Processing and Finishing of Polymeric Materials

Volume 1

Processing and Finishing of Polymeric Materials Editorial Staff

Vice President, STMS Books: Janet Bailey

Executive Editor: Arza Seidel

Associate Developmental Editor: Erin Arndt

Production Manager: Shirley Thomas

Senior Production Editor: Kristen Parrish

Illustration Manager: Dean Gonzalez

Processing and Finishing of Polymeric Materials

Volume 1

® WI LEY A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Processing and finishing of polymeric materials. p. cm.

Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-88917-6 (hardback)

1. Plastics-Encyclopedias. 2. Polymers-Encyclopedias. 3. Polymerization-Encyclopedias.

TP1110.P76 2011 620.1'923-dc22

2011002985 Printed in Singapore

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

Volume 1 Additives 1 Annealing 20 Antifoaming Agents 32 Antistatic Agents 50 Blending 86 Bleaching Agents 144 Blow Molding 182 Blowing Agents 227 Calendering 239 Carbon Black 254 Casting 293 Coating Methods, Powder Technology 310 Coating Methods, Spray 343 Coating Methods, Survey 352 Coatings 387 Coextrusion 461 Coloring Processes 485 Compression and Transfer Molding 494 Composites, Fabrication 521 Compounding 562 Crystallization Kinetics 576 Decorating 609 Dielectric Heating 629 Drying 651 Dyeing 684

Volume 2 Electrospinning 747 Embedding 766 Extrusion 795 Films, Manufacture 857 Injection Molding 879 Machining 911 Metallizing 947 Microcellular Plastics 987 Mixing 1005 Pelletizing 1018 Plasma Processing 1026

v

Plastics Processing 1066 Processing, Modeling 1094 Radiation Curing 1118 Recycling, Plastics 1148 Reinforcement 1169 Rotational Molding 1190 Rubber Compounding 1202 Sheeting 1260 Solid-State Extrusion 1280 Stabilization 1296 Supercritical Fluids 1346 Thermoforming 1381

Index 1411

vi

PREFACE

Owing to their versatility and wide range of applications, polymeric materials are of great commercial importance. Manufacturing processes of commercial products are designed to meet the requirements of the final product and are influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the polymeric material used.

The two-volume set Processing and Finishing of Polymeric Materials offers over 45 self-contained articles written by prominent scholars from around the world. The articles provide comprehensive, up-to-date information on key manu-facturing technologies, including blending, compounding, extrusion, molding, coating, and more.

Containing carefully selected reprints from Wiley's renowned Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology and additional sources that also appear online, as well as new contributions, this reference features the same breadth and quality of coverage and clarity of presentation found in the original. This reliable refer-ence will be of particular interest to polymer and materials scientists, chemists, chemical engineers, process engineers, students, researchers, and educators in re-lated fields, and consultants and suppliers in the plastic and related industries.

VII

CONTRIBUTORS

S. Al-Malaika, Aston University, Stabilization Stephen M. Andrews, Basf Corporation, Additives Steve Andrzejewski, Ashland Distribution, Rotational Molding Sam Belcher, Consultant, Blow Molding V. A. Beloshenko, Donetsk Physics and Technology, Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Donetsk, Ukraine, Solid-State Extrusion Y. E. Beygelzimer, Donetsk Physics and Technology, Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Donetsk, Ukraine, Solid-State Extrusion John W. Bozzelli , Injection Molding Solutions, Midland, Michigan, Injection Molding H. Henning Bunge, Dayglo Corporation, Dyeing Robert Carpenter, Windsor Plastics, Decorating Artur Cavaco-Paulo, University ofMinito, Bleaching Agents A. William M. Coaker, Consultant, Calendering K. J. Coeling, Nordson Corporation, Coating Methods, Spray Edward D. Cohen, Technical Consultant, Coating Methods, Survey Gene Collard, Alternative Screen Printing, Decorating Donna Dawson, W. Brandt Goldsworthy & Associates, Torrance, California, Composites, Fabrication Morton Denn, The Levich Institute, City College of the City University of New York, New York, Processing, Modeling Phil l ip T. Dodge, Lyondell Chemical Company's Cincinnati Technology Center, Rotational Molding J o s e p h Dooley, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Coextrusion Lewis Erwin, Kraft Company, Mixing James P. Farr, The Chlorox Company, Bleaching Agents Ivan Fortelny, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Blending W. Brandt Goldsworthy, W. Brandt Goldsworthy & Associates, Torrance, Cali-fornia, Composites, Fabrication Charles A. Gray, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon Black Edgar B. Gutoff, Consulting Chemical Engineer, Coating Methods, Survey William C. Harbison, Swedlow, Inc., Casting Rhomie L. Heck III, Uniroyal Chemical Group, Blowing Agents Scott Heitzman, Sun Chemical, Cincinnati, Ohio, Coloring Processes Drahomira Hlavata, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sci-ences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Blending Jamie K. Hobbs, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom, Crystallization Kinetics Zdenek Horäk, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Blending John L. Hull, Hull Corporation, Compression and Transfer Molding K. Khait, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, Recycling, Plastics

