Professional Officers Dacia

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GEORGECUPCEA

Professional Officerson the Northern Dacian limes

GEORGECUPCEAMuzeul Naional de Istoria Transilvaniei, Cluj, [email protected]

Keywords:limes, junior officer, beneficiarius, statio, mission.Cuvinte cheie: limes, subofieri, beneficiarius, statio, misiune.

Rezumat: Ofieri profesioniti pe limes-ul de nord al Daciei. Zona limes-ului este un mediu foartespecial, care implic funcionarea mai multor pri ale unui sistem complet. Trupele asigur securitateazonei i buna funcionare a ansamblului. Limes-ul de nord al Daciei este o zon special de interesn studiul limesDacicus. Edificat pentru a susine aprarea unei provincii intens militarizate, a fostproiectat n aa fel nct s se adapteze tuturor condiiilor locului. n aceste uniti militare, soldaiii ofieri profesioniti aveau un rol foarte important n supravegherea limes-ului. Gradele militareprofesioniste sunt coloana vertebral a armatei romane, asigur distribuia strategiilor i comandeidinspre comandanii superiori nspre simpli soldai. Funcionarea limes-ului de nord al Daciei esteasigurat de un numr de trupe auxiliare cantonate n zon: Bologa, Buciumi, Romnai, Romita,Porolissum, Tihu, Cei, Iliua, Livezile and Orheiul Bistriei. Tipurile de ofieri atestate n acestetrupe variaz, majoritatea fiind centurioni i decurioni, un numr mai mic de optionessau stegari iun numr foarte mic de immunes. Soldaii de pe aceste grade erau activi n castru, dar probabil cse deplasau pe teren, pentru a ndeplini misiuni specifice, cum ar fi garnizoana turnurilor de pazi patrulele de pe limes. Un alt tip de subofier prezent n aceast zon sunt beneficiariiconsularis.Acetia sunt principales legionari, promovai n cadrul officiumconsularisi apoi trimii oriunde nprovincie cu diferite misiuni. Pe limes-ul de nord sunt concentrai n cel puin dou puncte, la Samumi Porolissum. Erau centrele unor zone foarte importante pentru autoritatea central, provincial sauimperial. Misiunea staff-ului guvernatorului din teren este s asigure buna funcionare a oricrorinstalaii, pentru profitul optim al Imperiului.

There are a leas hree ways o consider he Roman roniers. Te firs is heabsolue miliary affair, he deence sysem or all o he Roman Empire, buhis ignores oher aspecs. Te mechanism o showing he differences beween Romanand non-Roman socieies is also a one-way look a he ronier. No las, an arbiraryline in he disribuion patern o culural areacs, is also one poin o view1. Teinenion should be as o look a he Roman roniers rom all o hese poins, or romnone. Wha i can be observed rom he exensive research ha has been done in he lascenury on his mater, is ha he Roman ronier is a fluid mechanism, no necessarilya preclusive border, beween wo worlds, wih a clear definiion o wha was Roman andwha was barbarian. Esablishing he limis o he Empire, hus o he Roman powerand offi cial auhoriy, depended on many hings. One o hem, menioned even in heirown wriings, is geography. Rivers have ofen been acceped as borders beween Romansand anoher auhoriy (Euphraes, Rhine, Danube). For anoher regions, where heseconcree elemens lack, he ronier is an obscure line, which canno be esablished wihaccuracy. Tere are many ways in which he Romans esablished heir roniers, hey varyrom a region o anoher, adaping o he field siuaion and he populaion inhabiing i.

Te only common poin o all hese pracices is he need o manain imperial securiy2.1 Elon 1996, 2. For he creaion o Roman roniers see also Dyson 1985.2 Elon 1996, 59.


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384 | GEORGECUPCEAe Dacian limes is a porion o he European Roman ronier, is mos easern. Par o he larger,

Danube ronier, i is, somewha similar o he agridecumaes, an inervenion ronier3, which has exendedhe Roman erriory largely beyond he naural border ha is he Danube. e reasons or his exension ohe Empire are many, bu will no be discussed here. e resul was a new province, mainly miliary, whichcan clear ou he purpose o he firs inervenion. e limeso he Dacian provinces is mosly presened asa long line o border, exending rom he Danube, unil norh, a Porolissum, deended by he large numbero miliary unis in garrison. No similariies can be clearly esablished wih he Briain limes or even heRaeian one, as he Dacian limesvaries widely rom region o region, having o adap permanenly4. epar concerning his work is he Norhern Dacian limes. is can also be called as he limeso he provinceDacia Porolissensis. Exending Norh o he river Mure, his province needed a porion o limesenclosinghe Transylvanian plaeau. e miliary unis ensuring he securiy o his porion o ronier, where, eiherdisposed close o he border line, garrisoned in he ors o Bologa, Buciumi, Romnai, Romia, Porolissum,Tihu, Cei, Ilisua, Livezile and Orheiul Bisriei, eiher o he inerior o he province, especially cavalryunis, in he garrisons o Gilau, Suor or Gherla5, all o hem, he auxiliaries o he legion V Macedonica, in heorress a Poaissa.

All o he unis presen a one ime on he norhern Dacian limeshad o conrol a precise area o heronier, especially when he ronier is marked by a row o wach owers and probably some kind o a wall

and rench6, as i is he case or he ron line o he or a Porolissum, and oher areas rom he norh ohe province. e unis in garrison in his porion o limesare somewha responsible or he supervision oa designaed area, and hey do i by deaching men o man he wach owers or o parol he border line. Wecanno say exacly who were he men sen on duy in he field, bu we can assume ha all o he soldiers,

by roaion, would serve or a period also deached. However, when a group o soldiers leaves he or ormiliary maters, here ough o be someone in charge wih heir well-being and ha o he mission. In hiscase, one canno simply assume ha every group was lead by a cenurion, as ha would be impossible, leavinghe uni wihou any proper command in he garrison. In his case, he junior offi cers would sep in place, asha is heir main role, o atend o various asks o he uni, ha are no he duy o he cenurion. For his,hey are eiher simply exemped rom regular labor, and remain soldiers wih special asks, as are he immunes,or are acually promoed on a higher rank and pay, again or special asks and evenual promoion o he

cenurionae, as are heprincipales.

