Product Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment Using Input ...€¦ · Life-cycle assessment (LCA) facilitates a systems view in environmental evaluation of products, materials, and

copy Copyright 2000 by the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology and Yale University

Volume 3 Number 2 amp 3

y R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LYS I S

Journal of Industrial Ecology 95

Product EnvironmentalLife-Cycle Assessment UsingInput-Output TechniquesSatish JoshiJames Madison CollegeMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing MI USA

y

Summary

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) facilitates a systems view inenvironmental evaluation of products materials and pro-cesses Life-cycle assessment attempts to quantify environ-mental burdens over the entire life-cycle of a product fromraw material extraction manufacturing and use to ultimatedisposal However current methods for LCA suffer fromproblems of subjective boundary definition inflexibilityhigh cost data confidentiality and aggregation

This paper proposes alternative models to conductquick cost effective and yet comprehensive life-cycle as-sessments The core of the analytical model consists of the498 sector economic input-output tables for the USeconomy augmented with various sector-level environ-mental impact vectors The environmental impacts cov-ered include global warming acidificat ion energy use non-renewable ores consumption eutrophication conven-tional pollutant emissions and toxic releases to the envi-ronment Alternative models are proposed forenvironmental assessment of individual products pro-cesses and life-cycle stages by selective disaggregation ofaggregate input-output data or by creation of hypotheticalnew commodity sectors To demonstrate the method acase study comparing the life-cycle environmental perfor-mance of steel and plastic automobile fuel tank systems ispresented

y

Keywords

automobile fuel tanksdesign for environment (DfE)input-output analysisISO 14000life-cycle assessment (LCA)product evaluation

Address correspondence toSatish Joshi313 Case HallJames Madison CollegeMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing MI 48824 USASatishpilotmsueduhttpwwwmsueduusersatish

y R E S EA RC H AN D AN ALYS I S

96 Journal of Industrial Ecology

Introduction

Environmentally conscious decision makingrequires information about environmental conse-quences of alternative products processes or ac-tivities Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is asystematic tool to analyze and assess environmen-tal impacts over the entire life cycle of productLCA involves tracing out the major stages andprocesses involved over the life cycle of a productcovering raw materials extraction manufactur-ing product use recycling and final disposalidentifying and quantifying the environmentalimpacts at each stage The goal of LCA is to fa-cilitate a systems view in product and processevaluation (Lave et al 1995 Miettinen andHamalainen 1997 Keoleian and Menerery 1993)

The LCA approach is widely recognized as auseful framework and attempts are underway tointegrate life-cycle thinking into business deci-sions A major international initiative in thisdirection is the series of environmental manage-ment standards (EMS) proposed by the Interna-tional Standards Organization widely known asISO 14000 Standards being developed for in-clusion under ISO 14000 include principles andguidelines for conducting LCA for productevaluation (Tibor and Feldman 1996) Similarlythe document ldquoGuidance on acquisition of envi-ronmentally preferable products and servicesrdquoprepared by the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency (US EPA) to help imple-ment the Presidentrsquos Executive order 12873 rec-ommends LCA approach in all federalprocurement (US EPA 1995c Vigon et al1993) Many eco-labeling and product take backregulations in Europe require life-cycle environ-mental analysis of products (Davis 1993)

Although conceptually simple and appealingLCAs are difficult to carry out in reality Produc-tion of most typical products and materials re-quires a large number of diverse inputs which inturn use many other inputs in their productionOften there are interdependencies in inputswhich have to be modeled Attempting to traceall the direct and indirect inputs and associatedenvironmental burdens all the way to ultimateraw material extraction becomes an unwieldyexercise For example steel making requires alarge number of inputs including iron ore lime-

stone coke electricity chemicals alloys rail-road services computer support and so onwhich in turn draw on resources from almost allsectors of the economy including the steel in-dustry In order to keep the analysis tractablemost LCAs limit the scope of analysis only to themajor inputs at each stage leading to problemsof subjective boundary definition and compara-bility across studies Moreover data on input re-quirements and emissions for even suchtruncated LCAs have to be collected from a largenumber of different suppliers leading to highcost time and issues of data confidentiality andverifiability As a result LCA is considered aflawed tool that cannot deliver what it promises(Portney 1993 Arnold 1993 Lave et al 1995)

To address the problem of subjective bound-ary definition in conventional LCA Lave andcolleagues proposed using economic input-out-put analysis techniques in LCA (Lave et al1995) Economic input-output life-cycle assess-ment (EIO-LCA) takes a top-down approachand treats the whole economy as the boundaryof analysis Another strength of EIO-LCA ap-proach is that economy-wide interdependenciesin inputs are modeled as a set of linear simulta-neous equations Although less common andlimited in scope the representation of input in-terdependencies as systems of equations can befound elsewhere in the LCA literature For ex-ample Pento constructs input-output matricesfor the paper industry in his dynamic life-cycleinventory modeling (Pento 1997) Similarly thecommercially available KCL-ECO LCA pro-gram represents product life-cycle inventory as aset of linear equations of physical quantities(Karna and Engstrom 1994)

Lave and colleagues implement their eco-nomic input-output life-cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) model using 498 acute 498 commodity sectordirect requirements matrix published by theUS Department of Commerce as a part of the1987 US input-output tables (US Commerce1994) They augment the direct requirementsmatrix with sector-level toxic release emissionfactors and electricity use intensity They ap-proximate the product whose LCA is requiredby the corresponding commodity sector For ex-ample in comparing the life-cycle environmen-tal burdens of paper cups and plastic cups they

Joshi Product Input-Output Life-Cycle Assessment 97

R E S E AR C H AN D AN ALYS I S y

approximate paper cups by the industry sectorldquoPaperboard Containers and Boxesrdquo and plasticcups by the industry sector ldquoPlastic Materialsand Resinsrdquo The life-cycle toxic emissions andelectricity use from paper cup and plastic cupproduction are approximated by economy-wideimpacts to meet a given incremental final de-mand of the corresponding commodity sectors

EIO-LCA as proposed leads to a consistentboundary definition However it is still subjectto several well-recognized limitations (Lave etal 1995) First the product of interest is ap-proximated by its commodity sector in the na-tional input-output tables with respect to inputrequirements and environmental coefficientsBut the commodity sectors in the national in-put-output tables are broad aggregates that in-clude a large number of products As a resultcurrent EIO-LCA is appropriate for comparingaggregate disparate products that are well ap-proximated by their commodity sectors but notfor comparing heterogeneous products within acommodity sector or products that differ signifi-cantly from representative output of the sectoror completely new products Second EIO-LCAcaptures the upstream environmental burdensassociated with raw materials acquisition andmanufacturing stages but not those associatedwith product use and end-of-life options

This paper extends the EIO-LCA approach toprovide a flexible tool for comprehensive LCA ofproducts The core of the analytical model con-tinues to be the 498 commodity sector direct re-quirements matrix for the US economyaugmented with various sector-level environmen-tal impact vectors The environmental impactscovered are significantly expanded to include glo-bal warming acidification energy use non-re-newable ores consumption eutrophication andconventional pollutant emissions Alternativemodels are proposed for environmental assess-ment of individual products processes and life-cycle stages by selective disaggregation ofaggregate input-output data or by creation of hy-pothetical new commodity sectors To demon-strate the method a case study comparing thelife-cycle environmental performance of steel andplastic automobile fuel tank systems is presented

The remainder of the paper is organized asfollows in the next section I describe the math-

ematical structure of the basic EIO-LCA I thenpresent alternative models for conducting LCAof individual products the development of vari-ous environmental impact matrices an illustra-tive case study comparing steel and plasticautomobile fuel tank systems followed by con-clusions and discussion

Mathematical Structure ofEconomic Input-Output Life-Cycle Assessment

Input-output analysis is a well-established toolin economic analysis where the interdependen-cies across different sectors of the economy arerepresented by a set of linear equations The coreof the model is the inter-sectoral direct require-ments (or technical coefficients) matrix denotedas a An element a

ij of matrix a represents the dol-

lar value of input required from sector i to produceone dollar worth output of sector j ( i = 1n andj = 1n) Let x represent the vector of total out-puts of the sectors The exogenous change in finaldemand for the output of these sectors is repre-sented by a vector f (For a more detailed descrip-tion of input-output analysis underlyingassumptions about the structure of the economyand limitations refer to the work of Leontief(1966) Miller and Blair (1985) Hendrickson andcolleagues (1998) and the US Department ofCommerce (US Commerce 1994)

Because the total output of a sector is the sumof final demand f and intermediate demand ax(ie demand as input requirement for producingthe output of other sectors) the input-outputsystem can be written

x ndash ax = f (1)

The vector of sectoral outputs to meet agiven exogenous demand f is obtained by pre-multiplying (1) by [ I ndash a ]ndash1

x = [I ndash a]ndash1 f (2)

The input-output technique can be extendedfor environmental analysis1 Suppose r is a k nmatrix of environmental burden coefficientswhere r

k j is environmental burden k (eg carbon

monoxide emissions) per dollar output of sectorj and e is the vector of total environmental bur-dens then the economy-wide total (direct and



indirect) environmental burden associated withan exogenous demand vector f becomes

e = rx = r [I ndash a]ndash1f (3)

The environmental burden matrix r can in-clude coefficient vectors for any environmentalimpact of interest such as energy use non-renew-able resource use greenhouse gas emissions etcThe contribution of individual industry sectors tothe total environmental burden can be found byreplacing each of the environmental burden co-efficient vectors in r by its diagonal matrix

In theory one can develop very large techni-cal coefficient and environmental burden matri-ces representing all possible products as separatecommodity sectors and then use equation (3) toestimate economy-wide burdens to meet an in-cremental demand for any product Howeverthis approach is not practical in view of the im-mense data requirements The largest availabletechnical coefficient matrix published by theUS Department of Commerce has 498 com-modity sectors (US Commerce 1994)

