Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District...Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project Scaling

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District

Scaling Up Adaptationin Zimbabwe, with a

Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project



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Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District i


Scaling Up Adaptationin Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project

Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Projectii

AcknowledgementsThis biophysical and socio-economic profile was made possible through the hardwork and commitment of a number of stakeholders at district level including staff from the District Administrator’s office, Rural District Council, President’s Office, Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Agritex, Livestock Production Department, Veterinary Services Department, Zimbabwe National Water Authority, Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, Department of Irrigation, Department of Mechanisation, Oxfam, Plan International and Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), farmers, WARD councillors and community leaders from the targeted subcatchment and Wards.The following experts led the field assessments, analyses and write-up: Bertha Nherera (livelihoods), Mhosisi Masocha (Ph.D, Water resources), Hatirarami Nezomba and Christopher Chagumira (Soils), Paradzayi Tagwireyi (Ph.D, vegetation and livestock), and Munyaradzi Shekede and Isaiah Gwitira (climate).Leonard Unganai (Ph.D) and Sheila Mlambo from the Project Management Unit provided conceptual guidance to the team leaders. Jeanette Manjengwa (Ph.D) and Leonard Unganai (Ph.D) edited the report.Photos: Michael Mushunje/Innocent KatsandeCitation: This report may be cited as: Oxfam-UNDP/GEF Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on rural livelihoods (2015). Profile of the Save subcatchment in Buhera District. Technical report, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District iii

Adaptation requires a good understanding of the interaction between climate change including extremes and the biophysical and socio-economic environment. This report, ‘Profile of the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District’, presents findings from the rapid assessment that was conducted in April 2015 in the Save sub-catchment, Buhera District for the UNDP/GEF supported project ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’. The assessment covered biophysical and socio-economic aspects providing a better understanding on the current state of climate, water resources, soil resources, vegetation and wildlife, livestock and livelihoods. This knowledge can assist in the development of appropriate climate change adaptation plans.

The main objective of the UNDP/GEF project is to scale up adaptation measures that reduce the vulnerability of rural communities, particularly women smallholder farmers affected by climate variability and change in the targeted project areas. The project intends to diversify and strengthen livelihoods and sources of income for vulnerable people; and to increase knowledge and understanding of climate variability and change-induced risks in targeted vulnerable areas. The project is being implemented by Oxfam in partnership with the Environmental Management Agency (EMA), University of Zimbabwe (UZ), Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE) and Plan International over the period 2014 to 2018.

MethodologyThe rapid assessment and the profiling process were guided by the DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state,

impact and responses) Framework; the Ecosystems Services Framework; and the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. DPSIR allows for the identification of the linkages between the driving forces that are behind the direct pressures on climate and land that cause change, the current state of land resources and their dynamics (the direction and magnitude of any change), the impacts of climate variability and environmental degradation on human livelihoods, and possible responses of communities to the impacts of climate change and variability. The Ecosystem Services Framework focuses on the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework approach is used for understanding how household livelihood systems interact with the natural, socio-economic and policy environment and how the different capitals (physical, human, financial, social, natural) can be used to adapt to climate change including extremes. Soil degradation was assessed using the Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) process developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (FAO, 2011).

FINDINGSWater resourcesMost streams in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District are seasonal, with the exception of Murambwe and Save Rivers. Such streams usually dry up by October. However, in years with below average rainfall most streams dry up by April. Groundwater, which is the main source of drinking water in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District is characterised by high levels of turbidity. High

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Main messages

• The majority of streams in the Save sub-catchment of Buhera District are seasonal and are dry for most of the year. Therefore, investing in ground water is essential to support domestic and productive needs of rural communities. There is an urgent need for the construction of new water sources such as dams, weirs and drilling boreholes.

• No households in the targeted wards 25, 28 and 30 have access to a functioning irrigation scheme.

• Alternative non-farm livelihoods, such as natural product enterprises, including the production, processing and marketing of honey, baobab, “nyii” (Berchemia discolor), need to be promoted and supported.