Lower hierarchy of the auxiliaries. The ala

e equies singulares Augusihave, as a regular cavalry uni, he organizaion and hierachy o he ala7.From ancien sources, we find ha he principales o he alae are he decurio, duplicarius, sesquiplicarius.8Togeher wih hese hree basic ranks, oher are also atesed.9

Every urma is commanded by a decurio. His asks are menioned in Diges 49.16.12.2. e firsevidence or he rank is probably CIL IX 733=ILS 2499, o Larinum, Apulia, daed beween 44 and 31 BC10.He is a ciizen, hereore unsuiable or an auxiliary uni a ha ime, neveheless, he is used in one, as anoffi cer. He was probably a legionaire, as mos o he ollowing cases o decuriones alae.11Caesar was he firso recrui a specialised cavalry uni, o Gauls and Germans, divided hem ino urmaeand had legionaries,

ciizens, in charge o hem.12

e firs o he decurions is he decurioprinceps. His main ask is o conrol heabulariumalae.13e decuriosands above he cohor cenurion, because he can be used as a praeposius

3 Based on he ypes esablished by Elon 1996, 6.4 Gudea 1997, 34.5 For a deailed discussion o hese ors and heir unis, see Gudea 1997, 3955, and, more recenly, Marcu 2009.6 For he deailed discussion on he norhern limes, see Maei 1996, Gudea 1997a.7 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 53.8 Hyginus,De mun. casr.16, apudDomaszewski-Dobson 1967, 53.9 Dixon, Souhern 1992, 25.10 Speidel 1980, 211.M. Valerius,eques de(curio) alae Parui.He is called eques, like oher cavalrymen: eques sesquiplicarius

(CIL VII 5936), eques signier(CIL III 6062), eques bucinaor(CIL III 3352), eques evocaus(CIL X 6011) or eques imaginier(AE 1926, 110).

11

Speidel 1980, 211212.12 Speidel 1980, 212213.13 Doaszewski-Dobson 1967, 53. Speidel 1981 considers his special ile gran (princeps) as he resul o a special ask,

probably an ad-hoccommand.


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Professional Officers on the Northern Dacian limes | 385

cohoris, above he beneficiariusconsularis, bu under he legionary cenurion. He can be promoed direclyo i, a he governor`s suggesion, calling himsel candidaus. He can also be used as a commander o hesraorespraesidis, in he provinces wihou legions.14ere are pleny o examples o decurions promoedorm eques legionis, or rom he lower ranks in he uni, sesquiplicarius or duplicarius alae.15

eduplicariussands below he beneficiariusconsularis. On his rank, as on he one o decurion, veryofen legionaries would be ranserred, on heir way o become legionary cenurions or even commanderso auxiliary unis.16For a regular legionaire, he ranser as a duplicarius alaeis a clear promoion, and wouldimply a solid raise in he wages.17e very rare menions o he rank sesquiplicariuscan sugges ha hey werepromoed mos o he imes, his being more o a ransiion sage. 18e asks o hese wo ranks canno beesablished rom heir names, he only clear ac being ha hey are payed in higher wages. We can assumeha he duplicariuswas second in command o he urma, as he opio or inanry. e sandard bearers incavalry are a litle differen rom he inanry, meaning ha he sandard o he uni is carried by a vexillariusand ha o a urmaby a signier. ere is also a imaginieralae.19As he opiohey can be promoed direcly ohe decurionae or cenurionae20.

As any oher uni commander, hepraeecusalae(or he ribune) has a specialised saff a his disposal,he offi cium praeeci alae, wih he cornicularius as he headmaser.21He is probably a principalis, as all heoher cornicularii, payed in double wage22, alhough some have considered him only an immunis.23I he is

neverheless aprincipalis, cornicularius alaeis he only one in he offi cium praeeci alae. e saff is compleedby a series o immunes: acarius, sraor, saor, beneficiarius, librarius, or singularis24, ogeher wih secuoralaeand equespecuariusalae.25Oher immunes, ouside any offi cium: curaorurmae, cusosarmorum, librarius, hemusicians, ubicen, bucinaor, cornicen, and he echnicians mensorand medicus alae.26

The auxiliary cohort

From Tacius, His. IV.19 and CIL VIII 18042 we know ha he equies cohorales are beter payedhan hepedies, bu worse han he equiesalares. In he mix, equiaaecohors, he cenurions sand abovehe decurions, as he relaion beween he legionary cenurion and he aladecurion. ey are similar ranks,

because boh can be promoed o he legionary cenurionae, obviously afer he gran o ciizenship andhe honourable discharge rom he auxiliary uni. As in he case o he alae, legionaries can be direcly made

offi cers in he auxiliaries.27Cenurio princeps, is he firs o he cenurions, wih he same role as he decurioprinceps.28e cenuriosands above he beneficiariusconsularis, imaginierlegionisand beneficiariusprocura-oris. I can be promoed direcly o he legionary cenurionae. 29 ere are major differences beween helegionary and auxiliary cenurions. e governor promoes men on he ranks o auxiliary cenurion ordecurion, whereas he legionary cenurions can be appoined only by he emperor.30For he auxiliaries i iseasier o be enlised direcly as offi cers.31is is highly atracive or he young local elies, sons o soldiers,even cenurions, or young noble naives.32As or he decurions in alae, here is evidence or he promoion

14 Doaszewski-Dobson 1967, 53.15 Gilliam 1958, 159160.16 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 54.17

Cheesman 1914, 35.18 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 54.19 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 55.20 Cheesman 1914, 39, Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, xvi and Dixon, Souhern 1992, 25.21 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 55. One o he rare evidence or his rank is CIL III 7651, rom Gilu.22 Breeze 1971,passim.23 Cheesman 1914, 41, 43.24 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 5556, confirmed by Chessman 1914, 41, 4344 and Dixon, Souhern 1992, 25.25 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, xvii.26 Chessman 1914, 41, 4344 and Dixon, Souhern 1992, 25.27 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 56; Cheesman 1914, 38.28 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 56. A special siuaion is seen a Cei, where we have wo such principes, o he same

cohor, CIL III 7631.29

Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 56.30 Gilliam 1958, 158.31 Gilliam 1958, 164:BGU696, I, 2025, CIL VIII 9389 (decurio alae) and 21034 (cenurio singularium).32 Gilliam 1958, 165166.


