Prof Kenneth Omeje School of Arts & Sciences UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (USIU)

Borrowing from the Gods: Borrowing from the Gods: Oracular Deities as Oracular Deities as

Traditional Sources of Traditional Sources of Credit among the Igbo of Credit among the Igbo of

NigeriaNigeriaProf Kenneth OmejeProf Kenneth Omeje

School of Arts & SciencesSchool of Arts & SciencesUNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL

UNIVERSITY (USIU)UNIVERSITY (USIU)

NAIROBI, KENYANAIROBI, KENYA

Outline of PresentationOutline of Presentation

• Research objectivesResearch objectives• Background of the Ethnographic regionBackground of the Ethnographic region• Nature, Processes and Dynamics of the Nature, Processes and Dynamics of the

Credit SystemCredit System• Challenges in Conducting the ResearchChallenges in Conducting the Research• Moving Forward: Time Plan for the Moving Forward: Time Plan for the

Next PhaseNext Phase

Objectives of the StudyObjectives of the Study

• Investigates Investigates the role of oracular the role of oracular deities as traditional sources of deities as traditional sources of credit among the Igbo of credit among the Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria.Southeastern Nigeria.

- The history of the gods and the The history of the gods and the credit systems they operatecredit systems they operate

- Structure & nature of the credit Structure & nature of the credit systemsystem

- How the credit system has changed How the credit system has changed over timeover time

MethodologyMethodology• Based on fieldwork data using ethnographic Based on fieldwork data using ethnographic

methods – semi-structured [in-depth] interviewmethods – semi-structured [in-depth] interview• Interviewees: project stakeholders Interviewees: project stakeholders - cult priests and their family members, - cult priests and their family members, - beneficiaries of cult credits/their families), - beneficiaries of cult credits/their families), - strategic informants (local chiefs & community - strategic informants (local chiefs & community

leaders, titled/untitled elders with ample leaders, titled/untitled elders with ample institutional knowledge of the communities), institutional knowledge of the communities),

• ordinary folks in the village communitiesordinary folks in the village communities• Use of non-participant Observation as Use of non-participant Observation as

complementary methodcomplementary method• Document analysis as secondary source of data Document analysis as secondary source of data • Data analysis is ongoing but based on Data analysis is ongoing but based on

qualitative methodqualitative method

NigeriaNigeria

Background of the Ethnographic Background of the Ethnographic regionregion

• Study is carried out in the Nsukka Study is carried out in the Nsukka cultural area within the Igbo cultural area within the Igbo ethnic group of South-Eastern ethnic group of South-Eastern Nigeria.Nigeria.

• A cultural area is a geographical A cultural area is a geographical delimitation characterized by delimitation characterized by substantially uniform substantially uniform environmental and cultural traits.environmental and cultural traits.

• In the case of this study, a In the case of this study, a cultural area can be cultural area can be operationalized as a rough operationalized as a rough equivalent of a sub-ethnic group.equivalent of a sub-ethnic group.


• The Igbo are about 25 million people The Igbo are about 25 million people and have many cultural areas.and have many cultural areas.

• Nsukka cultural area has a Nsukka cultural area has a population of over 2 million people; population of over 2 million people; aboutabout 70 per cent of the population 70 per cent of the population live in typical rural and semi-rural live in typical rural and semi-rural areasareas

• The traditional social structure of the The traditional social structure of the Igbo can be practically understood by Igbo can be practically understood by an in-depth study of the classical an in-depth study of the classical novels of the legendary African writer novels of the legendary African writer Chinua Achebe [especially, Chinua Achebe [especially, Things Things Fall ApartFall Apart and and Arrow of GodArrow of God].].


• Igbo communities generally have a Igbo communities generally have a decentralized patriarchal political decentralized patriarchal political systemsystemss

• The Igbo are profoundly religious. The Igbo are profoundly religious. In modern postcolonial history, they In modern postcolonial history, they are predominantly Christians, albeit are predominantly Christians, albeit traditional African Religion (ATR) traditional African Religion (ATR) still plays a pervasive role. still plays a pervasive role.