ix

x CONTRIBUTORS

William Klingensmith, Akron Rubber Consulting, Akron, Ohio, Rubber Com-pounding Phil ipp Kloke, Institute of Polymer Engineering, University of Paderborn, Pader-born, Germany, Compounding Akira Kobayashi, Saitama University, Machining Jan Kolarik, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Blending Gerald A. Krulik, Morton Thiokol, Inc., Metallizing Rolf G. Kuehni, Mobay Chemical Corporation, Dyeing Yakov Kutsovsky, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon Black D. G. LeGrand, General Electric Company, Annealing K. J. Mackenzie, Hoechst-Celanese Corporation, Sheeting Duane Mahan, Lyondell Chemical Company's Cincinnati Technology Center, Ro-tational Molding Khaled Mahmud, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon Black Charalampos Mantelis, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland, Supercritical Fluids P. Y. McCormick, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Drying Vincent D. McGinniss, Battelle Columbus Laboratory, Radiation Curing Thierry Meyer, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzer-land, Supercritical Fluids A. Milella, Department of Chemistry, University of Bari, Bari, Italy, Plasma Pro-cessing Walter J. Miller, Pennwalt Corporation, Metallizing Eldridge M. Mount III, EMMOUNT Technologies, Films, Manufacture Michael J. Owen, Dow Corning Corporation, Midland, Michigan, Antifoaming Agents Warren J. Peascoe, Uniroyal Chemical Group, Blowing Agents Chris Rauwendaal , Rauwendaal Extrusion Engineering, Inc., Extrusion Steve R. Reznek, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon Black Douglas S. Richart, D.S. Richart Associates, Reading, Pennsylvania, Coating Methods, Powder Technology Brendan Rodgers, ExxonMobil Chemical Company, Baytown, Texas, Rubber Compounding Gregory C. Rutledge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mas-sachusetts, Electrospinning Volker Schöppner, Institute of Polymer Engineering, University of Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany, Compounding Mike Sepe, Michael P. Sepe, LLC Sedona, Arizona, Injection Molding Antonin Sikora, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, Blending William L. Smith, The Chlorox Company, Bleaching Agents Dale S. Ste ichen, The Chlorox Company, Bleaching Agents Nam P. Suh, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Microcellular Plastics John A. Thornton, University of Illinois, Metallizing James L. Throne, Sherwood Technologies, Inc., Thermoforming D. B. Todd, Baker Perkins, Inc., Pelletizing

CONTRIBUTORS xi

D. B. Todd, Polymer Processing Institute, Newark, New Jersey, Plastics Process-ing Harvey Tung, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan, Coextrusion Tzanko Tzanov, University ofMinito, Bleaching Agents Walter H. Waddell, ExxonMobil Chemical Company, Baytown, Texas, Rubber Compounding H. D. Wagner, Weizmann Institute of Science, Reinforcement Leonard E. Walp, Humko Chemical, Division of the Witco Corporation, Anti-static Agents Meng-Jiao Wang, Cabot Corporation, Billerica, Massachusetts, Carbon Black Zeno W. Wicks, Jr., Louisville, Kentucky, Coatings T. Lamont Wilson, Consultant, Dielectric Heating C. P. Wong, Georgia Institute of Technology, Embedding M. Xanthos, Polymer Processing Institute, Newark, New Jersey, Plastics Process-ing J i a n w e n Xu, Georgia Institute of Technology, Embedding J ian H. Yu, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Electrospinning

ADDITIVES

Introduction

Additives for plastics are typically organic molecules that are added to polymers in small amounts (typically 0.05 to 5.0 wt.%) during the manufacture, melt pro-cessing, or converting operations so as to improve the inherent properties of the polymeric material. Additives can be categorized in three major segments: polymer modifiers, performance enhancers, and processing aids. Pigments and Colorants are not covered in this review. Additives used exclusively in elastomers are also excluded (Antiozonants, curing accelerators, and vulcanizing agents). The global market for plastics additives in 2007-2008 timeframe was estimated in the order of $ 32 billion in value and over 12 million tons in volume when plasticizers are included (1). When the commodity plasticizers (ca. 50% of addi-tives volume) are omitted, then global consumption was about 4.7-5.5 million tons with value ranging from $16-19 billion (2). Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) by far is the largest consumer of additives (the combined volume of plasticizers and property modifiers account for 74% of global plastic additives). Polyolefins and styrenics together are the second largest volume consuming group. Global ad-ditives market growth rates for the time-period 2004-2009 were forecasted to be 4-5% annually, with China growing at 10% per year and the group of North America, Europe, and Asia (ex-China) growing at 3% each annually. The future growth of plastic additives depends on the growth of the various plastics resins and in turn on the market segments consuming plastics (mainly packaging, au-tomotive and construction). (3).

Polymer modifiers are used primarily to alter the physical or mechanical properties of the plastic. These include plasticizers, foaming (blowing) agents, coupling agents, impact modifiers, organic peroxides, and nucleating/clarifying agents. Polymer modifiers continue to account for about 11% of the total volume in 2004 of all additive classes.

Performance enhancers are added to plastics to provide functionality not inherent to the polymer itself. These include Flame Retardants (FRs), Heat Stabilizers for PVC, Antioxidants, Light Stabilizers/light-filters, Biocides, and Antistatic Agents. A newer additive family includes conductive carbon black and carbon nanotubes, graphenes, & organic conducting polymers to impart an antistatic, electromagnetic shielding or a conductive effect to plastics or paints/coatings. Performance enhancers account for 24% of the total global ad-ditives market (3) and are led by FR's with an approximate value of $827 million in the United States with 3% annual growth rate through 2011 (4).

1