Models of Economic Input-Output Life-Cycle Analysis ofProducts

Equation (3) gives the direct and indirectenvironmental burden associated with an exog-enous change in the demand for the output ofthe sector as a whole However a typical productLCA involves estimation of environmental bur-den associated with an exogenous increase inthe demand of a specific product which mightbe different from the average output of an indus-trial sector with respect to both technical andenvironmental discharge coefficients or a com-pletely new productdesign I present several al-ternative models in order of increasing degreeof comprehensiveness complexity and data in-tensity for carrying out such product LCA

Model I Approximating the Productby its Sector

This is the simplest model in which the prod-uct of interest is assumed to be well approxi-mated by its industry sector with respect to bothtechnical and environmental burden coeffi-

cients (Approximation used in Lave et al 1995Cobas-Flores 1996 Horvath 1997) Direct andindirect effects of incremental output of a par-ticular product can then be estimated by treatingit as a change in exogenous demand for the out-put of the sector The implicit assumption hereis that input requirements and environmentalburdens are proportional to product price Thisapproach is simple quick and does not requireany additional data It provides useful informa-tion especially when comparing broad industrysectors or typical outputs of industry sectors Itis also useful as an initial screening device to pri-oritize further data collection efforts

Model II Product as a New HypotheticalIndustry Sector

Often it is necessary to conduct an LCA of anexisting product that is not a representative out-put of its commodity sector or a completely newproduct If information on the inputs that are re-quired to produce the product and direct envi-ronmental burdens from the production processare available then the product of interest can berepresented as a new hypothetical sector enteringinto the economy The economy-wide environ-mental burdens arising from a unit output of thenew industry sector can then be estimated

Let a = [aij ] i j = 1 2n be the current

aggregate technical coefficient matrix of theeconomy with n sectors Assume the product isrepresented as sector n+1 Let ain+1 be dollarvalue of input required from sector i i=1n+1to produce a dollar worth of the product Furtherassume that the inputs used in its production arerepresentative output of the sectors from whichthey are drawn Let [ r

n+1 ] be the column vectorof environmental burdens associated with a dol-lar worth output of sector n+1

Define a new technical coefficient matrix Awhere the first n row and column elements re-main unchanged from a

An

=eacute

eumlecirc

ugrave

ucircuacute

+

a a i n+1

0 a 1

Similarly the new environmental burden matrixis reformulated as

R = [ r1 rn rn+1 ]



The economy-wide environmental burden Eassociated with an output f

n+1 of the new sector

n+1 is

E = RX= R [ I ndash A ]ndash1 F (4)

where F t = [0hellip0 f n+1

]Alternatively one can consider that output

of the product results in exogenous increases inthe demand for its input requirements in theeconomy ie the changes in exogenous demandvector f1 is equal to the input requirement vec-tor for producing f

n+1 dollars worth of output of

the product The total environmental burdenassociated with the product is then the sum ofenvironmental burden associated with the pro-duction of its input requirements and the directenvironmental burden associated with its pro-duction f

n+1 acute r

n+1 (This is the ldquofinal demand

approachrdquo outlined by Miller and Blair (1985))

E = r [ I ndash a ]ndash1 f1 + fn+1 r

n+1(5)

Equations (4) and (5) are equivalent

Model III Disaggregating an ExistingIndustry Sector

The underlying assumption in Model II is thatthe original technical coefficient matrix is unaf-fected by the introduction of the new sectorHowever this may not always be the case becausemost products of interest are already included inexisting commodity sectors and often used as in-termediate inputs in other sectors Suppose thatthe total environmental burden associated withexogenous changes in demand for a productwhich is already included in one of the existingsectors needs to be estimated The sector say sec-tor n which includes the product of interest canbe disaggregated into two sectors one of which isthe product of our interest (sector n+1) and theother sector consisting of all other productswithin the sector For example for conductingLCA of paper cups the sector ldquoPaperboard Con-tainers and Boxesrdquo can be disaggregated into twosectors ldquoPaper Cupsrdquo and ldquoAll Other Products inPaperboard Containers and Boxes Except PaperCupsrdquo It means a new n+1 acute n+1 technical co-efficient matrix A with elements A

ij has to be

derived to represent the same economy repre-sented by n acute n matrix a (with elements a

ij)

The first n ndash 1 sectors of a and A are iden-tical because the original sector n in a is a lin-ear aggregation of sectors n and n+1 in A

ain = (1 ndash s) A

in + s A

i n+1 (6)

where s is the share of product n+1 in thetotal output of original aggregate sector n

Similarly the purchases of sector j from ag-gregate sector n in a is the sum of purchasesfrom disaggregated sectors n and n+1 in A ie

an j

= An j

+ An+1 j

(7)

Also

ann

= (1 ndash s)(An n

+ A n+1 n

) + s(A

n n+1 + A

n+1 n+1 ) (8)

Equations (6) to (8) are the constraints onthe coefficients of A such that aggregation ofsectors n and n+1 in A yields a A has a totalof 4n unknown coefficients However becausethere are 2n ndash 1 constraints on these coeffi-cients data on only 2n + 1 coefficients is re-quired The share s of the product of our interestin the aggregate output of the original sector ncan easily be obtained from secondary sourcesThe technical coefficient vector [ A

in+1 ] for the

product of interest can be estimated from a de-tailed cost sheet of the product because the ele-ment A

in+1 is dollars worth of inputs from sectori required to produce a dollar worth of the prod-uct n+1 Data on the sales of product n+1 todifferent existing sectors j of the economy is re-quired to estimate coefficients A

n+1j The firms

manufacturing the product typically have infor-mation on the markets and market shares for itsproducts

Similarly if r = [ r1rn ] the environmen-tal burden matrix associated with the originalmatrix is available only data on the direct en-vironmental burden vector Rn+1 associatedwith the product n+1 is needed to obtain thedisaggregated environmental burden matrix Rbecause

rn = (1 ndash s) R

n + sR

n+1 (9)

Once the disaggregated matrices A and R aredeveloped the total environmental burden asso-ciated with exogenous changes in the demandfor the product (ie output of sector n+1) can beobtained from equation (4)


100 Jour nal of Industrial Ecology

Model IV Iterative Disaggregation Whena Limited Conventional LCA Is Available

The approach outlined in Model III can eas-ily be extended and generalized when more de-tailed information on more than one stage of theupstream inputs is available typically in theform of a conventional LCA An expandedtechnical coefficient matrix A and environmen-tal burden matrix R can be developed by itera-tive disaggregation of relevant sectors andcreating additional industry sectors correspond-ing to each product or input for which detailedinformation is available

To continue with the paper cup example sup-pose a conventional LCA process model providesdetailed information on the inputs and environ-mental burdens from the paper cup productionprocess and production of wax paper used in pa-per cup manufacture Based on this informationthe sector ldquoPaperboard Containers and Boxesrdquocan be disaggregated into ldquoPaper Cupsrdquo andldquoOthers Except Paper Cupsrdquo sectors and the sec-tor ldquoPaperboard and Paper Millsrdquo can be disaggre-gated into ldquoWax Paperrdquo and ldquoAll Other PaperMill Products Except Wax Paperrdquo sectors Theother inputs for which detailed process modelsare not available can be approximated by theircorresponding commodity sectors (which typi-cally are excluded in a conventional LCA)

To present a general case suppose a (with el-ements a

ij) is the aggregate matrix and a disag-

gregated matrix A (with elements Aijkl ) where

each of the aggregate sectors has been disaggre-gated into k subsectors ( k may vary for each sec-tor) is needed Let s

ik be the share of output of

the kth subsector in the total output of aggregatesector i Similarly let r

ik be the environmental

burden vector associated with a dollar output ofkth subsector of aggregate sector i

Along the lines of constraints (6) to (9) fol-lowing are the constraints on the elements of A

aring =k

ik

s 1 (10)

a s Aijk

ik

ijkl= aring (11)

a Aijl

ijkl= aring (12)

r s Rik

ik

ik= aring (13)

The information on input requirements anddirect environmental burdens from the manufac-turing process of intermediate inputs available inthe conventional LCA is incorporated as inModel III to derive the larger disaggregated ma-trix The expanded technical coefficient matrixand environmental burden matrices can then beused to estimate the total environmental burdenassociated with an increase in exogenous de-mand for the productindustry sector of interest

In essence this approach incorporates all thedetailed information available approximates miss-ing information and at the same time maintainsthe whole economy as the boundary of analysis

Model V Inclusion of the Use Phaseof Product Life-Cycle Assessment

Alternative designs of durable goods such asautomobiles home heating devices and washingmachines may differ not only in the environmen-tal burdens in the manufacturing stage but also inresource consumption and environmental impactsin the use phase of their life-cycle With some sim-plifying assumptions the above models especiallyModel II can be used to estimate direct and indi-rect resource use and environmental burdens fromthe product use phase The use phase can betreated as a hypothetical industry sector that drawsinputs from the existing sectors and has some asso-ciated environmental burdens The life-cycle bur-dens associated with all the inputs in the use phasecan be estimated by economy-wide impacts for agiven output of the hypothetical industry sectorThe underlying strong assumption in this approachis that the technical coefficients matrix for theeconomy remains unchanged during the lifetime ofthe product and the time discount rate for envi-ronmental burdens is zero This might be a goodapproximation when products have short lifespans Even when the products have longer lifespans this approach provides a good starting pointby providing comparative information under thecurrent state of the technology

Model VI Inclusion of End-of-LifeManagement Options

The product EIO-LCA approach can be ex-tended to analyze life-cycle environmental bur-



dens from management options at the end of theuseful life of a product such as reuse remanu-facturing recycling or disposal End-of-life (EoL)management options such as recycling use in-puts from existing industry sectors to process anobsolete product and produce an output which isdemanded either for final consumption or as anintermediate input by other sectors Typicallyremanufactured products are used by the sameindustry sector as substitutes for new compo-nents while recycled output may be demandedby completely different sectors Hence these op-tions can be conceptually treated as additionalhypothetical industry sectors in EIO-LCA