• The vast majority of the people are The vast majority of the people are syncretic even though many may not syncretic even though many may not openly admit that they have any openly admit that they have any thing to do with ATRthing to do with ATR


• Oracular deities play highly significant Oracular deities play highly significant roles in traditional Igbo social and roles in traditional Igbo social and political systemspolitical systems

• They areThey are perceived to be perceived to be omnipotent in omnipotent in powerspowers & & multi-functional in purposemulti-functional in purpose

• Significantly, oracular deities function as Significantly, oracular deities function as the highest appellant court in many Igbo the highest appellant court in many Igbo communities and are seen as effective in communities and are seen as effective in killing disputants who invoke them killing disputants who invoke them falsely or swear a false oath - perjury.falsely or swear a false oath - perjury.

• Oracular deities have both benevolent & Oracular deities have both benevolent & malevolent powers; they are highly venerated malevolent powers; they are highly venerated and feared.and feared.

Origin and Structure of the Credit Origin and Structure of the Credit DivinitiesDivinities

• Three major deities are studied in this Three major deities are studied in this project, Iyiakpali in Ugbaike, Ochegi in project, Iyiakpali in Ugbaike, Ochegi in Orba, and Alumu in Amufie Orba, and Alumu in Amufie

• Coincidentally, the three are regarded as Coincidentally, the three are regarded as female deities {i.e. allegedly originated by female deities {i.e. allegedly originated by spirits that appeared in the form of spirits that appeared in the form of women} women}

• Oral traditions attribute the origin of the Oral traditions attribute the origin of the deities to about 200 – 300 yearsdeities to about 200 – 300 years ago ago

• Deities originated from the disguised Deities originated from the disguised physical appearances of the goddesses physical appearances of the goddesses who used the opportunity to impart divine who used the opportunity to impart divine power and favour on their unsuspecting power and favour on their unsuspecting benevolent hosts.benevolent hosts.

•

Chief Priest’s account of theChief Priest’s account of the Origin of Origin of Alumu DeityAlumu Deity• ““As I was told, a certain old woman was walking As I was told, a certain old woman was walking

along the village path on a rainy day. Terribly along the village path on a rainy day. Terribly beaten by the rain, she ran into a compound owned beaten by the rain, she ran into a compound owned by Uroshi, a certain man in the nearby community by Uroshi, a certain man in the nearby community of Uda Ezzeodo, but she was denied of Uda Ezzeodo, but she was denied accommodation. She continued further to Nkpuru accommodation. She continued further to Nkpuru Attama (a village in our own community) where Attama (a village in our own community) where she was kindly received and offered she was kindly received and offered accommodation by a man called Adoni Owo. This accommodation by a man called Adoni Owo. This man made fire to keep his rain beaten guest warm. man made fire to keep his rain beaten guest warm. Adoni’s kind gesture impressed the old woman, Adoni’s kind gesture impressed the old woman, hence, she promised to make him a great man by hence, she promised to make him a great man by giving him something to augment his living. She giving him something to augment his living. She offered him a brand new stream known as Iyi offered him a brand new stream known as Iyi Alumu (the stream of Alumu) till date. This Alumu (the stream of Alumu) till date. This mysterious stream thrives best in the dry season mysterious stream thrives best in the dry season when there are no rains. The mysterious guest also when there are no rains. The mysterious guest also gave Adoni the Alumu juju with a number of gave Adoni the Alumu juju with a number of clearly spelt out injunctions that today form part clearly spelt out injunctions that today form part of the functions of the deity. After establishing the of the functions of the deity. After establishing the stream and handing down the deity, the old woman stream and handing down the deity, the old woman disappeared.”disappeared.”