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386 | GEORGECUPCEAo legionaries o his rank, only afer compleing a acical rank in he legion. For he cavalry par o he uni,he hing look mainly similar.33

Principaleso pedies.Imaginier, he acical ranks signier, opio, esserarius.Immunes. ubicen, cornicen,bucinaor, ogeher aeneaores, as in he legion. Technicians: mensoror medicus.Principaleso equies.Imaginier,vexillarius, bucinaor, even eques can be considered a special ype o sodlier, as in he legion.34Technicians,immunes, capsarius, sacerdos, aediuus, magisercampior cibariaor.35In he offi cium praeeci (ribuni) cohorishecornicularius,is again he onlyprincipalis, assised by he acarius, beneficiarius, librarius. An unusual rank ismagisercohoris, maybe a rainer or a kind o an opio.36

e so-called irregular auxiliary unis, he numeri, are organised in he same way as he ohers,depending on heir specialy, cavalry or inanry.37

Junior officers on the northern Dacian limes

On he secion o he ronier ha we have discussed beore, we have weny-eigh junior offi cersatesed on monumens. Mos o hem are presen a he wo imporan sies o Porolissum and Ilisua, andoher a Cei, Buciumi, Romia, Bologa or Orheiul Bisriei. Only wo o hem are immunes, he vas majoriy

beingprincipales, and mos o hem on he highes ranks. In he oher poins on he limes, no offi cer is atesed,

even i his does no mean ha hey didn` have he same saus in he field.e wo mos imporan ors in he region are revealed also hrough he civil setlemens ha heyproduced, and hrough he large number o epigraphical monumens ereced. Porolissum is a key-poin inhe deence sysem o norhern Dacia, and no only38. e oher one is Ilisua, anoher mos norhern poin,

bu looking somehow NNE, again wih a developed civil setlemen and a large number o monumens39. eunis garrisoned in hese ors have lef evidence or nine junior offi cers in aciviy, each.

O he many auxiliary unis or legionary vexillaions ha have passed hrough Porolissum in he 2 ndand 3rdCenuries AD, only wo o hem have lef a race or any junior offi cers in aciviy. ose wo are hecohorI Ulpia Britonumand he numerus Palmyrenorum Porolissensium. e firs one was he firs uni o begarrisoned here, or a shor period o ime. We have a cenurion atesed rom i, bu no on miliary affairs,

Ael. Firmus (ILD 697). e Palmyrenian numerus, which sayed longer in Porolissum, has lef our cenu-rions, hal o he oal number o numericenurions rom Dacia, and a decurion. A model inscripion, on

a brick, used probably or an evenual unerary monumen, is menioning he cenurion Aur. Iusinus (AE1974, 549 = ILD 706). Ael. emarsa (AE 1979, 495 = ILD 707), o syrian origin, has become a decuriono he coloniaa Napoca. M. Cocceius Alexander (AE 1979, 499 = ILD 712), is he auguro he Sepimianmunicipiuma Porolissum. Anoher cenurion rom he Eas, Ael. Maenemachus (ILD 714) honours hisdeceased wie, bearing a very nice name, Bebeia Tychenis.

On a collecive unerary sone (AE 1971, 389=ILD 704), belonging o a amily wih a serious miliaryradiion, are atesed hree o he junior offi cers o he numerus Palmyrenorum Porolissensium. Aurelius ishe head o he amily, veeran, ormer decurion. Probably a son, Aur. Passer, signier, dead a 33, and anoherAurelius, soldier in he same uni, are also deceased and menioned on he sone. Aurelia Sabina and ye anoherAurelius, acariuso he same uni, are in charge wih erecing he monumen. All o he miliary are par onumerusPalmyrenorumPorolissensium, have syrian origin, and hree o hem hold junior ranks. e only one

ha remains is he opioMucianus (AE 1960 219=ILD 690), which dedicaes an alar o Silvanus domesicus.A Ilisua, a differen ype o uni was garrisoned, an ala,I ungrorum Frononiana, and all o he ninejunior offi cers atesed here are par o i. e bes represened rank in he alaeo Dacia is he decurion. Wihfive o he weny-six rom he whole province, he alaa Ilisua is one o he bes documened in his mater.

A veeran decurion, C. Valerius Vialis (CIL III 811) lived only fify years, and his monumen is ereced bywo o his sons, boh o hem principalesin he same uni. One o hem, Valerius Laeillus is also decurion,probably enlised on some rank, due o his aher`s career. e oher one, Valerius Saurninus, is a duplicarius

33 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 57.34 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 58.35 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, xvii.36 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 5859.37

Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 6061.38 For he deailed, archaeological discussion, on he or and own a Porolissum see Gudea 1997b, oher conribuions byAl. V. Maei, and, more recenly, Marcu 2009.

39 For Iliua, see Proase, Gaiu, Marinescu 1997.


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in ala I ungrorum Frononiana, and complees ye anoher amily wih an ancien miliary radiion, passingrom one generaion o anoher. Anoher hree decurions o he uni in Ilisua are atesed. Aurelius De[?](CIL III 802), during his service, and Valerius Valerianus (CIL III 802, 805), a veeran, ormer decurion o

I ungrorum Frononiana, boh o hem in he siuaion o honouring heir dead relaives hrough unerarymonumens. e only one in a paricular siuaion is P. Ael. Paulinus (CIL III 7626), which raises a emple orhegenius sancus scolae decurionum. In his inscripion here is atesed a schola decurionum, he headquarerso he collegiumo hese offi cers, one o he rare such menions in Dacia40.