The net environmental impact from EoLmanagement is the sum of life-cycle burdens frominputs used in EOLM direct impacts from EOLMprocess itself and credits for the recycled prod-uct For example the net environmental impactfrom recycling aluminum beverage cans is thesum of life-cycle environmental burdens from allthe inputs used in collecting and processing thecans environmental burdens from the aluminumrecovery process itself and the credits for the re-cycled aluminum When a recovered product cansubstitute the output of an existing industry sec-tor the environmental credit for recovered prod-uct is the avoided life-cycle environmentalburdens from this substitution For example if aton of aluminum scrap recycling results in the re-covery of 06 MT of aluminum valued at $500then the appropriate credit for recovered alumi-num is the avoided economy-wide burdens froma reduction of $500 in the final demand for theoutput of the primary aluminum sector Whenthe recovery process results in many products orthe recovered products are likely to be used bymany other industry sectors new industry sectorsrepresenting the EOLM options can be added tothe input-output matrix Appropriate adjust-ments can be made for the technical and envi-ronmental coefficients for the existing industrysectors However in using this approach thetemporal effects of the useful life of the productare once again assumed away

The above models show how the EIO-LCAframework can be extended to conduct LCAs ofindividual products and life-cycle stages Themodels also show how more product-specific dataavailable in a conventional LCA can be inte-

grated with EIO-LCA thus overcoming prob-lems of subjective boundary definition in con-ventional LCA and aggregation problems inEIO-LCA Further these models are flexible De-pending on the data and cost constraints LCAsof different levels of complexity and accuracy canbe conducted while consistently maintaining theboundary of analysis as the whole economy withall its associated interdependencies

Development of ComprehensiveEnvironmental Impact Matrices

We augment the 498 acute 498 commodity bycommodity direct requirements (or technicalcoefficients) matrix of the US economy for theyear 1987 with estimates of various environ-mental burdensdollar output of each commod-ity sector Only publicly available data sourcesare used which have advantages of large samplesize transparency of methods verifiability andperiodic updating by public agencies The gen-eral impact themes covered include

energy use non-renewable ores use conventional pollutant emissions toxic releases hazardous solid waste generation and fertilizer use (as an indicator of the

eutrophication potential)

Impacts from individual pollutant emissions areaggregated and summarized using appropriateweighting factors such as global warming poten-tial acidification potential ozone depletion po-tential and toxicity weighting factors Similarlytotal energy use is derived by aggregating theheating values of individual fuels2 The values ofoutput of the six-digit US input-output com-modity (US-IO) sectors are from the benchmarkinput-output accounts for the US economypublished by the US Department of Commerce(US Commerce 1994) The various datasources are summarized in table 1 More detailson the estimation procedures data sources andlimitations are available (Joshi 1998)

Fuel use and energy consumption Data on pur-chases of different fuels by the six-digit US-IOsectors are from the work files used in preparationof the 1987 benchmark input-output accounts for



the US economy available from the US De-partment of Commerce (henceforth referred to asUS-IO work files) These work files provide dataon the value of purchases of about 7000 com-modities including major fuels by various indus-try sectors The quantity estimates are based onaverage prices of individual fuels The data onelectricity use by the industry sectors are from theUS Census of Manufactures (US Commerce1987) The total energy consumption is calcu-lated by summing the energy content of differentfossil fuels and electricity from non-fossil sources

Non-renewable ores use Data on value of di-rect purchases of various ores by different indus-try sectors are available in the US-IO work filesThe average producer price data for differentores from the Minerals Yearbook (USBM 1988)are used to estimate consumption intensities ofores by different industry sectors

Toxic releases The earlier EIO-LCA model de-veloped by Lave and colleagues (Lave et al 1995Cobas-Flores 1996) included data on toxicchemical emission coefficients at sector level forover three hundred chemicals estimated fromUS EPArsquos Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data-base (US EPA 1995b) Horvath and colleagues(1995) proposed a toxicity weighting scheme foraggregating TRI chemicals called CMU-ETwherein the time-weighted average thresholdlimit values of various chemicals relative to thethreshold limit value of sulfuric acid are used asweights The threshold limit value is the air con-

centration of the chemical that cannot be ex-ceeded during any eight-hour work shift of a forty-hour work week as per the occupational healthguidelines of the American Conference of Gov-ernmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) TheCMU-ET weighting factors are included in thisEIO-LCA model as first-level approximations tothe health effects of toxic emissions While sev-eral other indices covering a range of toxic effectshave been proposed data on these indices areavailable only for a few chemicals compared toCMU-ET (Horvath et al 1995)

Fertilizer use (eutrophication) Eutrophicationof the environment involves disturbance of eco-logical processes in water and soil due to an ex-cessive supply of plant nutrients in the form ofnitrogen compounds and phosphates As a resultof eutrophication plant species that thrive inlow-nutrient environments disappear Also in-creasing nitrate levels in ground water affectdrinking water quality (Adriaanse 1993) Themain agents responsible for eutrophication arephosphates and nitrates The main sources areapplication of fertilizers and manure to soil inagriculture and discharge of wastewater into sur-face water The actual eutrophication effect fromfertilizer use depends on application rates fre-quency runoff soil conditions topographybackground concentrations and distance andsize of the water bodies Fertilizer purchasesdol-lar output by different industry sectors are in-cluded in the environmental impact matrix only

Table 1 Summary of environmental impacts included in EIO-LCA and data sources

Environmental impact area Data sources

Energy ConsumptionFossil Fuel Consumption US-IO work files 1987 (US Commerce 1994)Electricity Consumption US Census of Manufactures 1987

(US Commerce 1987)Non-renewable Ore Consumption US-IO work files 1987Fertilizer Consumption (Eutrophication) US-IO work files 1987Toxic Chemical Releases US Toxic Release Inventory 1993 (US EPA 1993b)

Toxicity Weighting Factors Horvath et al 1995RCRA Hazardous Waste US-RCRA database (Horvath 1997)Conventional Pollutant Emissions from Fuel Use US-IO work files US EPA 1995a and IPCC 1995Global Warming Potential US-IO work files IPCC 1995 USTRI 93

(US EPA 1995b)Acidification Potential US-IO work files US EPA 1995b Adriaanse 1993Ozone Depletion Potential USTRI 93 (US EPA 1995b) Horvath 1997



as an indicator of potential eutrophication Ag-gregate data on value of purchases of fertilizers byindustry sectors are extracted from the US-IOwork files The price data are from the US Cen-sus of Manufactures (US Commerce 1987)

Conventional pollutants3 As discussed earlierthe data on consumption of various fuels by indus-try sectors are extracted from US-IO work filesAverage combustion emission factors for variousfuels from US EPArsquos compilation of emission fac-tors (US EPA 1995a) and IPCC guidelines(IPCC 1995) were used to estimate total emis-sions of conventional pollutants from fuel use byvarious sectors The pollutants covered includecarbon dioxide carbon monoxide sulfur oxidesnitrogen oxides methane and volatile organiccompounds Non-fuel use-related process emis-sions are not currently included in the model

Hazardous wastes The US law governinghazardous waste management Resource Conser-vation and Recovery Act (RCRA) requires alllarge-quantity generators in the US to reportthe quantities of hazardous wastes generatedmanaged on site received from outside sourcesand shipped to off-site treatment storage anddisposal facilities Sectoral intensities for hazard-ous waste generation on-site management andoff-site shipments using the RCRA database atUS EPA were developed by Horvath (Horvath1997) These have been included in the EIO-LCA environmental matrix

Greenhouse gas emissions and Global WarmingPotential The main greenhouse gases (GHG) arewater vapor carbon dioxide methane nitrousoxide chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) and halonsThe degree to which GHGs contribute to the glo-bal warming process depends on their concentra-tion in the troposphere and on their ability toabsorb the heat radiated by the earth This ab-sorption capacity is expressed as Global WarmingPotential (GWP) relative to carbon dioxide(IPCC 1995 Wuebbles 1995 Adriaanse 1993)GWP of different pollutants are used as weightingfactors in aggregating GHG emissions The emis-sions of carbon dioxide nitrogen oxides andmethane from fuel combustion were estimated asdetailed earlier The TRI list of chemicals in-cludes most of the CFCs and halons The data onthe air emissions of CFCs and halons are from the1993 US Toxic Releases Inventory (US EPA

1995b) These have been incorporated in the en-vironmental impact matrix in EIO-LCA

Acid rain and total acidification potential Thethree main contributors to acid rain are sulfuroxides (SOx) nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammo-nia We include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NOx

emissions from fuel combustion The data onammonia releases are from the US Toxic Re-leases Inventory (US EPA 1995b) These emis-sions are aggregated using their relativeacidification potentials as weighting factors 12mole (32 grams) of sulfur dioxide has the sameacidification potential as 1 mole (46 grams) ofnitrogen dioxide and 1 mole (17 grams) of am-monia (Adriaanse 1993) Aeq is the aggregateacidification potential in SO2 equivalents

Stratospheric ozone depletion Chlorofluorocar-bons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons (halons)owing to their catalytic effect trigger off a com-plex chain reaction that results in decompositionof ozone in the stratosphere The extent to whichthese chemicals contribute to ozone depletiondepends on the atmospheric concentrations resi-dence times of these chemicals in the atmo-sphere and their ability to break down ozoneThese effects are summarized in terms of ozonedepletion potentials (ODP) of different chemi-cals relative to CFC11 ODPs are an integral partof national and international considerations onozone protection policy including the MontrealProtocol and its amendments and the US CleanAir Act (Wuebbles 1995) The sectoral emissionfactors of ozone-depleting chemicals were esti-mated from the US TRI database by Horvath(1997) and were incorporated in the environ-mental impact matrix The emissions were ag-gregated using their ODPs as weighting factors

Application of Product Input-Output Life-Cycle AnalysisSteel versus Plastic Fuel TankSystems for Automobiles

In this section the use of the product EIO-LCA model is demonstrated with a case studycomparing the life-cycle environmental perfor-mance of steel and plastic automobile fuel tanksystems

Beginning in the late seventies there hasbeen a significant movement towards more



lightweight composite materials in automobilecomponents due to increasingly stringent fuel ef-ficiency and weight reduction goals As a part ofthis trend attempts are underway to replace tra-ditional steel fuel tanks in automobiles withtanks made from lighter plastic materials It isforecast that by the year 2005 almost 60 of allpassenger cars and light trucks produced inNorth America will have fuel tanks made fromplastic materials (OSAT 1996) Modern multi-layer plastic tanks meet the functional require-ments and are cheaper However it is not clearif they are environmentally superior from a life-cycle perspective Because millions of tanks arelikely to be substituted the overall environmen-tal impacts can be significant