Injunctions handed down byInjunctions handed down by Alumu, Alumu, According to the Chief PriestAccording to the Chief Priest

• ““to kill anybody who steals if consulted to kill anybody who steals if consulted • to kill any man who would have sexual to kill any man who would have sexual

affair with another man’s wife;affair with another man’s wife;• to save victims of food charming and to to save victims of food charming and to

conversely kill the wicked culprit; conversely kill the wicked culprit; • to protect Amufie land and the to protect Amufie land and the

inhabitants (this is why the deity’s inhabitants (this is why the deity’s shrines are located at the boundaries of shrines are located at the boundaries of Amufie and its neighbours to repel our Amufie and its neighbours to repel our enemies)”.enemies)”.

• Credit facility was not part of the original Credit facility was not part of the original agenda of any of the deities; it ostensibly agenda of any of the deities; it ostensibly emerged by default.emerged by default.

Emergency of the Divinity Emergency of the Divinity Credit FacilityCredit Facility

• The credit system appears to be an The credit system appears to be an offshoot of the well-established offshoot of the well-established social social control, criminal justicecontrol, criminal justice & & livelihood livelihood support functionssupport functions of the deities. of the deities.

• Primarily, the gods are consulted or Primarily, the gods are consulted or petitioned to help solve various social petitioned to help solve various social problems – e.g. theft and land problems – e.g. theft and land dispute, allegations of extra-marital dispute, allegations of extra-marital sex, witchcraft, fraud, food charming, sex, witchcraft, fraud, food charming, incest and so forth.incest and so forth.

• Most petitioners and clients to the Most petitioners and clients to the gods are locals from the Nsukka gods are locals from the Nsukka cultural area where the deities are cultural area where the deities are also well known and dreaded.also well known and dreaded.


• It is widely believed that the deity It is widely believed that the deity administers instantaneous capital administers instantaneous capital punishment by magical means or punishment by magical means or mysterious circumstances on mysterious circumstances on transgressors and culprits. transgressors and culprits.

• As is the custom, when a death is As is the custom, when a death is attributed to the retribution of a attributed to the retribution of a local deity in Igboland, all the local deity in Igboland, all the properties of the deceased victim properties of the deceased victim are voluntarily surrendered by his are voluntarily surrendered by his family as appeasement to the deity.family as appeasement to the deity.


• Over the years, the deities have amassed Over the years, the deities have amassed tremendous wealth, especially moveable tremendous wealth, especially moveable and immoveable properties, through and immoveable properties, through their alleged retributive killing of their alleged retributive killing of offenders.offenders.

• The cult priests expediently volunteered The cult priests expediently volunteered to put the material wealth of the deities to put the material wealth of the deities to credit utility and under terms that are to credit utility and under terms that are more client-friendly when compared to more client-friendly when compared to the modern capital market.the modern capital market.

• The deities mostly lease out confiscated The deities mostly lease out confiscated assets like assets like wheel barrows, bicycles, motor wheel barrows, bicycles, motor cycles, and tracks of landcycles, and tracks of land to clients and to clients and tenants who make agreed returns in both tenants who make agreed returns in both cash and kind.cash and kind.


• The deities hire/lease out their assets to The deities hire/lease out their assets to needy locals to enable them earn a livingneedy locals to enable them earn a living

• Some have been able to set up micro-Some have been able to set up micro-businesses in the process.businesses in the process.

• The deities reportedly have houses and The deities reportedly have houses and cars used for commercial transportation cars used for commercial transportation to raise funds.to raise funds.

• The hiring & leasing of assets are The hiring & leasing of assets are integral part of the deities’ credit system, integral part of the deities’ credit system,

• The monies realized from all the above The monies realized from all the above activities are, among other things, used activities are, among other things, used for money-lending and for procuring for money-lending and for procuring sacrificial items for the deitiessacrificial items for the deities..

