PRODUCED WATER 2 Environmental Issues and Mitigation Technologies

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE RESEARCH Series Editor: Herbert S. Rosenkranz Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Graduate School of Public Health University of Pittsburgh 130 DeSoto Street Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Founding Editor: Alexander Hollaender

Recent Volumes in this Series

Volume 42 - CHEMISTRY FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT Edited by L. Pawlowski, W. J. Lacy, and J. J. Dlugosz

Volume 43 - PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES IN THE SEA Edited by Paul G. Falkowski and Avril D. Woodhead

Volume 44 - SECONDARY-METABOLITE BIOSYNTHESIS AND METABOLISM Edited by Richard J. Petroski and Susan P. McCormick

Volume 45 - GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: Linking Energy, Environment, Economy, and Equity Edited by James C. White

Volume 46 - PRODUCED WATER: Technological/Environmental Issues and Solutions Edited by James P. Ray and F. Rainer Engelhardt

Volume 47 - GLOBAL ENERGY STRATEGIES: Living with Restricted Greenhouse Gas Emissions Edited by James C. White

Volume 48 - GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC-BIOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY Ronald G. Prinn

Volume 49 - BIODEGRADATION OF NITROAROMATIC COMPOUNDS Edited by Jim C. Spain

Volume 50 - BIOMONITORS AND BIOMARKERS AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE: A Handbook Edited by Frank M. Butterworth, Lynda D. Corkum, and Judith Guzman-Rinc6n

Volume 51 - CHEMISTRY FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2 Edited by Lucjan Pawlowski, William J. Lacy, Christopher G. Uchrin, and Marzenna R. Dudzinska

Volume 52 - PRODUCED WATER 2: Environmental Issues and Mitigation Technologies Edited by Mark Reed and StAle Johnsen

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PRODUCED WATER 2 Environmental Issues and Mitigation Technologies

Edited by

Mark Reed lKU Petroleum Research Trondheim, Norway

and

Stale Johnsen STATOlL Research and Development Centre Trondheim, Norway

Plenum Press New York and London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Produced water 2 environmental issues and mlTigation technologies / edlted by Mark Reed and Stale Johnsen.

p. em. -- (Environmental SClence research; v. 52) "Proceedings of the 1995 International Produced Water Seminar.

held September 25-28, 1995, ln Trondheim, Norway"--T.p. verso. Includes bib I iographical references and index. ISBN .. 13 :978 .. ) .. 4613 .. 8025 .. 2 e .. ISBN .. 13: 978 .. ) .. 4613 .. 0379 .. 4 DOl: 10.10071978 .. 1 .. 4613 .. 0379 .. 4

1. 011 field brines--Congresses. I. Reed, Mark, 1947-II. Johnsen, Stale. III. Internatlonal Produced Water Seminar (1995

Trondhelm, Norway) IV. Series. TN871.P7175 1996 622' .33819--dc20 96-26471

CIP

Proceedings of the 1995 International Produced Water Seminar, held September 25-28, 1995, in Trondheim, Norway

ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-8025 .. 2

1996 Plenum Press, New York Sof tcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition I 996

A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

To Unni and Gretha

for their support during the lengthy process of which this volume is the final result

PREFACE

This volume constitutes the proceedings of the Produced Water Seminar held in Trondheim, Norway, in September 1995. Hosted by Statoil Research and Development and IKU Petroleum Research, the seminar was an update of the 1992 seminar of the same title held in San Diego, California (Ray and Engelhardt, 1992).

Produced water remains the largest volume waste stream from oil and gas production offshore. In the North and Norwegian Seas, produced water volumes are projected to increase significantly over the coming decades, as oil reservoirs near depletion. These releases are therefore the focus of continuing environmental concern.

The purpose of this seminar was to provide a forum for scientists, legislators, and industrial and environmental representatives to share recent information and research results, and to encourage cooperative pursuit of solutions in the future.

The success of the seminar, and the quality of this volume, are due in large part to the many authors from around the world who presented almost 50 posters and papers focused on environmental issues and mitigation technologies. In addition, we wish to acknowledge the contributions of the local and international organizing committees.

Local Committee

Asbj0fg 0verli and Heidi Torp, Statoil Egil Wanvik and Laila S. Olden, IKU Petroleum Research

International Committee

James P. Ray, Shell Chemical and Petroleum Products Companies Alexis E. Steen, American Petroleum Institute Theodor C. Sauer, Battelle Ocean Sciences Steven A. Flynn, British Petroleum Martin C. Th. Scholten, TNO Kjell Lohne, Statoil Ingvild Martinsen, Norwegian Pollution Control Authority.