• Irrigation development in suitable locations must be one of the most important investments that can make communities in Buhera resilient to the negative impacts of climate change.

Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Projectiv

turbidity in groundwater has negative implications for human health considering that pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa typically attach to particulates. Several of the 28 water samples from wards 25 and 28 tested positive for salinity. 47% of groundwater samples including from boreholes, as well as unprotected shallow and deep wells in the three wards tested positive for faecal coliform bacteria. Only one sample out of 11 surface water sources tested positive for faecal coliform bacteria.

Soil resources

Buhera District is experiencing severe soil degradation (physical, chemical and biological) particularly in Wards 25 and 28. In these wards (25 and 28), both croplands and grazing lands are practically in a degraded state. More than 90 per cent of the cropped and grazing land in ward 25 was in a degraded state. Given that crop and livestock production are the major sources of livelihoods in these communities, and also that there is limited productive land for expansion, any interventions that seek to improve food production should focus on rehabilitating the degraded lands. In Ward 30, an opportunity exists for expanding small scale irrigation schemes given that the ward is dominantly covered by irrigable soils (Vertisols).

Vegetation

The three wards were semi-arid with about 89 per cent of the land cover being bare ground. The bare ground can be associated with continued land clearance for arable farming. Tree stand density was estimated to be about 0.03 m-2 for the three wards.

Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) dominated the landscape in ward 30 with a tree stand density of 0.05 m-2.

Livestock

The population of cattle, goats and sheep is declining as a result of forced sales from drought and declining pastures.

Livelihoods

The main livelihood strategies in Buhera wards 25, 28 and 30 include (1) rainfed crop and livestock production, (2) village savings, (3) bee keeping , (4) wild fruits harvesting including Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Nyii (Berchemiah discolour), Makwakwa (Strychnos madagascariensis), (5) Casual labour in exchange for food and cash, and (6) illegal selling of fire wood/charcoal and crafts. Drought is the main climatic hazard interacting with the socio-economic and biophysical environment to heighten livelihood vulnerabilities in the sub-catchment.

From the results of the Rapid Assessment it can be concluded that the current state and trends in land degradation, pasture depletion, water stress and socio-economic pressures are interacting with climatic stress to heighten vulnerabilities among rural communities in the district. To build resilience, central government, local authorities and individuals will need to scale up investments in water resources, natural ecosystem management, climate smart agriculture, infrastructure, tailored climate services and disaster risk reduction.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District vTABLE OF CONTENTS Executive summary 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to the profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 5

Chapter 2: Climate Profile for Buhera District 12

Chapter 3: Biophysical profile of Buhera 16

Chapter 4: Livelihoods assessment for Buhera District 27

Chapter 5: Impacts of climate hazards and coping strategies 33

Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendations for a climate resilient Buhera 40

References: 42

Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Projectvi

Abbreviations

AGRITEX Agricultural Extension

CMIP3 Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 3

CRU Climate Research Unit

DPSIR Drivers, pressures, state, impact and responses

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GCM Global Climate Model

GEF Global Environmental Facility

IPCC International Panel on Climate Change

LADA Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands

NTU Nephelometric turbidity unit

QGIS Open layers in Quantum Geographic Information Systems

Oxfam Oxford Committee for Famine

SAFIRE Southern Africa for Indigenous Resources

SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios

USD United States dollar

UNDP United Nations Development Fund

WHO World Health Organisation

ZimVac Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee

ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 1

The impact of climate change including extremes is one of the biggest threats facing humankind today. Climate extremes are already having adverse impacts in Zimbabwe, in particular in the rural areas where the majority of the population live and mostly depend on agriculture-based livelihoods. The severest impacts are being experienced in the driest regions where rainfall is becoming more unpredictable. Onset of the rainy season is frequently delayed, mid-seasons dry spells protracted, sometimes lasting from 30 and 50 days, and the rains often finish early (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013).