Anoher wo principalesrom he ala I ungrorum Frononianaare atesed a Ilisua. Aur. Viellianus(CIL III 791), sesquiplicarius, raising an alar o Iupier opimus maximus, and an unknown signier(CIL III813). Only one immunis, he librariusAur. emaes (CIL III 804).

In anoher our places on he norhern limes here are o be ound junior offi cers, all o hem romauxiliary unis. ese are Casei, Buciumi, Romia, Bologa and Orheiul Bisriei. e bes documened uni iscohors I Flavia Hispanorum , garrisoned a Buciumi41, and atesed also in oher poins in norhern Dacia, as

Aion and Orheiul Bisriei. I has he larges number o cenurions atesed, our, rom he oal o nineeeno he whole province. All o he our are menioned on small bronze ables, in he orm o abulaeansaae,

wih poined inscripion menioning he cenuries, discovered in he or. ese are Valerius (AE 1983,851a=ILD 640), Severinus (AE 1983, 851b = ILD 644), C. Pomponius Valerianus (AE 1983, 851c=ILD

645) and L. Turannius Are(mid?)orus (AE 1983, 851d = ILD 646). e same uni, bu in anoher place,also atess an opio. Caius (AE 1998, 1113 = ILD 805, Myszkow, Ukraine) dedicaes a voive bronze arm oIupier opimus maximusDolichenus, which probably comes rom Orheiul Bisriei, and was aken as spoilsduring some invasion o he cosobocae.42

e siuaion a Samum-Casei is a paricular one or he whole o Dacia Porolissensis. Firs, he auxiliaryor was garrisoned mainly by cohors I Briannica c R equiaa. We have evidence or wo cenurions andan opio. Caecilius Aelianus and Ti. Aurelius Iulianus (CIL III 830=7631), calling hemselves princip(?),may be consideredprincip(ibus), like in he wo cenurionesprincipeso he uni (ore one cenurion and onedecurion), or princip(ales), as a general denominaion o junior offi cers43. ey dedicae an alar (CIL III830 = 7631) o hegeniuso a scholaordinaorum, probably he headquarers o he collegiumgahering hecenurions and decurions o he uni saioned here, cohors I Briannica c R equiaa44. e opio, C. Speraus

(CIL III 824) dedicaes, along wih wo colleagues, P. Aelius Sexillianus and C. Aquila, an alar o Iupieropimus maximusand all he oher gods. Secondly, he mater o he saioo he beneficiariiconsularis, will bediscussed lower.

A Romia-Ceriae45, he garrison orcohors I Baavorum , here are wo high-rankprincipalesatesed.C. Campanius Vialis (CIL III 839), a cenurion o his uni, dies a 27, afer only nine years in service. emonumen is ereced by Florius Virilis, veeran, ormer decurion o he same uni, eiher uncle or grand-aher. is is he example o a special career, o a very young cenurion, maybe even enlised as one. Fromhe same uni, Ael. Cerus (CIL III 13760, Poaissa), a signieratends o he unerary monumen or his wieand son, ha have lived in he setlemens a Poaissa.

A las, cohors II Hispanorumgarrisoned a Bologa-Resculum46, on he wesern par o his norhernlimeshas only one junior offi cer. Ael. Tao (CIL 843=627), o illyrian origin, is a decurion o his obviouslyequiaacohor.

I is hard o say which ones o hese offi cers were deached on he limeso parol or o man he wachowers. However, as i has been saed a he beginning o his paper, he ronier is no jus only a marked line

which separaes he Romans rom he barbarians, bu a whole cener o civilizaion, which orbis around hemiliary esablishmen which is inended or securiy reasons. As i can easily be seen rom he acadiurnaooher miliary unis, garrisoned on oher roniers, each day means anoher ask or he soldiers and offi cers.I is higly probable ha a leas a one ime, he offi cers menioned above have parolled he porion o limesunder heir supervision, or have manned one o he owers. One hing is or sure, his duy had o be a general

40 In general abou scholaein Marcu 2006, or oher ypes o scholaeo junior offi cers in Dacia, see Cupcea 2008, 274275.41 For he archaeological siuaion o he or a Buciumi, see Gudea 1997c.42 Peolescu 2002, 112.43 Isac 2003, 4546.44

Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 5657. Especially because in he 3rd

Cenury, auxiliary cenurions are also called ordinai.However, D. Isac considers ha his monumen is raised by woprincip(ales), no probable hough. Isac 2003, 4546.

45 For he archaeological siuaion o he or a Romia, see Maei, Bajusz 1997.46 For he archaeological siuaion o he or a Bologa, see Gudea 1997d.


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388 | GEORGECUPCEAone, because here is no ype o offi cer specially rained or such maters. O course, he vas majoriy o heoffi cers menioned above are in ranks which imply acual command o unis, cenurions or decurions. isdoesn` mean ha hey would no go ou on missions, bu more likely ha hey would have been enrused

wih he supervision or command o special asks and unis, ou in he field.Anoher special eaure o he norhern par o he Dacian limesis he acive presence o beneficiarii

consularis. is has o be looked upon rom he poin o view o he provincial governor, which can rely on hehelp o a saff couning even hundreds o rained men, all o hem miliary, mos o hem legionary, gaheredin he offi cium consularis.