General Motors Corporation (GM) is replac-ing traditional steel fuel tank systems on the se-lect models of the GMT600 line of vans withnew blow-molded co-extruded multi-layerhigh-density polyethylene (HDPE) tank systemsThese two tank systems were picked as examplesA conventional LCA study comparing equiva-lent designs of these two systems was conductedby GM and the National Pollution PreventionCenter (NPPC) University of Michigan(Keoleian et al 1997) and this paper draws onprocess descriptions and data in that study

Each fuel tank system for the GM van con-sists of three major components the tank thatholds the fuel straps that secure the tank to theautomobile frame and a shield The steel tankrequires a plastic shield to protect it from dam-age and corrosion from exposure to humidityroad salt and stones while the plastic tank re-quires a steel heat shield For this comparativeanalysis other components common to the twosystems such as fuel lines fuel filters and send-ing units are excluded The fuel tank in the steeltank system is made of plain carbon steel with anickel-zinc coating and a paint coat The strapsare made of hot-dipped galvanized steel withpainted finish The tank shield is made ofHDPE The fuel tank in the plastic tank systemis a six-layer co-extruded plastic structure con-sisting of virgin and reground HDPE adhesivelayers and an ethyl vinyl alcohol (EVOH) co-polymer permeation barrier The straps are madefrom hot-dipped galvanized steel coated withPVC The heat shield is made from plain carbon

steel The designs of fuel tank systems can varydepending on the application These two arepicked for illustrating the method The analysiscan easily be modified to compare other designs

The life cycle of a fuel tank consists of fourmain stages as shown in figure 1 fuel tank manu-facture use phase on the vehicle shredding ofauto hulk to recover ferrous scrap and steel mak-ing from scrap steel in an electric arc furnace(EAF) For this analysis we draw a boundaryaround each of these stages and treat them as hy-pothetical commodity sectors which draw inputsfrom the economy and produce some undesiredemissions The final recycling stage yields steelwhich is consumed by the economy The value ofinputs and environmental burdens at each stageis estimated All the inputs at each stage are ap-proximated by their corresponding US-IO com-modity sectors The economy-wide and hencelife-cycle environmental implications are thenestimated using EIO-LCA model II (equation 5)Because fuel tanks account for a very small frac-tion of the output of the sector ldquoMotor VehicleBodies and Accessoriesrdquo and fuel tanks are con-sumed almost exclusively by their own commod-ity sector detailed disaggregation models wouldalso result in very similar estimates The aggrega-tion of results from these stages provides a com-prehensive life-cycle inventory

Life-Cycle Assessment of Steel Fuel Tank

Life-cycle environmental burdens from inputs tosteel tank manufacturing The steel tank manu-facturing process involves stamping trimmingand piercing of sheet steel welding washingtesting and assembly operations using inputssuch as steel sheet electricity dies and lubri-cants The estimated value of inputs and theUS commodity sectors by which these inputsare approximated are shown in the first 13 rowsof table 2 These estimates are partly based onthe GM-NPPC study and partly on the inputpurchases by the automotive stamping sector asreported in the US input-output tables(Keoleian et al 1997 US Commerce 1994)The economy-wide environmental burdens tomeet a final demand vector equivalent of theseinputs are estimated using equation (3) andshown in table 3



Direct environmental burdens at the manufac-turing stage Electricity and natural gas are themain sources of energy in manufacturing Theenergy associated with fuel use in electricity gen-eration has already been accounted for in theinput materials Hence the energy consumptionin the manufacturing stage is 7353MJtank fromnatural gas use Airborne emissions in steel tankmanufacture are mainly from welding opera-tions Based on the data from the GM plant

Keoleian and colleagues (1997) report air emis-sions of 02651 g of metals like zinc chromiummanganese and nickel 1841 g of particulatesand 0684 g of volatile organic compounds pertank from steel tank manufacturing Additionalemissions from burning of 129 kg (284 lb) ofnatural gas for process heat and other require-ments are included Waterborne emissions insteel tank manufacturing are mainly from tankwashing to remove the lubricant The upper

Figure 1 Life-cycle stages of an automobile fuel tank system



Table 2 Steel fuel tank Input requirements at different life-cycle stages

DollarInput US-IO commodity sector US-IO value of inputcode used as approximation sector code tank

Inputs to Tank ManufacturingCarbon steel sheet Blast Furnaces and Steel Mill Products 370101 23530HDPE shield material Plastics and Resins (HDPE Shield) 280100 1940Stamping trimming dies Dies Tools and Machine Accessories 470300 2850Transportation of finished tanks Motor Freight Transportation 650300 0930Electricity Electric Utilities 680100 0850Transportation of raw materials Railroad Transportation 650100 0270Galvanizing and coating Plating and Polishing Services 420401 0270Natural gas for boilers Gas Production and Distribution 680200 0200Packing materials Paper and Paperboard Containers 250000 0170Paints Paints and Allied Products 300000 0110Bearings and other repairs Ball and Roller Bearings 490200 0100Detergents for washing tanks Soaps and Detergents 290201 0020Lubricants and coolants Lubricants and Greases 310102 0020

Inputs to Use PhaseGasoline Petroleum Refining 310101 13720

Inputs to Auto ShreddingElectricity Electric Utility Services 680100 0055Transportation of hulks amp scrap Motor Transportation 650300 0500Shredder tools and repairs Dies Tools and Machine Accessories 470300 0102

Inputs to EAF Steel MakingLimestone lime florspar Lime and Limestone 361300 0076Refractories Non-clay Refractories 362100 0060Electrodes Carbon amp Graphite Products 530700 0208Ferroalloys Electro-metallurgical Products 370102 0069Electricity Electric Utilities 680100 0495Natural gas Gas Distribution 680200 0062Maintenance of EAF supplies Industrial Electric Equipment 530800 0131Insurance Insurance 700500 0033

Semi-finished Steel Recovered in EAFBlast furnaces and steel mill products 370101 ndash 4397

These numbers are based on CMP (1987)

limit estimates of water emissionssteel tankbased on the treatment plant data are reportedin the GM-NPPC study as 16873 g of metalsand 1708 g of oil and grease These metal emis-sions are included in the inventory of toxicchemical releases

Environmental impacts during the use phase of asteel tank The use-phase environmental impactsare the sum of the life-cycle burdens of inputs tothe use phase and the impacts during use itself

There is no independent use phase for a fueltank except as a component of an assembledvehicle Relevant portion of the environmentalburden associated with use phase of the com-plete vehicle has to be allocated to the fuel tankThe typical environmental burdens during thevehicle use phase cover life-cycle burdens ofvarious material inputs such as fuel lubricantscoolants tires and repairs and maintenance ser-vices over the lifetime of the vehicle and the



tail pipe emissions We assume that the fuel tankcontributes to vehicle use-phase environmentalimpacts only in terms of additional fuel con-sumption due to its weight and ignore incre-mental contributions to other inputs andservices Keoleian and colleaugues (1997) esti-mate the contribution of the steel tank system tovehicle lifetime fuel consumption to be 233 gal-

lons (882 liters) (Keoleian et al 1997) Thevalue of this gasoline consumption is $1372 in1987 dollars Because gasoline is a typical outputof the ldquoPetroleum Refiningrdquo sector (US-IO Sec-tor Number 310101) the life-cycle environmen-tal burdens associated with production ofgasoline are approximated by the economy-wideenvironmental impacts associated with an in-

Table 3 Select economy-wide impacts from production of inputs for one million steel tanks

Impact area Units Quantities

Economic ImpactValue of direct inputs $ Million 3126Economy-wide increase in output $ Million 6894

Non-renewable Ores ConsumedIron ore MT 40942Copper ore MT 4464Gold and silver ores MT 9607

Energy ConsumptionBituminous coal MT 33958Natural gas MT 2598Motor gasoline MT 339Light fuel oils MT 1250Heavy fuel oils MT 781Electricity Mill kWh 428TOTAL ENERGY Million MJ 1499

Fertilizers Used MT 99

Toxic ReleasesTRI air releases Kilograms 17024TRI water releases Kilograms 3092TRI total environmental releases Kilograms 51994CMU-ET toxicity-weighted total env releases kg H2SO4 eq 131956

Conventional pollutantsSOx MT 11923NOx MT 4022Methane MT 153Volatile organic chemicals MT 1389Carbon dioxide MT 99508Carbon monoxide MT 778RCRA hazardous wastes generated MT 2894

Summary IndicesGlobal Warming Potential (GWP) MT CO2 eq 216313Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) kg CFC11 eq 279Acidification Potential (Aeq) kg SO2 eq 404066

MT metric tons



crease of $1372 in the final demand for the out-put of the petroleum refining sector Eventhough gasoline is only one of the many jointproducts from petroleum refining this procedureallocates the environmental burdens of refiningto different refinery products on the basis oftheir relative market value

The life-cycle energy associated with the usephase is 337 GJsteel tank (319 acute 106 BTUtank) consisting of heating value of 233 gallons(882 liters) of gasoline and the life-cycle energyof 316 MJ associated with production of gasoline

The use-phase emissions are the vehicleemissions allocated to the fuel tank based on itscontribution to lifetime fuel consumptionKeoleian and colleagues (1997) estimate thatthe 1996 G-van emits 1969 kg of carbon mon-oxide 1012 kg of hydrocarbons and 220 kg ofnitrogen oxides over a lifetime travel of 110000miles (177028 kilometers) These emissions areallocated to the steel tank in proportion to itscontribution to the lifetime vehicle fuel con-sumption of 6707 gallons