The Personnel Structure of the Credit The Personnel Structure of the Credit SystemSystem

• Each local deity is headed by a chief Each local deity is headed by a chief priest locally known as priest locally known as Attama; Attama; office of office of the chief priest is held for life but the the chief priest is held for life but the position is not hereditaryposition is not hereditary

• The chief priest has a number of The chief priest has a number of assistant priestsassistant priests

• The deity belongs to an entire The deity belongs to an entire autonomous community but there is autonomous community but there is perceptibly a nucleus of immediate perceptibly a nucleus of immediate stakeholders or owners; stakeholders or owners;

- These are certain village(s) or clan(s) - These are certain village(s) or clan(s) within the community whose forefathers within the community whose forefathers are more closely associated with the are more closely associated with the origin of the deitiesorigin of the deities

Emerging Findings from the Emerging Findings from the FieldworkFieldwork::

Dominant Types & Reasons for Dominant Types & Reasons for Borrowing Borrowing

• Non-financial capitalNon-financial capital (wheel barrow, (wheel barrow, motorcycle, bicycle, land leasing, tree motorcycle, bicycle, land leasing, tree crops on deity’s land)crops on deity’s land)

- For livelihood support- For livelihood support• Financial capitalFinancial capital – liquid cash for: – liquid cash for:- Funeral obligations for deceased relatives- Funeral obligations for deceased relatives- Marriage ceremony- Marriage ceremony- Settling an embarrassing debt- Settling an embarrassing debt- Setting up or recapitalizing a micro-- Setting up or recapitalizing a micro-

businessbusiness- Paying school fees (university level)- Paying school fees (university level)

Who is Eligible to Borrow?Who is Eligible to Borrow?

• Everybody is in theory eligible to borrowEverybody is in theory eligible to borrow• In practice, most borrowers are:In practice, most borrowers are:- local community members known to the local community members known to the

chief priestchief priest- people from the Nsukka cultural area people from the Nsukka cultural area

introduced to the deity by someone introduced to the deity by someone known to the chief priest.known to the chief priest.

• Everyone sourcing a credit must be Everyone sourcing a credit must be known by the chief priest or introduced known by the chief priest or introduced by someone known to the chief priest.by someone known to the chief priest.

• Most locals regard the deity as a Most locals regard the deity as a lender of last resortlender of last resort

Borrowing Procedure (Financial Borrowing Procedure (Financial Capital)Capital)

• Ascertain the requirements from the chief priest, Ascertain the requirements from the chief priest, including an indication on whether the deity has including an indication on whether the deity has the amount needed.the amount needed.

• Requirements more or less include presentation Requirements more or less include presentation of:of:

- Two tubers of yam (a local staple food)- Two tubers of yam (a local staple food)- Two gallons of palm wine (30 - 40 litres)- Two gallons of palm wine (30 - 40 litres)- Two pieces of kolanut (a local nut with strong - Two pieces of kolanut (a local nut with strong

ritualistic value)ritualistic value)- - A guarantor if client is not known to the chief A guarantor if client is not known to the chief

priestpriest• All transactions are conducted in the deity’s All transactions are conducted in the deity’s

shrine shrine • The chief priest prays over the items, part of The chief priest prays over the items, part of

which are used as ‘which are used as ‘holy communionholy communion’ between ’ between parties.parties.

Borrowing Procedure (Financial Borrowing Procedure (Financial Capital)Capital)

• The client is asked by the chief priest to The client is asked by the chief priest to present his request to the deitypresent his request to the deity

• A standard request presentation usually A standard request presentation usually entails telling the deity what you want entails telling the deity what you want (how much), why you need the cash, when (how much), why you need the cash, when you expect to pay backyou expect to pay back

• Some voluntarily include a pledge or vow Some voluntarily include a pledge or vow to the deity (usually in livestock) which to the deity (usually in livestock) which they offer to redeem on debt repayment.they offer to redeem on debt repayment.