Zimbabwe is classified into five natural or agro-ecological regions on the basis of rainfall and land potential for agriculture (Vincent and Thomas, 1961). Rainfall and agricultural productivity decrease from Region I to V and consequently there are wide fluctuations in agricultural production potential across Zimbabwe. Region V occupies lowland areas below 500 metres, covering 27 per cent of the country and is mainly arid, receiving erratic rainfall below 450mm. The Region is suitable for extensive livestock production and game ranching (Anderson et al., 1993). Communities living in Region V tend to be the most impoverished in the country. There is little irrigation infrastructure development and recurrent crop failure and food shortages characterize these areas. Climate change presents critical challenges to such communities which are already suffering high incidences of poverty.

Introduction to the Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe Project

The challenge for the country is how to develop adaptation strategies that can reduce and mitigate the diverse and complex impacts of climate change and climate variability (Government of Zimbabwe, 2015). Building on the Government’s efforts to identify and implement strategic investments that build resilience to impacts of climate change and

variability, Oxfam in Zimbabwe is implementing a climate change adaptation project named ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ from November 2014 to October 2018. The project is a collaboration with Plan International, SAFIRE (Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources) and the University of Zimbabwe, and is supported by the United Nations Development Programme and Global Environment Facility (UNDP/GEF).

‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ is being implemented predominantly in Agro-Ecological or Natural Region V, in parts of Buhera, Chimanimani and Chiredzi Districts, and addresses a number of climate related risks faced by smallholder farmers in these dry areas (Figure 1.1).

Chapter 1

Introduction to the profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District

“The impact of climate change including extremes is one of the biggest threats facing humankind today.”

Scaling Up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a Focus on Rural Livelihoods Project2

The main objective of the project is to scale up adaptation measures that reduce the vulnerability of rural communities, particularly women smallholder farmers affected by climate variability and change in the targeted project areas. The project intends to diversify and strengthen livelihoods and sources of income for vulnerable people in targeted areas. The project also intends to increase knowledge and understanding of climate variability and change-induced risks in targeted vulnerable areas as well as at country level.

The project uses river sub-catchments as entry points, namely the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera; the Odzi Sub-catchment in Chimanimani; and the Runde/ Nuanetsi Sub-catchment in Chiredzi District. The elements that make up a sub-catchment are linked by movement of mass and energy. Human activities form an important social element of the catchment system which interacts with the biophysical elements. The interactions between anthropogenic activities and other elements of the drainage basin need to be properly managed so that adverse effects such as reduction in water resources are minimised.

Figure 1.1 : Position if the target districts in the ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ project

The ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ project seeks to strengthen participatory integrated sub-catchment planning to produce sub-catchment level climate change adaptation investment plans, adapt planned baseline investments and implement concrete adaptation measures that diversify and drought-proof rainfed agriculture and smallholder farmers’ other livelihood strategies. The productive potential and sustainability of semi-arid lands will be increased through various watershed interventions focusing mainly on land and water management practices. This will help to create a sustainable natural resource base that assists in buffering climatic extremes particularly droughts, floods and heavy rainfall events at community level. The capacity of smallholder farmers, particularly women, to manage productive assets and climate risk within their catchment will also be enhanced.

Rapid assessments were conducted in April-May 2015 to produce profiles of the targeted river sub-catchments of Odzi in Chimanimani District, Save in Buhera District, and Nuanetsi/Runde in Chiredzi District to capture trends of livelihood supporting

“The capacity of smallholder farmers, particularly women, to manage productive assets and climate risk within their catchment will also be enhanced”.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 3natural resources and adaptation deficits in baseline investments. These reports will provide information that will contribute to development and climate change adaptation programming in the three sub-catchments.