Environmental burdens of steel tank scrap pro-cessing The prompt scrap produced during steeltank manufacturing and the steel recovered fromthe auto hulk at the end of vehicle life are usedas scrap input into steel production A total of2126 kg of steel scrap per tank enters the shred-ding process and we assume that 100 of itsweight is recovered as processed scrap Sterdis(1997) estimates that a ton of auto hulk process-ing consumes about 536 kWh (0193 GJ) ofelectricity and $590 worth of tools and mainte-nance service Motor transportation costs persteel tank are estimated to be $0614 (Keoleianet al 1997) These inputs to recycling are ap-proximated of their industry sectors The esti-mated (1987) dollar values and correspondingUS-IO sectors are shown in table 2 The life-cycle environmental burdens of these inputs areestimated using equation (3) Direct environ-mental burdens from the shredding operation in-clude energy consumption in shredding (113kWh per tank ) and automobile shredder residue(ASR) which is landfilled It is assumed thatthe HDPE shield will be a part of ASR andlandfilled as hazardous waste

Environmental burdens of steel recovery fromscrap in an electric arc furnace All the ferrous

scrap recovered from the fuel tank systems is as-sumed to be re-melted in electric arc furnaces(EAF) to produce steel mill products Each steelfuel tank yields 2126 kg of processed scrapwhich can be processed into 2024 kg of semi-finished steel mill products valued at $4397The various inputs required for EAF recyclingand the US-IO sectors by which they are ap-proximated are shown in table 2 Estimates ofinput requirements are based on a report onelectric steel making by the Center for MetalsProduction (CMP 1987) The separately esti-mated direct emissions and energy use from EAFsteel making are included in table 4 This outputof steel mill products is assumed to reduce thefinal demand for the output of the industry sec-tor ldquoBlast Furnaces and Steel Mills (US-IONumber 370101)rdquo by a corresponding amountThe environmental credits for recycled steel arethe avoided economy-wide environmental bur-dens from $4397 worth of steel mill productssubstituted by the recycled steel

Select environmental burdens over differentlife-cycle stages of the steel tank are summarizedin table 4

Life-Cycle Assessment of Plastic Fuel Tank

The environmental burdens of the plasticfuel tank system over its entire life cycle cover-ing production of input materials manufactur-ing use phase and end-of-life management areanalyzed using similar steps as in the case of thesteel tank Estimates of inputs and direct envi-ronmental burdens at each life-cycle stage weredeveloped The economy-wide environmentalburdens from these inputs were calculated usingEIO-LCA model II (equation 5) The input re-quirements at various life-cycle stages of theplastic tank and corresponding commodity sec-tors are shown in table 5

The plastic tank manufacturing process beginswith the mixing of resin with appropriate addi-tives in separate mixing vessels These mixturescorrespond to the composition of the six layers ofthe tank namely virgin HDPE with carbonblack reground HDPE an adhesive layer ethylvinyl alcohol (EVOH) co-polymer permeationbarrier another adhesive layer and virgin HDPEThese mixtures are fed through six individual ex-



truders to produce layers just before entering theblow molder The polymer layers are simulta-neously blow molded to the required shape of thetank The multi-layer tank is then sent to thepiercing and machining station Componentssuch as rollover valves and clips are welded ontothe tank followed by assembly of the sendingunit straps shield and fuel lines All finishedtanks are then packed placed on shipping racksand sent to the vehicle assembly plant by truckThe initial part of table 5 shows the estimateddollar value of inputs from different commoditysectors for plastic tank manufacture Their life-cycle burdens are summarized in table 6

Direct environmental burdens during manufac-turing of plastic tanks The major source of emis-sions in plastic tank manufacturing is theextrusionndashblow molding process Emission fac-tors for HDPE blow molding process from Barlow(Barlow et al 1996) were used to estimate pro-cess emissions during plastic tank manufactur-ing In addition emissions from burning naturalgas for process heat and other requirements es-timated at 10 gram of carbon monoxide 325 kgof CO2 391 grams of NOx and 008 grams ofmethane per tank are included

Environmental burdens in the use phase of the plas-tic tank As in the case of steel tanks the life-cycleimpacts of gasoline production and exhaust emis-sions during vehicle use are allocated to the fueltank The gasoline use allocated to the plastic fueltank is 1495 gallons valued at $880 The GM-NPPC study estimates that the G-Van fitted witha plastic tank consumes 6699 gallons of gasolineover its lifetime (110000 miles) and emits 1967kg of carbon monoxide 101 kg of hydrocarbons2197 kg of NOx and 58733 kg of carbon dioxideThese use-phase emissions are allocated to theplastic fuel tank based on its weight

Environmental burdens from recovery of steelfrom the plastic fuel tank For this analysis it isassumed that the whole tank system is shreddedie there is no disassembly of components priorto shredding That is the tank system weighing146 kg enters the shredding operation fromwhich 341 kg of steel corresponding to theshield straps and prompt scrap will be recov-ered and the balance 112 kg will be landfilledas automobile shredder residue The input re-quirements for the shredding operation and the

economy-wide environmental burdens are esti-mated along the same lines as the steel tank

As in the case of the steel tank all the ferrousscrap from the plastic fuel tank system is as-sumed to be processed into semi-finished steelmill products by re-melting scrap in an electricarc furnace 341 kgtank of steel scrap enteringthe EAF process yields 325 kg of semi-finishedsteel mill products valued at $070 The creditfor recycled steel is estimated similarly

A summary of the environmental burdensover the entire life cycle of the plastic fuel tankis shown in table 6

Comparison of Steel and Plastic Fuel TankLife-cycle Environmental ImpactsA summary comparison of the total life-cycle

environmental impacts of the two fuel tank sys-tems is presented in table 7 Comparative de-composition by life-cycle stages of selectedimpacts is presented in the form of a series ofgraphs in figures 2ndash7

From table 7 it is apparent that the total life-cycle environmental burdens from the steel fueltank are larger than the burdens from the plasticfuel tank on all the dimensions except RCRAhazardous generation and total ozone depletionpotential (ODP) of air emissions The environ-mental impacts from the steel tank as a percent-age of impacts from the plastic tank range from125 for total TRI toxic chemical releases tothe environment to 3842 for net iron ore useFrom tables 4 and 6 and figures 2ndash7 it can beseen that the environmental burdens from thesteel fuel tank are larger than the burdens fromthe plastic fuel tank in most of the individuallife-cycle stages also

In conclusion the EIO-LCA suggests that ifall other performance parameters were equalthe plastic tank would be preferable in this ap-plication on the basis of its relatively better en-vironmental performance

Comparison with Results from the GM-NPCC StudyAs mentioned General Motors and National

Pollution Prevention Center University ofMichigan (GM-NPCC) carried out a conven-tional life-cycle inventory of these two fuel tanksystems The boundaries of analysis data sources



Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921



Table 5 Plastic fuel tank Input requirements at different life-cycle stages

Commodity sector EIOused as an sector Dollar value

Input approximation code of inputtank

Inputs to Plastic Tank ManufactureHDPE PVC EVOH Plastics and Resins 280100 760Steel straps and shield Automotive Stampings 410201 352Electricity Electric Utility Services 680100 138Glycol and other supplies Industrial Org amp Inorg Chemicals 270100 085Natural gas Gas Production 680200 020Packing materials Paperboard and Containers 250000 069Molder spare parts Special Industry Machinery Parts 480600 024Carbon black Carbon Black 270405 010Adhesive layer material Adhesives and Sealants 270403 015





coverage and classification of environmentalburdens in the GM-NPPC study are differentfrom EIO-LCA In the analysis of materials pro-duction phase the GM-NPCC study considersonly steel HDPE PVC and EVOH The envi-ronmental data on steel are from a European da-tabase on packing materials (FOEFL 1991) Thedata on PVC and HDPE are from other Euro-pean databases (Boustead 1993 1994) EVOH isapproximated by HDPE In EIO-LCA steel isapproximated by the US steel sector and allplastics are approximated by the US plasticsmaterials and resins sector Similarly GM-NPCC use proprietary information from

Franklin Associates for the life-cycle burdensfrom gasoline production The GM-NPCC studyreports the following environmental burdensenergy consumption solid waste generation airemissions of CO2 CO NOx hydrocarbons andparticulate matter and water effluents coveringsuspended solids dissolved solids oil and greaseand metals These are different from those cov-ered in EIO-LCA As a result only a limited di-rect comparison is possible between the resultsfrom these two studies The common elementsare summarized in table 8

Two things are noticeable about the com-parative results One despite using very different



Figure 2 Total energy

Figure 3 Global Warming Potential



Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)



Table 7 Comparison of total life-cycle environmental impacts of steel and plastic fuel tanks

Environmental Plastic tank Steel tank Steel tank impacts as impact impacts impacts of plastic tank impacts

Energy UseCoal (kg) 781 3146 403Nat gas and LNG (kg) 506 7168 142Petroleum fuels (kg) 4408 69503 158Electricity (kWh) 4207 6058 144Total energy (MJ) 3555 48278 136

Toxic Releases (g)Air 2028 2017 99Water 24 318 133Land amp underground 1947 2931 151Total env releases 4211 5267 125Releases + transfers 12562 30613 244

Toxicity-Weighted Releases H2SO4eq gAir 249 1001 402Water 15 204 136Land amp underground 3344 10512 314Total env releases 3743 11716 313Releases + transfers 14569 86408 593

Conventional Air Pollutants (g)SOx 28209 110769 393NOx 59922 115355 193Methane 2808 4352 155VOCs 23349 36732 157CO 44305 693334 156CO2 (kg) 17149 31583 184

RCRA Waste (kg)Generated 1958 1564 80Managed 776 1067 138

Nonrenewable OresIron ore (kg) 0872 33505 3842Copper ore (kg) 133 4664 351Gold silver ores (kg) 06 8104 1351

Summary IndicesGWP (kg CO2 eq) 34698 65108 188ODP (g CFC11 eq) 0051 0031 61Aeq (g SO2 eq) 45057 91921 204