Cornicularius, chie-offi cer o hese offi cia, probably aking his name rom he corniculum, a decoraionrom he lae republic, in he shape o a horn, worn on he helme.47Oher members, speculaores, appeara Caesar, wih he mission revealed by heir name, spying (BG, II.11.23, V.49.8, 50.3; BCIII.66.1, 67.1;

BAl12.1, 31.4, 37.1). In he 1sCenury AD hey become a special, mouned par o he imperial guard,eiher offi cers in he saff o unis or governors, mosly as messengers (Tacius, His.II.73,Ann.II.12; Livy

XXXI.24.4), public execuioneers (DigesaXLVIII.20.6; Marks Gospel 6.27).Beneficiariialle called by Caesarhe soldiers which are deached rom he command o an offi cer, and hereore releaved o any ordinaryduies, ollowing a beneficium(BCI.75.2, III.88.5). During he Principae he erm depics a cerain ype ooffi cer o he saff. efumenariiac as messengers or secre police, alhough heir name would come rom

an offi cer in charge wih grain supply (fumenum).48Each o hese provincial offi ciawould have 2 or 3 cornicularii, which lead hem in he absence or alogeher

wih heprinceps praeorii. In he hierarchy hey are ollowed by commenarienses, hen speculaores, beneficiariiconsularis,fumenarii, quaesionarii, and all kinds o echnicians inerprees, haruspex, or clerks librarii, exaci,excepores. e soldiers ge o hese ranks rom he legions, afer maybe serving in some lower poss. 49

e duies o his saff are pleny, and much he same as o he governor. ey assis him in his mosimporan duy adminisraion o jusice in he province. In his case he offi cialesare aking par acivelya he jusice enorcemen: he beneficiariiconsularis, sraoresandfumenariiare making arress ec. Amongoher asks he speculaores, beneficiarii,fumenarii, singularesare messengers in all he Empire.50

ebeneficiariusaddaps his name afer he rank o his governor. He can be called legaibeneficiarius, asin Numidia, or even plain beneficiariusmay mean beneficiariusconsularis, i i is undersood.51

In republican imes, he governors ake wih hem in he provinces amici, even amily members, or assis-ance and council. e firs menions o a paronage beneficium, come rom he ime o he Civil Wars (Caesar,BCI.75, III.88). e earlies menions o he erm beneficiarius o a governor, come rom he ime o Gaius, whenpassingIIIAugusa, rom he command o he Arican proconsule, owards an own legaus. Following, Tacius(His.IV.48) saes ha he wo high offi cials have shared he numerus beneficiorum. Inscripions o benefi-ciarii o governors appear shorly afer, he firs one rom 5260 AD (AE 1967, 525) a beneficiarius procuraoris

Judaeae. Anoher wo are rom he 1sCenury AD: CIL XII 2602 (79 AD) and CIL VIII 27854 (8183 AD).ere are no saionesknown or his ime, hey were probably acive a he governors headquarers.52

Trajan was he reormer o he beneficiariisysem. He decided he creaion o hose saiones, mannedwih beneficiarii o he provincial governors. Mos o hem appeared by 110120 AD, hroughou heEmpire, in differen provinces and manned in he same way. All hese indicae a cenral, imperial decision.Epigraphical evidece or hese offi ciales differ rom hose o he 1s Cenury AD. ere are no unerary

monumens, only voive alars, mos o hem o Iupieropimus maximus, raised during he service in a saio.is would imply he ac ha hose deached in he saionesare serving in more imporan missions hahose a he offi cium, rom which we have only an alar in 50 years (CIL III 14362, Virunum). Two o hesesaionesesablished by Trajan are hose o Sirmium53and Celeia, wo radiional ciies, o he 1sCenury

AD, a boh ends o an imporan road o he Empire, which, coming rom Norhern Ialy, passes hroughhe Alps, and hen ges o he Danube. ereore boh saionesare posiioned in sraegic poins, regarding

47 Clauss 1975, 251. A ype o his rank is canalicularius.See also Gilliam 1976.48 Ausin, Rankov 1995, 150.49 Ausin, Rankov 1995, 151.50 Ausin, Rankov 1995, 153.51 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 3233. General works on beneficiariihave been published by Ot 1995 and, more recenly

Nelis-Clmen 2000.52 Dise 1997, 274275.53 For he complee repors over he saioa Sirmium, see Mirkovi 1994. For he beginning o he saionessysem and he

differen ypes o such endeavours, see Nelis-Clmen 2000, 175190.


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Trajans plans. Celeia works unil 160, hen resars in 190, unil 217, and Sirmium works coninously unil230. Oher, isolaed alars come rom Virunum and Iuvavum, Sepasopolis or Charax. ey confirm hishypohesis, ogeher wih he daing o he alars close o 120. e lack o oher, laer proos, may indicaehe ceasing o aciviy in hese saionesby 13054. A his momen in ime, he assignmen o such an offi cer

was ruly a beneficium(Pliny,Ep.XX, XI, XXII, XXVII).Following, Hadrian was oally unineressed by his mater, and, by 130, only he saioneso Sirmium

and Celeia were sill working. Beween 125 and 150 here is no evidence or ohers. Anoninus Pius andMarcus Aurelius have compensaed, by a new impulse o provincial adminisraion and governor saff. Afer150 epigraphical evidence or saionesappears in oher places: Rigomagus, Ponailler-sur-Sane, PraeoriumLaobicorum, Monana and Hisria, Tyana. is muliude o saionesis par o he imperial acion. Close o150 he aciviy is increased a Celeia and Sirmium. Afer his, hey seem o dissapear, probably because ohe marcomanic wars.55

From his momen on, an exension o aciviy will be observed in hese saiones. Some o hem wihisolaed evidence, bu mos wih serious epigraphical monumens: Monana mining area 5 alars, woin Germania In. Netersheim 7 alars, unil 227, Rigomagus 7 alars, unil 242, wo in agridecumaes,Germania Sup. Socksad 21 alars, unil 208, Jagshausen 5 alars, unil 186. Plus, one o he besequipped in evidence is he one in Oserburken, where alars are revealing aciviy beween 174 and 238.56e

raising in alar numbers means a raising in saionesnumber. e adminisraive reorm o his period aleraeshe personal relaionship beween he governor and his beneficiarii owards an offi cial one, enclosed in heoffi cium consularis. e erm o offi ciumconsularisappears or he firs ime in connecion wih a beneficiarius,a Tyana, Cappadocia, close o 150 (IGRR III, 6800), in Greek: . e firs beneficiariusconsularisisha o CIL III 7449, Monana, AD 155. From now on, his orm will prolierae. is reorm will concern alsohe erm o service in saiones. ere is evidence or he erm o service longer han he governship o a cerainoffi cial, and or he 3rdCenury i could appear ha heir service was permanen, i no promoed. ese alera-ions inend o shif he beneficiarius` loialy rom he person o he governor o his insiuion.57