Introduction to the rapid assessment of the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District

This report, ‘Profile of the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District’, presents findings from the rapid assessment that was conducted in the Save sub-catchment, Buhera District for the project ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’. The assessment covered biophysical and socio-economic aspects providing a better understanding of the current state of weather services, water, soil resources, vegetation and wildlife, livestock and livelihoods that can assist in the development of appropriate climate change adaptation plans.

The study sites Buhera district is situated in Manicaland Province

and falls in Agro-ecological Regions III, IV and V in the proportion of approximately a third of the district in each Region. Figure 1.2 shows the spatial distribution of Agro-ecological regions across wards in Buhera district.

Three wards in Buhera District, 25, 28 and 30, were selected for the assessment on the basis of being in the Lower Save sub- catchment area, and in Agro-ecological region V.

Approach and methodsThe rapid assessment and the profiling process were guided by the DPSIR (drivers, pressures, state, impact and responses) Framework; the Ecosystems Services Framework; and the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. DPSIR allows for the identification of the linkages between the driving forces that are behind the direct pressures on climate and land that cause change, the current state of land resources and their dynamics (the direction and magnitude of any change), the impacts of climate variability and environmental degradation on human livelihoods, and possible responses of communities to the impacts of climate change and variability.

Figure 1.2: Agro ecological classification and wards in Buhera District

“understanding the current state of weather services, water, soil and vegetation can assist in the development of appropriate climate change adaptation plans”.


The Ecosystem Services Framework focuses on the benefits people obtain from ecosystems, that is, natural resources and ecosystem services, such as supply of clean water. This framework supports the assessment to investigate the range and scale of impacts of climate change on the environment.

The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework approach is used for understanding how household livelihood systems interact with the natural, socio-economic and policy environment and how the different capitals (physical, human, financial, social, natural) can be used to adapt to climate change and variability.

The main methods used in the rapid assessments were:

i) Focus group discussions incorporating participatory tools such as historical timeline, ranking and livelihood calendar. Discussions were held with groups of men and women on various topics, including livelihood strategies, soil degradation and water resources.

ii) Key informant interviews were held with relevant stakeholders and experts with specific knowledge.

iii) Analysis of soil and water samples, both in situ and in the Biological Sciences Laboratory, University of Zimbabwe.

iv) Field observation including transect walks.v) Analysis of satellite imagery.

Literature review.

Questions and check lists were used to guide the focus group discussions and key informant interviews.

The rapid assessment was undertaken by a team comprising experts from the University of Zimbabwe, SAFIRE, Buhera Rural District Council, and government departments, including local government and livestock, irrigation and mechanisation departments of the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development.

Climate profile and climate information services assessment

Secondary sources of climate data for current and past climate trends were obtained from rainfall and temperature records from the Department of Meterorological Services, Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate as well as from data sets developed

by the Climate Research Unit (CRU), University of East Anglia, UK. Future climate projections were based on the World Climate Research Programme’s Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) Global Climate Model (GCM) multi-model projections for Special Report on Emissions Scenarios A2 emissions scenario. The A2 scenario is at the higher end of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios emissions scenarios, although not the highest, and is useful because, if an adaptation to larger climate change can be planned for, then the smaller climate changes of the lower end scenarios can also be adapted to.

Stakeholder consultations were conducted in the selected wards of Buhera District in which information provided a basis for determining priority climate information needs for climate risk reduction. The study methods included interviews with farmers, the local leadership, agricultural experts and other relevant stakeholders. The elderly, youth, women, non-governmental organisations, local authorities, extension officers, water users and managers were represented in the multi-stakeholder consultations. This approach ensured that diverse perspectives and climate information needs across all relevant sectors were captured.

Water assessment

Information about the state of water in the targeted wards was obtained from the community as well as from water quality tests, thereby integrating local knowledge with empirical assessments to gain a better understanding of water resource management practices.

Focus group discussions were held with water users and key informants in the selected wards to evaluate the current status of water resources. The following five topics were discussed:

* Main uses of water.* Adequacy of supply for various uses.* Water harvesting techniques.* Water allocation and access rules.* Quality of water for human consumption,

domestic and agricultural uses.