Figure 4 Total toxic releases to the environment

Figure 5 Toxicity-weighted environmental releases

data sources methodologies and levels of aggre-gation there is a high degree of correspondencebetween the comparable results from these twostudies The qualitative conclusions from thetwo studies are the same that the plastic tankappears to perform better on most of the envi-ronmental dimensions except solid waste gen-eration and use-phase impacts dominate totallife-cycle energy use and life-cycle conventional

pollutant emissions Second contrary to the ex-pectation that EIO-LCA would report higherimpacts due to greater coverage the absoluteamount of impacts reported in EIO-LCA hereare generally lower than those reported in theGM-NPPC study (except solid waste genera-tion) The energy consumption in the materialsproduction stage is higher in the case of EIO-LCA as expected Though both studies use the



same quantities of gasoline to estimate use phaseenergy unit energies are different While theGM-NPPC uses total energy (precombustion +combustion) of 4203 MJliter of gasoline theestimated precombustion + combustion energycontent of gasoline in EIO-LCA is 382 MJliterBecause the GM-NPPC estimate is from a pro-prietary source we can not pinpoint the sourceof the difference However it is most likely due

to differences in allocations between co-prod-ucts in petroleum refining EIO-LCA also pro-vides energy credits for recycled steel TheGM-NPPC study uses heating value of 81 MJkgof HDPE while EIO-LCA uses 783 MJkg ofHDPE If these estimates were used in EIO-LCA the total life-cycle energy in EIO-LCAwould be higher than those reported in the GM-NPPC study

Figure 6 Acidification potential of air emissions

Figure 7 RCRA hazardous waste generation



A major limitation of the current EIO-LCAis that it reports conventional pollutant emis-sions from fuel combustion only and does notinclude non-fuel process emissions Processemissions are included in the GM-NPPC studyHDPE and PVC manufacturing involve signifi-cant process emissions of NOx and VOCs Ac-cording to Boustead (1993) these total to 21 gof VOCs and 10 g of NOx per kg of HDPE and19 g of NOx and 26 g of VOCs per kg of PVCInclusion of these process emissions in EIO-LCA is necessary for comparability of conven-tional pollutant emissions If we add only thesedirect NOx and VOC emissions to the reportedEIO-LCA emissions the resultant emissionnumbers will be larger than the emissions re-ported in the GM-NPPC study

Discussion and Conclusions

This paper extends and refines the EIO-LCAmodel to make it a practical and flexible tool forcomprehensive product life-cycle assessmentthat can be used by companies regulators andconsumer groups to conduct quick cost-effec-tive and comprehensive life-cycle assessmentsThe extension enables life-cycle assessment ofindividual products comparison of products thatmay belong to the same sector or completely newproducts and incorporation of environmentalimpacts from product use phase and end-of-lifemanagement (reuse remanufacturing recycling)stages in EIO-LCA The extension combines to-gether comprehensive environmental impact co-efficient matrices for the US economy coveringfuel and energy use conventional pollutant

emissions fertilizer use and non-renewable oreuse from publicly available sources The pro-posed methodology is demonstrated by applyingit to a real-life decision problem of evaluatingenvironmental performance of alternative fueltank systems

The proposed EIO-LCA method howeverhas several potential limitations that have to beconsidered while applying the method Theselimitations and caveats arise both from the na-ture of input-output analysis and from the spe-cific character of this method EIO-LCA sharesthe fundamental limitations of input-outputanalysis such as linear approximation in tech-nical coefficients static analysis and omissionof capital services Static analysis and linearityprovide good approximations for relatively smallchanges typical in product LCA Because capi-tal services are consumed over a large number ofindividu al units the environmental impactsfrom capital services are likely to be small

Expressing all the environmental impact co-efficients in terms of environmental burdendol-lar value of sector output instead of familiarphysical units such as tons liters service hoursand so on makes modeling simpler by avoidingthe difficulty of incorporating multiple physicalunits and appropriate conversion factors in themodel Under constant price conditions theseimpact coefficients can easily be translated tophysical unit bases However geographical tem-poral and tax-related variations in prices can in-troduce errors Care should be taken to useappropriate price indices to adjust for thesevariations to reflect national average producerprices in the base year

Table 8 Comparison of results from EIO-LCA and GM-NPCC LCA

Burden Steel tank Plastic TankCategory GM-NPPC EIO-LCA GM-NPPC EIO-LCA

Life-cycle energy MJtank 4860 4828 3631 3555Energy in material production MJtank 1020 1499 1020 1246Energy in use phase MJtank 3710 3371 2360 2163Energy in EOM MJtank 14 ndash126 13 ndash21Life-cycle CO2 emissions kgtank 295 316 191 172Life-cycle CO emissions gtank 7014 6933 4524 4431Life-cycle NOx emissions gtank 1284 1154 942 600Life-cycle VOC emissions gtank 1381 367 894 234Life-cycle solid waste kgtank 134 1564(haz) 145 196(haz)



Co-product allocation is a much-debatedtopic in both construction of national input-output tables and LCA literature (Miller andBlair 1985 Curran 1996) In the construction ofUS-IO tables a commodity technology assump-tion is used in estimating technical coefficientsfor co-products (refer to US Commerce 1994for more details) EIO-LCA allocates environ-mental burdens on the basis of market valueOther bases of allocation used in the LCA litera-ture include mass dry mass energy content in-cremental processing energy stoichiometry andheat of reaction (Curran 1996 SETAC 1993Boustead 1993) For some specific systems oneof these allocation methods might be more ap-pealing than other methods Science does notdictate the method of allocation Market valuecan be a reasonable basis when higher prices re-flect increased processing and emissions

In deriving the US input-output tables thetechnical coefficients for comparable importsare assumed to be similar to the correspondingdomestic US industry sectors (US Commerce1994) The EIO-LCA models assume that theenvironmental burden coefficients of importsare also well-approximated by the correspondingUS domestic industry sectors This may intro-duce errors in analyses of products with high im-port content and very different foreignproduction technologies Conceptually creationof appropriate hypothetical industry sectors(Model II) representing the technology of suchimports can address the issue

Because data from many different sources andtime periods have been collected normalizedaggregated and averaged to arrive at sector-levelenvironmental indices there are significant un-certainties in the estimates4 First there are uncer-tainties in the national technical coefficientmatrix arising from aggregation sampling errorsimputation procedures for missing data co-prod-uct allocation procedures and linearity assump-tions The data on dollar value of purchases offuels fertilizers and ores are from the US-IO workfiles The quantities were derived using an averageproducer price which overlooks regional andquality-related price variations and inventorychanges Large uncertainties are associated withthe US TRI data Many industries such as miningand utilities until recently were excluded from re-

porting Similarly only facilities employing atleast ten people or using at least 1000 lbyear ofthe toxic chemicals are required to report A studyby the US General Accounting Office concludedthat reported TRI releases might be as low as 5of the actual toxic releases (US GAO 1991) Asa result the TRI release data in the model arelikely to be an underestimate The conventionalpollutant emissions are based on generic emissionfactors for the primary use of different fuels Varia-tions in emissions due to non-linearity over theoperating range and differences in fuel qualitycombustion technology and efficiencies havebeen overlooked in using these generic emissionfactors Non-fuel combustion-related emissionsare not currently included in the model due to theunavailability of data Attempts are underway toinclude data on non-fuel process emissions esti-mated from the AIRS (Aerometric InformationRetrieval System) database of US EPA into EIO-LCA However the major strength of EIO-LCA isthat the national averages (and derived estimatesfor disaggregated sectors) are mainly used as ap-proximations for missing data and all the availablemore accurate data can be included in the modelMore detailed models will be less affected by errorsin aggregate data Results from the cruder modelsshould be interpreted more as indicators of rela-tive performance in comparing products than asabsolute performance indicators

In conclusion EIO-LCA is a flexible and pow-erful addition to the toolkit of LCA practitionersIn its simpler forms it serves as an initial screeningdevice for scoping and prioritizing data collectionMore advanced models can be used to validate re-sults at different stages of a conventional LCA tocheck if boundary definitions and consideration ofeconomy-wide interdependencies affect resultsEfforts are underway to offer EIO-LCA as a web-based software in the public domain

Acknowledgments

This article is based on my doctoral disserta-tion I thank Lester Lave Chris HendricksonFrancis McMichael Lowell Taylor and otherfaculty members at Carnegie Mellon UniversityPittsburgh I thank Ron Williams and RobertStephens from General Motors for their helpand comments I am grateful to the editor and



two anonymous referees for their input whichstrengthened the article considerably Financialsupport for the research was provided by USEPA National Science Foundation and mem-bers of the Green Design Consortium CarnegieMellon University

Notes

1 There is a vast theoretical and empirical litera-ture on extension of input-output techniques forenvironmental analysis (for example see Ayresand Kneese 1969 Cumberland and Stram 1976Forsund 1985 Duchin et al1990 Duchin 1994Lutz 1993 UN 1993) However most of them areaimed at broad national-level policy analysis Inthat respect the current application for micro-level product and process evaluation is novel

2 I do not attempt to quantify or monetize the fi-nal health and ecological impacts These in-volve many other difficul t conceptual andempirical issues

3 In US regulatory jargon conventional pollutantsrefer to carbon monoxide sulfur oxides nitrogenoxides methane and volatile organic compoundsIn the analysis described in this article carbon di-oxide is included in this category as well

4 Data quality is a major concern of LCA practi-tioners and many formal quantitative and quali-tative indicators of data quality in LCA havebeen proposed (see Vigon et al 1993 and refer-ences therein) However only qualitative de-scriptions of data quality are provided here dueto time and data constraints

References

Adriaanse A 1993 Environmental policy performanceindicators The Hague Sdu Publishers

Arnold F 1993 Life-cycle design doesnrsquot work Envi-ronmental Forum SeptOct 19ndash23

Ayres R U and A V Kneese 1969 Production consumption and externaliti es The AmericanEconomic Review LIX(June) 282ndash297

Barlow A D Contos M Holdren P Garrison LHarris and B Janke 1996 Developmen t ofemission factors for polyethyle ne processing Journal of the Air and Waste Management Associa-tion 46 569ndash580

Boustead I 1993 Eco-profiles of European plastics in-dustrymdashpolyethylene and polypropylene Report 3Brussels The European Center for Plastics in theEnvironment

Boustead I 1994 Eco-profiles of European plastics in-dustrymdashpolyvinyl chloride Report 6 Brussels TheEuropean Center for Plastics in the Environment