Regarding hierarchy, a soldier can become beneficiariusrom he posiions o esserarius, opio,fumen-arius, quaesionarius, duplicariusalae, all acical or above-acical ranks. I sands under he speculaor, i can

be promoed o speculaor, or exraordinary o commenariensis, corniculariuspraeecilegionisor cornicularius

consularis. By he ime o Severus hey can be promoed direcly o he legionary cenurionae. e ceriudeo such a promoion can be observed rom he orms o spebeneficiausor candidaus. Beginning wih hisperiod, he direc ranser o miliiaequesriswas possible, and by he ime o Philippus Arabs his kind obeneficiariiwere called beneficiariuspeior(miliiae). For he relaive posiion beweenprincipales, we can seeha decurioalae, cenuriocohoris, decuriocohorisor rierarchao he provincial flees sand above he benefi-ciariusconsularis, hereore being promoed direcly o he legionary cenurionae. e rank is presen evenunder Diocleian, andproecorpraeecilegionismay have evolved rom i.58

An impressive number o beneficiarii consularis are atesed in Dacia, rom XIII Gemina, a leas 30.More han hal o hem are atesed a Apulum, serving a he praeoriumconsularis. Oher locaions vary,like Sarmizegeusa, Micia, Alburnus Maior, Ampelum or Samum. From all hese, we can sae ha he onesdeached in saionesare hose o Micia, Alburnus Maior and Samum59. A hal o he oal number o benefi-ciarii consularisatesed in he province are presen on he norhern limes, in only hree poins. Twelve o hem

are atesed a Casei-Samum, wo a Porolissum and one a Buciumi. As or he legion o origin, hree comeromXIII Gemina, eigh rom V Macedonica, and he oher our rom eiher o he wo legions.

e large number o epigraphical monumens, atesing beneficiariiconsularis, a saioand a regio inhe surroundings o he auxilliary or o Casei-Samum, have marked his spo as one o he mos imporano his kind in he province Norh o he Danube. A number o oureen inscripions sand evidence orwelve beneficiarii in service a wo disinc periods o ime. Since A. von Domaszewski many scholars

54 Dise 1997, 275277. A his ime here is no clear indicaion o heir work in he field. e relaionship beween hem andhei governors is as personal as in he 1sCenury, as i can be seen rom he orm beneficiarius + governors name + governors rank.

55 Dise 1997, 279280, Ot 1995, 87105, Nelis-Clmen 2000, 133 sqq.56 Schallmayer 1994, 184.57 Dise 1997, 280283. However, bes proven is he erm o service o six monhs, especially in his period. is is discussed

in deail in Dise 1997a, Schallmayer 1994, Isac 1994, Ot 1995, 105106, Nelis-Clmen 2000, 133 sqq, 211 sqq.58 Domaszewski-Dobson 1967, 3334. For he rank in he legionary hierarchy see also Ot 1994, Ot 1995 (saing ha allbeneficiariiare sesquiplicarii). On direc promoion o he legionary cenurionae, seldom, see Breeze 1974 and Speidel 1992.

59 Alhough, all he places wih epirgaphical ecidence o he beneficiariihave been considered saiones.


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390 | GEORGECUPCEAhave approached he mater, mosly Romanian60. e inscripions can be daed in wo disinc periods oime. e firs ones are daed in Severus` Alexander reign, and menion he beneficiariias agenes in curamsaionis/in munere saionis. is immediaely implies he exisence o a saioin he area surrounding heor. e scholars have ried o explain in various ways his saioand is role in his poin. e saiois no aarchaeologically recognizable building. I has been idenified, in many places hroughou he Empire, due oepigraphical evidence, mosly alar dedicaions o beneficiarii61, which, in some places are grouped in sacralareas62. According o heir geographical placemen, here are our ypes o saioneso be deermined: A inowns, B along he borders o he provinces, C on roads, harbors or rade roues, and D in viciniy omining areas, sone quarries or oher imperial works63. All o he saionesseem o be in aciviy in he 2 ndand 3rdCenuries AD. In Dacia, here is evidence or all o he ypes o saiones, and Samum is consideredo belong o ype B64. In any case, he geographical siuaion is he only one o esablish his classificaion. Inhis miliary esablishmen, he governor sends his personal saff, he beneficiarii, bu no only hem, o atendo he imporan maters o any region, especially he ones ha are his responsibily. We have, a Samum, aleas five o hese beneficiariiatesed in service in he saio. Cassius Eroianus (CIL III 825=CBFIR 533)atends o he recondiioning o a Nemesis sancuary, probably in he vicus Samum. Scanius Lucius (AE1957, 327=ILD 771, 772, 773) dedicaes hree alars, wo o Iupier opimus maximusDolichenus, and one oNemesis, daed by consulship in AD 22465. Oclaius Floreninus (AE 1957, 329=ILD 775) dedicaes also o

Nemesis Regina, daed by consulship in AD 230, menioning ha his mission here is repeaed. Aur. Rufinus(ILD 774) does he same ac as his colleagues, bu in AD 223. In he same manner, C. Iul. Maximus (CIL III826) can be considered one o hem. A las, an unknown beneficiarius(ILD 778) dedicaes an alar, probablyo Iupier opimus maximus, wih he legion`s name Severiana.

e exac mission o hese beneficiarii, deached in a saioprobably inside he vicus, was reason ordiscussion or many years. e reason or he discussion appeared in a second series o alars o beneficiariidiscovered a Casei, now daed in he ime o Gordianus, which do no menion any saio, bu a regio, o

which hese offi cers are agenes. M. Valerius Valeninus (CIL III 827) dedicaes an alar o Nemesis Regina,as legionaire, beneficiarius, bu a he same ime aedileo he coloniaNapoca, daed by consulship in AD 239.M. Aur. Moenenus (CIL III 822) raises an alar o Iupier opimus maximusin he same period, wih he samemission. P. Ael. Marcellinus (AE 1957, 326 = ILD 765) again an alar o Iupier opimus maximus, daed in AD243. P. Ael. Proculinus (CBFIR 525 = ILD 769) does he same hing, bu in AD 243. Anoher wo beneficiarii

are atesed, bu wih no daing or mission. P. Ael. Sexillianus (CBFIR 527 and CIL III 7632) raises one alaro Iupier opimus maximusand all he oher gods and anoher o he imperial amily. A las, Valerius Vibius