The community groups also discussed the variation in hydrogeology which influences groundwater occurrence and borehole yield.

Water quality assessments involved microbial analysis and chemical quality of drinking water. These were based on World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline values for drinking water, which

“This framework supports the assessment to investigate the range and scale of impacts of climate change on the environment”.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 5were established on the basis of international risk assessments of the health effects associated with exposure to pathogens and chemicals in drinking water.

Twenty eight water samples were collected for laboratory analysis. Sample sites were purposefully selected, distributed in all the main hydrogeological formations in the targeted wards, as hydrogeology influences groundwater occurrence and borehole yield. The samples comprised of water sources that local communities considered to be primary sources of drinking and irrigation water as well as potential hotspots of water pollution.

Seventeen groundwater samples were collected from privately owned unprotected, school and local communal boreholes. Eleven surface water samples were collected from perennial rivers, namely the Save and Murambwe, seasonal streams and annual dams such as Mondo Dam.

All water samples were analyzed using standard protocols for chemical and micro-biological analyses. In the field, water samples were analysed for salinity, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity and temperature at source using a portable multi-parameter meter. The water quality parameters measured in the laboratory were nitrates, pH, turbidity and faecal coliforms.

Soil assessment

A rapid assessment of soil degradation in Buhera District was conducted using the Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) process developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (FAO, 2011). The objective of the rapid assessment was to produce a soil degradation profile for the targeted sub-catchment in Buhera to guide the development of appropriate climate change adaptation plans.

Participatory community land use mapping was conducted with groups of farmers and other key stakeholders within the target wards such as local extension workers from AGRITEX and Ministry of Lands and Rural Resettlement officers, to gather local knowledge of soil degradation and mapping of land use patterns. The participants constructed a ward land use sketch map indicating locations of degraded and productive fields, grazing lands and other natural resource pools such as woodlands and wetlands.

Participatory transect walks to assess soil physical and biological degradation as guided by the land use sketch map were conducted with people who

had local knowledge of the area, such as farmers, local leaders and AGRITEX officers. Aspects of degradation investigated included incidences of gullying, severity of soil erosion, siltation of water bodies and sediment loading in waterways, compaction and crusting. Biological attributes included micro-faunal activities as well as indicator plant species.

In addition to physical and biological degradation assessments, soil samples were collected randomly on each land use unit for laboratory analysis of various chemicals, including nitrogen, organic carbon and base nutrients. These tests established chemical fertility and assessed the chemical degradation of the soil.

Vegetation, livestock and wildlife assessments

Assessment of the vegetation, crops, and wildlife and livestock resources was carried out through focus group discussions in the wards, transect walks and satellite imagery.

The focus groups consisted of 6-10 community members who had extensive experience in using and managing the local environmental resources, including grazing land, cropping land, fuelwood and other forest products. The participants provided data on: types of livestock reared and crops grown, trends on the quality and quantity of grazing, occurrence of bush encroachment, presence of invasive species on both rangeland and grazing land, frequency and severity of bush fires, fire control measures and by-laws governing fire. In addition, drought coping strategies regarding changes in crops grown and livestock stocks were also explored.

Two 600 metre transect walks were conducted at least 5 kilometres apart in each of the target wards, incorporating vegetation gradients. The transect walks gathered data regarding vegetation type, vegetation cover, vegetation composition and species diversity and plant health in terms of grazing quality in pastures and rangelands. Transects were used to note bush encroachment, invasive and poisonous species, overgrazing, and general plant condition.

Satellite image interpretation was used from GeoEye. Images available via Open layers in Quantum Geographic Information Systems (QGIS) were downloaded and the images classified into three distinct vegetation density categories. The categories are thick vegetation (more than 40 per cent canopy cover), sparse vegetation cover (10-

“drought coping strategies regarding changes in crops grown and livestock stocks were explored”.