Mark Reed StAle Johnsen Trondheim, Norway

vii

viii Preface

REFERENCE Ray, J. P., and R. Engelhardt, 1992. Produced Water. Proceedings of the 1992

Seminar. Plenum Press, NY.

CONTENTS

Section I. Legislative and Management Issues

1. Session Summary James P. Ray

3

2. Regulation of Produced Water on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. . . . . . . . . .. 7 Erik E. Syvertsen

3. Discharges of Produced Water to the North Sea: Effects in the Water Column. .. 13 T. I. R0e, S. Johnsen, and The Norwegian Oil Industry Association (OLF)

4. Regulation of Produced Water by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . .. 27 Allison Wiedeman

Section II. Chemistry and Toxicity Issues

5. Session Summary ................................................... 45 Alexis Steen

6. Estimating the Acute Toxicity of Produced Waters to Marine Organisms Using Predictive Toxicity Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49

David A. Pillard, Joseph E. Tietge, and James M. Evans

7. A Comparison between the Toxicity of Produced Oil and Gas Condensate Using a New Sediment Bioassay for Deposited Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61

E. M. Foekema, H. P. M. Schobben, J. Marquenie, and M. C. Th. Scholten

8. Produced Water Composition, Toxicity, and Fate: A Review of Recent BP North Sea Studies .............................................. 69

Steven A. Flynn, Ed J. Butler, and Ian Vance

9. Field Evaluation of Toxic Effects and Dispersion of Produced Water Discharges from North Sea Oil Platforms: Implications for Monitoring Acute Impacts in the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81

R. Stagg, D. J. Gore, G. F. Whale, M. F. Kirby, M. Blackburn, S. Bifield, A. D. McIntosh, I. Vance, S. A. Flynn, and A. Foster

ix

x Contents

10. Sub-Lethal Effects of Oil-Produced Water on the Early Life Stages of Turbot ... 101 Susan M. Stephens, J. Anne Brown, and Martin A. Ferguson

11. Exposure of Cod Larvae (Gadus morhua L) to Phenols in Produced Water during the Critical Period of First Feeding ........................... 113

R. Farestveit, S. Johnsen, H. Riksheim, and M. 0stensen

Section III. Environmental Effects

12. Session Summary ................................................... 125 James P. Ray

13. Ecotoxicological Risk of Produced Water Discharged from Oil Production Platforms in the Statfjord and Gullfaks Field ......................... 127

Chris C. Karman, Stale Johnsen, Henk P. M. Schobben, and Martin C. Th. Scholten

14. The N-OctanollWater Partition Coefficient: A Critical Parameter in Environmental Risk Assessment of Offshore E&P Chemicals ........... 135

Eilen Arctander Vik, Siri Bakke, David R. Johnson, and Johan Verburgh

15. Effects of the Water Soluble Fraction of Crude Oil on Marine Fish Larvae and Crustaceans ................................................... 149

Clelia Booman and Lars F0yn

16. Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Produced Water: Bioaccumulation and Trophic Transfer in Marine Food Webs .................................... 163

Jerry M. Neff and Theodor C. Sauer, Jr.

17. Delineation of Benthic Impact and Recovery at Two Produced Water Discharge Sites in Inshore Louisiana ........................................ 177

Maureen M. Mulino, Michael F. Rayle, John C. Francis, and Michael A. Poirrier

18. The Effects of Produced Water on Hydrocarbon Levels and on P4501A Monooxygenase Activity in Fish Larvae in the Northern North Sea ...... 195

R. M. Stagg, P. A. Gillibrand, A. M. McIntosh, and W. A. Turrell

Section IV. Dispersion Models

19. Session Summary ................................................... 213 Steven A. Flynn

20. Dispersion Modeling Perspectives on the Environmental Fate of Produced Water Discharges ............................................... 215

Maynard G. Brandsma and Joseph P. Smith

21. Development and Appraisal of a Particle Tracking Model for the Dispersion of Produced Water Discharged from an Oil Production Platform in the North Sea .......................................................... 225

R. Murray-Smith, D. Gore, S. A. Flynn, I. Vance, and R. Stagg

Contents xi

22. A Buoyant Jet/Plume Model for Subsea Releases .......................... 247 Helge Mohn Skiltun

23. An Intercomparison between Field Measurements and Three Different Calculation Models for Estimates of Dilution Factors .................. 257