Valerianus (CIL III 823) raises one alar o Iupier opimus maximusand all he oher gods. Plus, in he veryviciniy, anoher kind o offi cer is atesed, P. Ael. Ailianus (AE 1913, 54=ILD 795) a Negrilesi, a decuriono equiessingulares, raising an alar o Diana and Silvanus. In his norhern exremiy o he province, such anoffi cer would surely be deached in some special mission by he governor himsel, as a decurion o his guard.He is presumed on an offi cial mission in an oupos on he norhern limes, where he would probably expresshis graiude or his well-being66.

is shif rom saioo regio, as well as he meaning o he abreviaionAns, has long been debaed. efirs opion was o devep i inoAnsamensium, which would imply a region across he river Samus, which wouldbe under he conrol or he supervision o hese offi ciales67. In he las hiry years, also he Romanian scholars

have came up wih alernaive soluions, beter argued, which would lead owards a cusoms pos or heaxaion o commerce wih he naives or he barbarians68, o he sal mines o Dej in jus 10 km rom Samum69or o raffi c conrol on he hypoeical bridge over he Samus river, in he close surroundings70. e quesionis when did he saioa Samum became a regioand how? One opinion is ha hese agenes sub signo Samum

60 A lis o he sudies can be consuled in Isac 1994, Opreanu 1994 and Isac 2003.61 Ot 1995, 87.62 Nelis-Clmen 2000, 179 argues ha his is he only maerial connecion beween he word and he place saio.63 Ot 1995, 88.64 Ot 1995, 94 and Nelis-Clmen 2000, 164, no exacly under he same ormula, bu wih he same explanaion.65 Also he legion bears he name V Macedonica Severiana.66 Isac 1994 211.67 Opinions argued by Romanian scholars in he firs hal o he 20hCenury, V. Prvan, C. Daicoviciu, M. Macrea, or he

lis and deails see Isac 1994, 205208, Opreanu 1994,passim, Isac 2003, 4858.68 Opreanu 1994, 71.69 Isac 2003, 5657.70 Isac 1994, Opreanu 1994 and Isac 2003.


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cum regione Ans?or agenes Samo cum regione Ans?were simply beneficiariias beore, bu, now, by he auhoriygraned by heir signum, hey would exend heir compeence in he vicus Samum and he surrounding regioAnsamensium71. In a differen manner, an agens curam saioniswould only atend o he asks regarding isdeachmen pos. However, in some siuaions, beneficiariiwhich are deached o saionessiuaed in moslyurban or indusrial areas, end o exend heir compeence over an enire regio, as he siuaions in Aquincum,cum regione, agenes curam leg(ione) e colonia or Oxyrhynchos, where a regio o such a beneficiariuswouldexend or a leas 2030 km along he Nile72. Anoher clariying mehod o he way ha hese regioneswereorganized can be he siuaion o he regionesand regionariiin Lower Moesia. ese regionariiare, in he caseo he mining areas in his province, legionary cenurions, deached as offi cers in charge o such an adminis-raive uni, mosly indusrial ones, which, would probably have, in heir eam oher legionaries, as beneficiarii,

fumenariior speculaores73. e main ask o hese regionariiand heir subordinae beneficiariiwould be hewell-uncioning and securiy o imporan indusrial sies74.

Wha abou he siuaion a Samum? Leaving aside he hypoeical naives called ansamensii, or ohersuch populaions needed o be conrolled by he beneficiarii, he ac is, ha his is an area o grea imporanceor he provincial governor, or which i would deach his own saff, even cenurions. A similar siuaion isencounered a Porolissum. Here, a saioo ype A is presumed, according o wo beneficiariiconsularis inaciviy here. T. Fl. Valeninus (CBFIR 540 = ILD 687), raises an alar o Liberpaer, and Cassius Marialis (AE

1958, 288 = CBFIR 541, ILD 701) atends o he unerary monumen o his wie. An isolaed example, verynear o Porolissum, is he alar dedicaed o Iupier opimus maximus Dolichenus, or he healh o emperorCaracalla, by Iul. Firminus, a beneficiarius consularis(CIL III 7645 =CBFIR 524) a Buciumi. In boh palces,no sign o any paricular saioor mission. Bu he siuaion a Porolissum can offer us some clues. One o hemos imporan miliary sie in Dacia, i is hough o have kep he whole deence o he norhern province.e auxiliary or has developed also an urban setlemen, which has flourished in he 3rd Cenury. ecomplex is siuaed very close o he acual limes, marked in his region by a wall and wach owers. Anoherparicular siuaion is o be seen here, he presence o a compleely researched Roman cusoms house. In noso many words, all o he eaures o he ronier zone or o he limesas phenomenon, are encounered in oneplace. In such a siuaion, he classificaion o a presumed saioas ype A is a bi hazardous. e role o suchan esablismen, i any, could be a very complex one, including any securiy maters, rade and axaion enor-cemen, or even border human raffi c supervision. e siuaion mus have been similar a Samum. We may

no know o such developmens as in Porolissum, bu hey are possible, and moreover necessary, because hewo ronier zones are very similar even rom he geographical poin o view.

e mater o any miliary conrol or jurisdicion over his regiois also very improbable, especially wihan equesrian commander presen. e area is no wihou miliary aciviy, aside rom he uni a Samum,oher auxiliaries are garrisoned very near, and would easily conrol any miliary emergency ha wouldappear. In any case, such an emergency would no be handled by a small eam o legionaries. In his case,one should look owards oher poins o ineres or he cenral provincial auhoriy in he area. We know oan imporan bridge ha would have passed he Samus, o sal mines in he viciniy. We don` know o anycusoms house, bu i migh as well be one, in such a region. We migh also presume i o be a saioo ype