CMP (Center for Metals Production) 1987Technoeconomic assessment of electric steelmakingthrough the year 2000 (Report EPRI EM-5445)Pittsburgh PA CMP

Cobas-Flores E 1996 Life-cycle assessment using in-put-output analysis PhD dissertation CarnegieMellon University

Cumberland J H and B Stram 1976 Empirical ap-plications of input-output models to environ-mental protection In Advances in input-outputanalysis Proceedings of the sixth international con-ference on input-output techniques Vienna April22ndash26 1974 edited by K R Polenske and J VSkolka pp 365ndash382 Cambridge Ballinger

Curran M A 1996 Environmental life-cycle assess-ment New York McGraw Hill

Davis G A 1993 The use of life-cycle assessment inenvironmental labeling programs EPA742-R-93-003 Washington DC US Environmental Pro-tection Agency

Duchin F G M Lange and T Johnsen 1990 Strategiesfor environmentally sound development Progress Re-port 5 New York Institute of Economic Analysis

Duchin Faye 1994 Industrial inputoutput analysisImplications for industrial ecology In The green-ing of industri al ecosystems edited by B RAllenby and D R Richards pp 61ndash68 Wash-ington DC National Academy of Engineering

Forsund F R 1985 Input-output models nationaleconomic models and the environment InHandbook of natural resource and energy economics vol I edited by A V Kneese and J L Sweenypp 325ndash394 Amsterdam North Holland

FOEFL (Federal Office of Environment Forests andLandscape Switzerland) 1991 Eco-balance ofpackaging materials State of 1990 Berne Switzer-land FOEFL

Hendrickson C A Horvath S Joshi and L Lave1998 Economic input-output models for life-cycle assessment Environme ntal Science andTechnology 13(4) 184Andash191A

Horvath A C Hendrickson L Lave F CMcMichael and T S Wu 1995 Toxic emissionindices for green design and inventory Environ-mental Science and Technology 29(2) 86ndash90

Horvath A 1997 Estimation of environmental implica-tions of construction materials and designs using life-cycle assessment techniques PhD dissertationCarnegie Mellon University

IPCC (Intergovern mental Panel on ClimateChange) 1995 IPCC guidelines for national



greenhou se gas inventor ies vol 1ndash3 UNEPOECD and IPCC

Joshi S V 1998 Comprehensive product life-cycl eanalysis using input-output techniques PhD dis-sertation Carnegie Mellon University

Karna A and J Engstrom 1994 Life-cycle analysisof newsprint European scenarios Paperi ja Puu76(4) 232ndash237

Keoleian G A and D Menerey 1993 Life-cycle de-sign manual (EPA 600R-92226) WashingtonDC US Environmental Protection Agency

Keoleian G A S Spatari and R Beal 1997 Life-cycle design of a fuel tank system (draft report)Ann Arbor MI National Pollution PreventionCenter University of Michigan

Lave L B E Cobas-Flores C T Hendrickson andF C McMichael 1995 Using input-outputanalysis to estimate economy-wide dischargesEnvironmental Science and Technology 29(9)420Andash426A

Leontief W 1966 Input-output economics New YorkOxford University Press

Lutz E ed 1993 Toward improved accounting for the en-vironment Washington DC World Bank

Miettinen P and R Hamalainen 1997 How to ben-efit from decision analysis in environmental life-cycle analysis European Journal of OperationsResearch 102 279ndash294

Miller R A and P D Blair 1985 Input-output analy-sis Foundations and extensions Englewood CliffsNJ Prentice Hall

OSAT (Office for the Study of Automotive Transpor-tation) 1996 Delphi VIII Forecast and analysis ofthe North American automotive industry vol 3materials Ann Arbor MI Office for the Study ofAutomotive Transporta tion University ofMichigan Transportation Research Institute

Pento T 1997 Dynamic life-cycle inventory model-ing with input-outpu t tables and joined timeprojections Seventh Annual Meeting of Society ofEnvironmental Toxicology and ChemistrymdashEu-rope 6ndash10 April Amsterdam SETAC

Portney P R 1993 The price is right Making use oflife-cycle analysis Issues in Science and Technol-ogy X(2) 69ndash75

SETAC (Society of Environmental Toxicology andChemistry) 1993 Guidelines for life-cycle assess-ment A code of practice Workshop reportPensacola FL SETAC

Sterdis A 1997 The future of automobile materials re-covery Unpublished paper Department of Engi-

neering and Public Policy Carnegie MellonUniversity

Tibor T and I Feldman 1996 ISO 14000 A guide tothe new environm ental management standard sChicago Irwin Publishing

UN (United Nations) 1993 Integrated environmentaland economic accounting New York United Na-tions Department of Economic and Social Infor-mation and Policy Analysis Statistics Division

USBM (United States Bureau of Mines) 1988 Min-erals yearbook 1988

US Commerce (United States Department of Com-merce Economics and Statistics Administra-tion) 1987 Census of manufac tures 1987 Washington DC US Bureau of Census

US Commerce (United States Department of Com-merce Inter-industry Economics Division )1994 Input-output accounts of the US economy1987 benchmark (diskettes)

US EPA (United States Environmental ProtectionAgency) 1995a Air Chief (CD-ROM) Wash-ington DC US EPA

US EPA (United States Environmental ProtectionAgency) 1995b 1987ndash1993 toxics release inven-tory (CD-ROM EPA 749C-95-004) Washing-ton DC US EPA Office of PollutionPrevention and Toxics June

US EPA (United States Environmental ProtectionAgency) 1995c Guidance on acquisition of envi-ronmentally preferable products and services Fed-eral Register 60(189) 50721ndash50735

US GAO (United States General Accounting Of-fice) 1991Toxic chemicalsmdashEPArsquos Toxic ReleaseInventory is useful but can be improved (GAORCED-91-121) Washington DC US GAO

Vigon B W D A Tolle B W Cornaby H CLatham C L HarrisonT L Boguski R GHunt and J D Sellers 1993 Life-cycle assess-ment Inventory guidelines and principles (EPA600R-92245) Cincinnati OH Risk Reduc-tion Engineering Laboratory US EPA

Vigon B W 1997 Life-cycle inventory Data qualityissues Proceedings of the 1997 total life-cycle con-ferencemdash life-cycle management and assessment P310 (971162) 47ndash54 Warrendale Society ofAutomotive Engineers Inc

Wuebbles D J 1995 Weighing functions for ozonedepletion and greenhouse gas effects on cli-mate Annual Review of Energy and Environment20 45ndash70



Introduction

Environmentally conscious decision makingrequires information about environmental conse-quences of alternative products processes or ac-tivities Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is asystematic tool to analyze and assess environmen-tal impacts over the entire life cycle of productLCA involves tracing out the major stages andprocesses involved over the life cycle of a productcovering raw materials extraction manufactur-ing product use recycling and final disposalidentifying and quantifying the environmentalimpacts at each stage The goal of LCA is to fa-cilitate a systems view in product and processevaluation (Lave et al 1995 Miettinen andHamalainen 1997 Keoleian and Menerery 1993)

The LCA approach is widely recognized as auseful framework and attempts are underway tointegrate life-cycle thinking into business deci-sions A major international initiative in thisdirection is the series of environmental manage-ment standards (EMS) proposed by the Interna-tional Standards Organization widely known asISO 14000 Standards being developed for in-clusion under ISO 14000 include principles andguidelines for conducting LCA for productevaluation (Tibor and Feldman 1996) Similarlythe document ldquoGuidance on acquisition of envi-ronmentally preferable products and servicesrdquoprepared by the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency (US EPA) to help imple-ment the Presidentrsquos Executive order 12873 rec-ommends LCA approach in all federalprocurement (US EPA 1995c Vigon et al1993) Many eco-labeling and product take backregulations in Europe require life-cycle environ-mental analysis of products (Davis 1993)

Although conceptually simple and appealingLCAs are difficult to carry out in reality Produc-tion of most typical products and materials re-quires a large number of diverse inputs which inturn use many other inputs in their productionOften there are interdependencies in inputswhich have to be modeled Attempting to traceall the direct and indirect inputs and associatedenvironmental burdens all the way to ultimateraw material extraction becomes an unwieldyexercise For example steel making requires alarge number of inputs including iron ore lime-

stone coke electricity chemicals alloys rail-road services computer support and so onwhich in turn draw on resources from almost allsectors of the economy including the steel in-dustry In order to keep the analysis tractablemost LCAs limit the scope of analysis only to themajor inputs at each stage leading to problemsof subjective boundary definition and compara-bility across studies Moreover data on input re-quirements and emissions for even suchtruncated LCAs have to be collected from a largenumber of different suppliers leading to highcost time and issues of data confidentiality andverifiability As a result LCA is considered aflawed tool that cannot deliver what it promises(Portney 1993 Arnold 1993 Lave et al 1995)

To address the problem of subjective bound-ary definition in conventional LCA Lave andcolleagues proposed using economic input-out-put analysis techniques in LCA (Lave et al1995) Economic input-output life-cycle assess-ment (EIO-LCA) takes a top-down approachand treats the whole economy as the boundaryof analysis Another strength of EIO-LCA ap-proach is that economy-wide interdependenciesin inputs are modeled as a set of linear simulta-neous equations Although less common andlimited in scope the representation of input in-terdependencies as systems of equations can befound elsewhere in the LCA literature For ex-ample Pento constructs input-output matricesfor the paper industry in his dynamic life-cycleinventory modeling (Pento 1997) Similarly thecommercially available KCL-ECO LCA pro-gram represents product life-cycle inventory as aset of linear equations of physical quantities(Karna and Engstrom 1994)

Lave and colleagues implement their eco-nomic input-output life-cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) model using 498 acute 498 commodity sectordirect requirements matrix published by theUS Department of Commerce as a part of the1987 US input-output tables (US Commerce1994) They augment the direct requirementsmatrix with sector-level toxic release emissionfactors and electricity use intensity They ap-proximate the product whose LCA is requiredby the corresponding commodity sector For ex-ample in comparing the life-cycle environmen-tal burdens of paper cups and plastic cups they













x ndash ax = f (1)