Henrik Rye, Mark Reed, AlfMelbye, and Stille Johnsen

Section V. Environmental Modelling

24. Session Summary ................................................... 273 Mark Reed

25. Environmental Effects of Discharge and Reinjection of Produced Water ....... 275 Edgar Furuholt

26. The Role of the Supplier of Production Chemicals in Managing the Environmental Impact of Produced Water in Offshore Oil and Gas Production .................................................... 289

Albert Bos

27. An Introduction to the CHARM Model .................................. 295 Henk P. M. Schobben, Eilen A. Vik, Guus G. Hutjes, Chris C. Karman, and

Gro D. 0fjord

28. The Charm Model Used in Environmental Risk Management of Produced Water on Ula .................................................. 303

Gro D. 0fjord, Siri Bakke. and Eilen A. Vik 29. PROVANN: A Model System for Assessing Potential Chronic Effects of

Produced Water ................................................ 317 Mark Reed, Stille Johnsen, AlfMelbye, and Henrik Rye

Section VI. U.S. DOE: Gulf of Mexico Studies

30. Session Summary ................................................... 333 David S. Gettleson

31. U.S. Department of Energy Sponsored Study - Environmental and Economic Assessment of Discharges from Gulf of Mexico Region Oil and Gas Operations: An Overview ........................................ 335

Brent W. Smith and David A. Gettleson

32. Assessing the Potential for Enhanced Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals from Produced Water Discharges to the Gulf of Mexico .................... 339

John H. Trefry, Robert P. Trocine, Kelly L. Naito, and Simone Metz

33. An Ecological Risk Assessment for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Produced Water Discharges to the Western Gulf of Mexico ............. 355

Jerry M. Neff and Theodor C. Sauer, Jr.

xii Contents

34. Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Associated with Offshore Produced Water Discharges in the Gulf of Mexico ............................ 367

Alan D. Hart, Bruce D. Graham, David A. Gettleson, David L. Demorest, and Brent W. Smith

35. Distribution of Finfish Caught Near Oilfield Structures along Coastal Louisiana and Texas ............................................ 381

Fred E. Schultz, Stephen E. Steimle, Maureen M. Mulino, John C. Francis, and Donna H. Redmann

36. Risk Assessment for Produced Water Discharges to Open Bays in Louisiana .... 395 Anne F. Meinhold, Seymour Holtzman, and Michael P. DePhillips

Section VII. Technology for Mitigation

37. Session Summary ................................................... 413 Kjell Lohne

38. Air Stripping Combined with FlO Detection for Oil-in-Water Analysis ........ 415 Arne Lund Kvernheim, Kristin Eitrem Landmark, Hanne M. 0ren, and

Ingolf Caspari

39. Dissolved Component Removal from Oilfield Waters ...................... 425 R. W. Turnbull and S. J. Tulloch

40. Report on the Start-up of a Unique Hydrocyclone-Based System for Treating Produced Water ................................................ 431

Craig Dotson, Richard Huff, and Steven R. Haskin

41. Produced Water Reinjection (PWRI): Experiences from the Ula Field ......... 447 Siri Bakke, Eilen A. Vik, Hans Gruner, and Thor A. Hjelmiis

42. Down Hole Separation (DHS) Technology ............................... 459 J. F. Michelet

43. Evaluation ofNFIUF Membrane Treatment in De-Oiling Produced Water in-Situ at a Heavy-Oil Production Facility in Western Canada ........... 471

J. Fraser, A. Zaidi, M. Preston, T. Liu, and E. Doyle

44. Agip and the Environment: Disposal of Produced Water from Gas Fields Exploitation in the Adriatic Sea ................................... 485

M. Buffagni, D. Giacca, and C. Biancifiori

45. Biological Treatment Process for Removing Petroleum Hydrocarbons from Oilfield Produced Waters ........................................ 499

Gilbert Tellez and Nirmala Khandan

46. Pretreatment of Oil Field and Mine Waste Waters for Reverse Osmosis ........ 509 W. L. Bourcier, H. Brandt, and J. H. Tait

Contents xiii

47. Comparison of Injectivity Prediction Models to Estimate Ula Field Injector Performance for Produced Water Reinjection ...................... .52 I

Claas Van Der Zwaag and Lars 0yno

Index ................................................................. 533