• The chief priest counts out the money The chief priest counts out the money from a clay pot or coffer in the shrine; from a clay pot or coffer in the shrine;

- the custom of the Iyiakpali deity is that the - the custom of the Iyiakpali deity is that the client deeps his hand into the coffer to client deeps his hand into the coffer to count out how much he has requested count out how much he has requested

Amount Borrowed, Period & Amount Borrowed, Period & Interest Rate (Financial Capital)Interest Rate (Financial Capital)

• Amount borrowed range b/w 5,000 – 60,000 Amount borrowed range b/w 5,000 – 60,000 Naira (about $42 - $500 – using current Naira (about $42 - $500 – using current exchange rate)exchange rate)

• Those interviewed so far borrowed b/w Those interviewed so far borrowed b/w 1999 and 2008 (mostly b/w 2003 – 2008). 1999 and 2008 (mostly b/w 2003 – 2008). Only a few have borrowed more than once.Only a few have borrowed more than once.

• All have repaid (repayment averagely All have repaid (repayment averagely occurred within one year)occurred within one year)

• All sampled borrowers are coincidentally All sampled borrowers are coincidentally malesmales

• Interest rate is averagely 2% of credit per Interest rate is averagely 2% of credit per monthmonth

Borrowing Procedure (Non-Financial Borrowing Procedure (Non-Financial Capital)Capital)

• The borrowing procedure for non-financial The borrowing procedure for non-financial capital is more affective and ordinarycapital is more affective and ordinary

• A client can make his request with just A client can make his request with just two pieces of kolanut.two pieces of kolanut.

• Hiring of facilities like wheel barrow and Hiring of facilities like wheel barrow and motorcycle for livelihood support is motorcycle for livelihood support is usually offered at the prevailing usually offered at the prevailing commercial ratecommercial rate

• Leasing of land and tree crops is done Leasing of land and tree crops is done with the understanding that the client with the understanding that the client presents a reasonable part of the harvest presents a reasonable part of the harvest to the deity as a token of appreciation.to the deity as a token of appreciation.

Issues of Collateral & Debt Issues of Collateral & Debt Recovery (Financial Capital)Recovery (Financial Capital)

• No collateral is required for any creditNo collateral is required for any credit• It is generally believed that the deity It is generally believed that the deity

recovers its money magically by recovers its money magically by afflicting & ultimately killing defaulters afflicting & ultimately killing defaulters

• There are legends about defaulters the There are legends about defaulters the deity killed and confiscated their deity killed and confiscated their properties in immemorial pastproperties in immemorial past

• Everyone who has borrowed in Everyone who has borrowed in contemporary history has promptly paid contemporary history has promptly paid back for fear of the deity’s retribution.back for fear of the deity’s retribution.

Debt Rescheduling and Debt Rescheduling and Recovery (Financial Capital)Recovery (Financial Capital)

• Debt can be easily rescheduled by Debt can be easily rescheduled by presenting recommended edible items presenting recommended edible items to the deity and entering into a plea. to the deity and entering into a plea.

• None of the respondents ever None of the respondents ever rescheduled his debt.rescheduled his debt.

• If one dies with an unsettled debt, it If one dies with an unsettled debt, it is incumbent on his family to repay is incumbent on his family to repay the money otherwise the deity is the money otherwise the deity is entitled to inherit or acquire all the entitled to inherit or acquire all the deceased’s properties.deceased’s properties.

Safekeeping of ValuablesSafekeeping of Valuables

• In addition to credit sourcing, people In addition to credit sourcing, people known to the chief priest do keep known to the chief priest do keep valuablesvaluables (mostly money) (mostly money) with the deity with the deity for safetyfor safety; ;

• The money is wrapped and kept in the The money is wrapped and kept in the shrine; no interest is charged but a token shrine; no interest is charged but a token of appreciation in cash or kind is of appreciation in cash or kind is welcomewelcome

• Locals consider the deity’s shrine the Locals consider the deity’s shrine the safest place to keep any valuablessafest place to keep any valuables

Estimating the Assets of the Estimating the Assets of the DeitiesDeities

• The financial assets of the deity are obviously The financial assets of the deity are obviously limited given that all the monies of the 3 deities limited given that all the monies of the 3 deities are kept in a clay pot in their principal shrinesare kept in a clay pot in their principal shrines

• The liquidity of the deity largely depends on the The liquidity of the deity largely depends on the managerial & entrepreneurial acumen of the managerial & entrepreneurial acumen of the chief priestchief priest

• The non-financial capital of the deities, The non-financial capital of the deities, especially farmlands are quite extensiveespecially farmlands are quite extensive

• The deities reportedly have lands & immovable The deities reportedly have lands & immovable assets both within their communities and assets both within their communities and elsewhere in the larger Nsukka cultural area.elsewhere in the larger Nsukka cultural area.

