning, the learner is led toward understanding principles through grappling with a problem situation.

Through simulations, we can offer learners and human relation as well as in areas related to the physical sciences, where laboratories have long been taken for granted

Simulations

Role Plays

Role play refers to a type of simulation in which the dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction among people. In essence, a role play ask someone to imagine that he or she is another person or is in a particular situation; the person then behaves as the other person would or in the way the situation seems to demand.

The purpose is to learn something aout another kind of person or about the dynanics of an unfamiliar situation.

Simulations

Simulators

One familiar example of a simulator is the flight trainer, a mock-up of the interior of the cockpit complete with controls and gauges..

Simulations

Advantages Realistic Save Simplified

Limitations Time-consuming Oversimplification

Applications

Cooperative Simulation Games

Simulation Games

A simulation game combines the attributes of a simulation (role playing, a model of reality) with the attributes of a game (striving toward a goal, specific rules).

Simulation Games

Simulation Games

ApplicationsInstructional simulation games are found in curriculum applications that require both the repetitive skill practice associated with game and the reality context associated with simulations.

Societal procsses (e.g., Ghetto, Democracy), cultural conflicts (e.g., Bafa Bafa), historical eras (e.g., Empire, Manchester), and ecological systems (e.g., Extinction) are popular topics.

Simulation Games

Cooperative Simulation Games

In recent years, sports psychologist and educational psychologist have developed new theories questioning the value and necessity of competition in human development. Cooperative games challenge the body and imagination but that depend on cooperation for success.

Mastery Learning

The mastery learning approach grows out of the theory that students differ in the amount of time needed to master each objective, not in their inherent ability to learn the subject matter.

They have developed a specific technology, known as Learning for Mastery (LFM), that incorporates specific procedure to implement mastery learning. The heart of LFM is the teach-test-reteach-retest cycle.

Programmed Teaching

Programmed teaching, also known as Direct Instruction, is an attempts to apply the principles of programmed instruction in a large-group setting.

Programmed teaching lessons are designed to generate high rates of responding by all students. To avoid inattention or mere imitation of other student’s responses, all are required to respond vocally at the same time, at a hand signal by the instructor. When the teacher detects an error, he or she follows the procedures specirfied in the protocol to correct and remediate the error.

Programmed teaching has been used successfully in numerous experimental programs in North America and many other parts of the world, including the Philippines, Indonesia, and Liberia in the primary grades.

Print References

Heinich, R., dkk. 1993. Instructional Media And Technologies For Learning. New Jersey. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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Process technology