A, because o he rural, bu large civil setlemen in he area. In any case, in lack o more precise epigraphicalevidence, which would explain beter he mission o he beneficiariihere, one can only assume ha his was

a compleely common and normal deachmen poin or offi cers under he governor`s auhoriy, as manyohers hrouhgou he Empire. To sum up, all o he miliary elemens presen on he limeswould have had a special role or missions.

a is o ensure he securiy o he Roman auhoriy inside he province and o ensure he bes uncioningo his conac zone ha is he limes. e muliude o unis garrisoned here can sugges he ac ha i wasa sensiive area, in regard o relaions wih he barbarians. e special ouposs indicae ha some kind obuffer zone was neccesary o ensure he much needed securiy. Finally, he poins o general ineres, as veryimporan roues or indusrial sies, would ask or represenaives o he governor`s auhoriy or he ensuranceo heir well-uncioning. We mus no look or exraordinary missions or any offi cers, or hey were simplysoldiers, ollowing orders and doing heir job, in a sysem which, apparenly hough o everyhing.

71 Ot 1995, 106.

72 Nelis-Clmen 2000, 179.73 For he regionariisee Speidel 1984, and or he muliude o offi cers in saiones, Clauss 1973 and Ausin-Rankov 1995.74 Ot 1995, 107. One o hese regionariiis also o be seen in Dacia, a Drobea, C. Tiius Ianuarius (AE 1959, 314 = IDR

II 35), believed o have been a cenuriofumenarius, see Cupcea 2010, orhcoming.


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392 | GEORGECUPCEA

No Name Rank Unit Source Locaon

1 Aelius Firmus centurio coh I Bri onum ILD 697 Porolissum

2 Aurelius Iusnus centurio n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1974, 549 = ILD 706 Porolissum

3 Aelius Thema[rsa?] centurio n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1979, 495 = ILD 707 Porolissum

4 M. Cocceius Alexander centurio n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1979, 499 = ILD 712 Porolissum

5 Aelius Maenemachus centurio n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AMN 3, p. 456457 = ILD 714 Porolissum

6 Aurelius? decurio n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1971, 389 = ILD 704 Porolissum

7 Mucianus opo n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1960, 219 = ILD 690 Porolissum

8 Aurelius Passer signifer n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1971, 389 = ILD 704 Porolissum

9 Aurelius? actarius n Palmyrenorum Porolissensium AE 1971, 389 = ILD 704 Porolissum

10 C. Valerius Vitalis decurio ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 811 Iliua

11 Valerius Lellus decurio ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 811 Iliua

12 Aurelius De(?cimus) decurio ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 802 Iliua

13 Valerius Valerianus decurio ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 805, 808 Iliua

14 P. Aelius Paulinus decurio ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 7626 Iliua

15 Valerius Saturninus duplicarius ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 811 Iliua

16 Aurellius Vitellianus sesquiplicarius ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 791 Iliua

17 Ignotus signifer ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 813 Iliua

18 Aurelius Themaes librarius ala I Tungrorum Frontoniana CIL III 804 Iliua

19 Caecilius Aelianus centurio princeps coh I Britannicac R eq CIL III 830 = 7631 Samum

20 Ti. Aurelius Iulianus centurio princeps coh I Britannicac R eq CIL III 830 = 7632 Samum

21 Valerius? centurio coh I Flavia Hispanorum AE 1983, 851a = ILD 640 Buciumi

22 Severinus centurio coh I Flavia Hispanorum AE 1983, 851b = ILD 644 Buciumi

23 C. Pomponius Valeri(anus?) centurio coh I Flavia Hispanorum AE 1983, 851c = ILD 645 Buciumi

24 L. Turanius Arte(mid?)orus centurio coh I Flavia Hispanorum AE 1983, 851d = ILD 646 Buciumi

25 C. Campanius Vitalis centurio coh I Batavorum CIL III 839 Romita

26 Florius Virilis decurio coh I Batavorum CIL III 839 Romita

27 Aelius Tato decurio coh II Hispanorum CIL III 843 = 627 Resculum

28 P. Aelius Alianus decurio n equitum singularium AE 1913, 54 Negrile

29 C. Speratus opo coh I Britannica c R eq CIL III 824 Samum

30 Caius opo coh I Hispanorum AE 1998, 1113 = ILD 805 Orheiul Bistriei

31 Aelius Certus signifer coh I Batavorum CIL III 13760 Potaissa

32 Aurelius Rufinus beneficiarius leg XIII Gem ILD 774 Samum

33 Valerius Vibius Valerianus beneficiarius leg XIII Gem CIL III 823 Samum

34 M. Valerius Valennus beneficiarius leg XIII Gem CIL III 827 = 7633 Samum

35 C. Iulius Maximus beneficiarius leg V Mac CIL III 826 Samum36 P. Aelius Marcellinus beneficiarius leg V Mac AE 1957, 326 = ILD 765 Samum

37 P. Aelius Proculinus beneficiarius leg V Mac ILD 769 Samum

38 Scanus Lucius beneficiarius leg V Mac AE 1957, 327 = ILD 771, 772, 773 Samum

39 Oclaus Florennus beneficiarius leg V Mac AE 1957, 329 = ILD 775 Samum

40 P. Aelius Sexlianus beneficiarius leg V Mac CIL III 824 = 7632 Samum

41 M. Aurelius Moenenus beneficiarius leg V Mac CIL III 822 Samum

42 Ignotus beneficiarius leg V Mac ILD 778 Samum

43 Cassius Eroanus beneficiarius ? XIII Gem/V Mac CIL III 825 Samum

44 T. Flavius Valennus beneficiarius ? XIII Gem/V Mac ILD 687 Porolissum

45 Cassius Maralis beneficiarius ? XIII Gem/V Mac ILD 701 Porolissum

46 P. Iulius Firminus beneficiarius ? XIII Gem/V Mac CIL III 7645 Buciumi


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