• None of the chief priests and other respondents None of the chief priests and other respondents could estimate how much assets the deities could estimate how much assets the deities have.have.

Theorizing the Problematic Using Theorizing the Problematic Using Robert Merton’s Typology for Analyzing Robert Merton’s Typology for Analyzing

Traditional Social StructuresTraditional Social Structures• Social structure are constructed to perform Social structure are constructed to perform

identifiable [necessary] functions: identifiable [necessary] functions: structural structural functionalismfunctionalism

• Manifest FunctionManifest Function – intended consequences of – intended consequences of social institution (usually tangible & positive); social institution (usually tangible & positive); functions that make for the persistent of a functions that make for the persistent of a given system. Everyone is aware of it through given system. Everyone is aware of it through observation & expectation.observation & expectation.

• Latent FunctionLatent Function – unintended consequences of – unintended consequences of social institution/action. These are difficult to social institution/action. These are difficult to recognize, especially to the external observer. recognize, especially to the external observer. Sociological analysis should help identify this.Sociological analysis should help identify this.

- Latent functions can affect a designated system - Latent functions can affect a designated system functionally, dysfunctionally or probably have functionally, dysfunctionally or probably have non-functional consequences (functional non-functional consequences (functional irrelevance)irrelevance)

Theorizing the Problematic Using Theorizing the Problematic Using Robert Merton’s Typology for Analyzing Robert Merton’s Typology for Analyzing

Traditional Social StructuresTraditional Social Structures• DysfunctionsDysfunctions: intended negative : intended negative

functions - they can be manifest or functions - they can be manifest or latent.latent.

• Functional alternativesFunctional alternatives – certain – certain social institutions can perform social institutions can perform overlapping functions & this vitiates overlapping functions & this vitiates the explanatory power of structural the explanatory power of structural functionalism.functionalism.

Challenges in Conducting the ResearchChallenges in Conducting the Research

• Logistical difficulties in tracing borrowersLogistical difficulties in tracing borrowers• Sensitivity of the research subject, leading Sensitivity of the research subject, leading

to great reluctance of almost everyone to to great reluctance of almost everyone to disclose informationdisclose information

• Limitations of fieldwork data collection in Limitations of fieldwork data collection in rainy seasonrainy season

• Ascendancy of new chief priests in two Ascendancy of new chief priests in two project communities following the recent project communities following the recent death of their predecessorsdeath of their predecessors

• Growing incidents of insecurity in south-Growing incidents of insecurity in south-eastern Nigeria (widespread kidnapping of eastern Nigeria (widespread kidnapping of people for a ransom)people for a ransom)

• Substitution of one of the originally Substitution of one of the originally proposed communities due to logistical proposed communities due to logistical constraintsconstraints

Moving Forward: Time Plan for the Moving Forward: Time Plan for the Next PhaseNext Phase

• Completing the fieldwork (about 60% Completing the fieldwork (about 60% of set target already achieved) – Jan. of set target already achieved) – Jan. 20102010

• Completing the data interpretation & Completing the data interpretation & analysis – April 2010analysis – April 2010

• Preparation & submission of final Preparation & submission of final project report – May 2010project report – May 2010

• Developing 2 publishable papers from Developing 2 publishable papers from the project – June - Aug. 2010the project – June - Aug. 2010

Documents

Prof Kenneth Omeje School of Arts & Sciences UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (USIU)