An

=eacute

eumlecirc

ugrave

ucircuacute

+

a a i n+1

0 a 1


R = [ r1 rn rn+1 ]





n+1 is







n+1 acute r




n+1(5)




ij has to be


ij)


ain = (1 ndash s) A

in + s A

i n+1 (6)



an j

= An j

+ An+1 j

(7)

Also

ann

= (1 ndash s)(An n

+ A n+1 n

) + s(A

n n+1 + A

n+1 n+1 ) (8)


in+1 ] for the



n+1j The firms



rn = (1 ndash s) R

n + sR

n+1 (9)
















aring =k

ik

s 1 (10)

a s Aijk

ik

ijkl= aring (11)

a Aijl

ijkl= aring (12)

r s Rik

ik

ik= aring (13)





















































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References






























































x ndash ax = f (1)























An

=eacute

eumlecirc

ugrave

ucircuacute

+

a a i n+1

0 a 1


R = [ r1 rn rn+1 ]





n+1 is







n+1 acute r




n+1(5)




ij has to be


ij)


ain = (1 ndash s) A

in + s A

i n+1 (6)



an j

= An j

+ An+1 j

(7)

Also

ann

= (1 ndash s)(An n

+ A n+1 n

) + s(A

n n+1 + A

n+1 n+1 ) (8)


in+1 ] for the



n+1j The firms



rn = (1 ndash s) R

n + sR

n+1 (9)
















aring =k

ik

s 1 (10)

a s Aijk

ik

ijkl= aring (11)

a Aijl

ijkl= aring (12)

r s Rik

ik

ik= aring (13)





















































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References



































































An

=eacute

eumlecirc

ugrave

ucircuacute

+

a a i n+1

0 a 1


R = [ r1 rn rn+1 ]





n+1 is







n+1 acute r




n+1(5)




ij has to be


ij)


ain = (1 ndash s) A

in + s A

i n+1 (6)



an j

= An j

+ An+1 j

(7)

Also

ann

= (1 ndash s)(An n

+ A n+1 n

) + s(A

n n+1 + A

n+1 n+1 ) (8)


in+1 ] for the



n+1j The firms



rn = (1 ndash s) R

n + sR

n+1 (9)
















aring =k

ik

s 1 (10)

a s Aijk

ik

ijkl= aring (11)

a Aijl

ijkl= aring (12)

r s Rik

ik

ik= aring (13)





















































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References






















































n+1 is







n+1 acute r




n+1(5)




ij has to be


ij)


ain = (1 ndash s) A

in + s A

i n+1 (6)



an j

= An j

+ An+1 j

(7)

Also

ann

= (1 ndash s)(An n

+ A n+1 n

) + s(A

n n+1 + A

n+1 n+1 ) (8)


in+1 ] for the



n+1j The firms



rn = (1 ndash s) R

n + sR

n+1 (9)
















aring =k

ik

s 1 (10)

a s Aijk

ik

ijkl= aring (11)

a Aijl

ijkl= aring (12)

r s Rik

ik

ik= aring (13)





















































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References
































































aring =k

ik

s 1 (10)

a s Aijk

ik

ijkl= aring (11)

a Aijl

ijkl= aring (12)

r s Rik

ik

ik= aring (13)





















































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References
































































































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References




















































































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References







































































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References


























































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References

















































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References












































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References































































MT metric tons






























Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References















































































Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References



































































Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References




















































Tab

le 4

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

ste

el t

ank

syst

em (

per

tank

)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

phas

eU

se p

hase

shre

ddin

gSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TAL

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)34

00

000

142

000

019

00

001

58ndash5

73

314

6N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)2

801

293

260

000

018

000

018

ndash03

87

168

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

270

000

180

650

00

193

000

015

ndash03

469

503

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)42

80

177

480

000

010

113

112

ndash70

760

58

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

1499

735

031

630

5510

20

410

61ndash1

9148

278

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

170

20

274

390

000

060

000

76ndash2

33

201

7W

ater

309

002

033

000

001

000

021

ndash04

83

18La

nd amp

und

ergr

ound

318

80

001

830

000

030

000

71ndash5

14

293

1To

tal e

nv r

elea

ses

519

90

296

560

000

110

001

68ndash7

96

526

7R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

258

30

2958

10

000

039

000

327

9ndash4

374

306

13

Tox

icit

y-W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

gA

ir10

72

017

042

000

002

000

055

ndash18

710

01

Wat

er2

140

020

160

000

010

000

05ndash0

34

204

Land

amp u

nder

grou

nd11

910

000

244

000

012

000

406

ndash20

6010

512

Tota

l env

rel

ease

s13

195

019

302

000

015

000

466

ndash22

8111

171

6R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

834

600

1961

22

000

101

000

115

70ndash1

486

864

08

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

1192

000

519

50

007

070

0056

87

ndash200

20

1107

69

NO

x40

23

9131

20

760

386

000

190

ndash66

4211

535

5M

etha

ne1

540

080

4141

60

040

000

08ndash0

23

435

2V

OC

s13

89

068

355

350

063

000

047

ndash19

036

732

CO

778

41

017

27

6840

505

000

260

ndash10

4269

333

4C

O2

(kg)

995

13

2517

11

206

21

110

004

85ndash1

620

315

83

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

890

009

400

000

033

340

34ndash0

36

156

4M

anag

ed1

940

008

900

000

030

000

03ndash0

23

106

7

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)40

94

000

012

000

001

50

000

01ndash7

58

335

05C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)4

520

000

230

000

024

000

057

ndash06

84

664

Gol

d s

ilver

ore

s (k

g)9

610

000

100

000

014

000

009

ndash17

18

104

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

216

304

3826

17

427

12

230

0010

37

ndash35

4765

108

OD

P (g

CFC

11 e

q)0

030

000

002

000

000

000

000

1ndash0

002

003

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

404

02

7227

88

529

03

400

0019

29

ndash67

0891

921




















Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References





































































Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References
























































Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References




















































Tab

le 6

Sum

mar

y of

life

-cyc

le e

nviro

nmen

tal b

urde

ns o

f the

pla

stic

tan

k sy

stem

(pe

r ta

nk)

Env

ironm

enta

lIn

puts

toM

anu-

Inpu

ts to

Inpu

ts to

EA

F st

eel

Cre

dit f

orim

pact

man

ufac

turin

gfa

ctur

ing

use

pha

seU

se p

hase

shr

eddi

ngSh

redd

ing

mak

ing

EA

F st

eel

TO

TA

L

Ene

rgy

Coa

l (kg

)7

430

091

000

013

000

026

ndash09

27

81N

at g

as a

nd L

NG

(kg

)1

691

292

100

000

010

000

03ndash0

06

506

Petr

oleu

m fu

els

(kg)

110

01

1641

71

013

000

003

ndash00

544

08

Elec

tric

ity

(kW

h)16

123

308

000

007

078

018

ndash11

442

07

Tota

l ene

rgy

(MJ)

12

4615

68

202

819

607

002

8210

0ndash3

135

55

Tox

ic R

elea

ses

(g)

Air

172

20

452

820

000

040

000

12ndash0

37

202

8 W

ater

223

00

210

000

010

000

03ndash0

08

24

Lan

d amp

und

ergr

ound

189

90

117

000

002

000

012

ndash08

319

47

Tot

al e

nv r

elea

ses

383

80

454

210

000

080

000

27ndash1

28

421

1 R

elea

ses

+ t

rans

fers

893

80

4537

28

000

027

000

526

ndash70

212

562

Tox

icit

y W

eigh

ted

Rel

ease

s H

2SO

4eq

g A

ir2

260

160

270

000

020

000

08ndash0

30

249

Wat

er1

440

010

000

001

000

001

ndash00

61

5 L

and

amp u

nder

grou

nd34

44

01

570

000

080

000

65ndash3

30

334

4 T

otal

env

rel

ease

s38

14

016

194

000

010

000

075

ndash36

637

43

Rel

ease

s +

tra

nsfe

rs11

084

016

392

80

000

690

0018

56

ndash23

8414

569

Con

vent

iona

l Air

Pol

luta

nts

(g)

SOx

266

890

0033

33

000

486

000

912

ndash32

1128

209

NO

x92

24

391

200

248

82

650

003

05ndash1

065

599

22M

etha

ne0

540

080

2627

20

030

000

01ndash0

04

280

8V

OC

s5

560

452

2822

50

430

000

07ndash0

30

233

49C

O26

21

100

110

743

903

470

000

42ndash1

67

4430

5C

O2 (

kg)

260

33

2510

97

132

30

760

000

78ndash2

60

171

49

RC

RA

Was

te (

kg)

Gen

erat

ed2

340

603

000

002

112

00

05ndash0

06

195

8M

anag

ed2

060

571

000

002

000

001

ndash00

47

76

Non

rene

wab

le O

res

Iron

ore

(kg

)2

000

008

000

001

000

000

2ndash1

22

087

2C

oppe

r or

e (k

g)1

180

015

000

002

000

009

ndash01

11

33G

old

amp S

ilver

ore

(kg

)0

780

006

000

001

000

002

ndash02

70

60

Sum

mar

y In

dice

sG

WP

(kg

CO

2 eq)

542

24

3816

78

274

11

530

001

66ndash5

69

346

98O

DP

(g C

FC11

eq)

005

000

000

10

000

000

000

000

005

1A

eq (

g SO

2 eq)

957

272

178

833

96

234

000

309

ndash10

7645

057

Ene

rgy

incl

udin

g th

e he

atin

g va

lues

of H

DPE

PV

C amp

EV

OH

(78

3 3

15

amp 5

2 M

Jkg

res

pect

ivel

y)










































Acknowledgments





Notes





References



























































































Acknowledgments





Notes





References
















































































Acknowledgments





Notes





References










































































Acknowledgments





Notes





References




































































Acknowledgments





Notes





References

























































Acknowledgments





Notes





References





















































Notes





References
















































































Documents

Product Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment Using Input ...€¦ · Life-cycle assessment (LCA) facilitates a systems view in environmental evaluation of products, materials, and