40 per cent canopy cover) and bare ground (less than 10 per cent canopy cover). Field data obtained during the transect walks was used to groundtruth satellite-based classification.

Socio-economic and livelihoods assessments

The livelihood assessments sought to:

* Collect livelihood related data for improved understanding of the impact of climate related hazards.

* Identify who is being affected by climate change and variability and what the relationship is between climate change and variability and specific to livelihood features and strategies.

* Identify important socio-economic, institutional and policy drivers for climate vulnerability.

* Identify how policy facilitates or hinders climate change adaptation engagement.

* Identify roles that social (community organisation), financial, human (capacity, knowledge) and physical (infrastructure) forms of capital (assets) play at the local level in influencing perspectives on land and its management.

* Identify the linkages between i) vulnerability, ii) livelihood assets, iii) institutions, iv) livelihood

strategies and v) livelihood outcomes within communities in the targeted sub-catchments.

* Identify gender inequalities in accessing livelihood assets and opportunities especially for women.

* Map existing producer groups that the project can build up on.

The main method used to obtain information about livelihoods was focus group discussions with community members. Key informant interviews were also used to gain specialised knowledge on specific issues.

Participants, consisting of both men and women, discussed climate hazards and other hazards that communities were facing, how they coped and how their coping could be strengthened to build resilience against climate hazards. Households were categorised into different wealth groups according to the assets that they own. The group also looked at who owns which assets, who has the right to use and the right to dispose of the assets.

In order to get gendered perspectives the participants were divided into separate groups of men only and women only. Within these groups, participants discussed their main livelihood strategies and how these strategies can be strengthened to build resilience to future droughts in the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera wards. These gendered groups also recommended priority investments that could

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 7be made by the project. Participatory livelihood ranking was undertaken using small stones to reflect the importance of each livelihood.

Key informant interviews were carried out with representatives from the Rural District Council, government departments including AGRITEX, health and youth, as well as community leaders namely village heads and councillors and non-governmental organisations. An institutional analysis was carried out with key informants to gather information about what institutions are doing and what they would consider to be priority investments for building resilience.

Structure of report

The report is organised into chapters as follows:

* Chapter 1 introduces the ‘Scaling up Adaptation in Zimbabwe, with a focus on Rural Livelihoods’ project and gives a background to the rapid assessment and profiling of the Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District, including

objectives, approach and methods used. * Chapter 2 provides the climate profile of

Buhera District, from scientific data and community perceptions. The chapter tackles future climate scenarios.

* Chapter 3 contains the rapid assessment of the biophysical resources, including profiles of water resources, soil, vegetation, livestock and wildlife. The chapter includes suggested interventions for improving each resource.

* Chapter 4 presents the socio-economic assessment, focusing on livelihood profiles.

* Chapter 5 elaborates on the communities coping strategies to address the hazards of climate change.

* Chapter 6 presents the conclusion and recommendations for interventions to build resilience to climate change amongst communities in Buhera.

A number of main messages have been identified from the rapid assessment as being key for programming for scaling up adaptation to climate change and possibilities for future action in Buhera.


Introduction

An understanding of historical and current weather and climate is important for assessing current livelihood options as well as understanding the potential impacts of climate change on these livelihoods so as to find ways of adapting. This chapter presents a climate profile of Buhera District, focusing on the project target wards 25, 28 and 30 that fall in Agro-ecological Region V, located in the south of Buhera District that are hot, dry areas and have the lowest rainfall. The low and erratic rainfall is too unreliable for rainfed crop production, therefore extensive cattle or game ranching are the recommended viable land use options, except for situations where water for irrigation is available (Moyo, 1994).

Climate of Buhera District

The pattern and quantity of rainfall in Buhera District varies widely within the district. Areas within Agro-ecological region III receive 650-800 mm, while

areas in Region V receive less than 500 mm a year. The temperature and rainfall vary in a north south direction following the pattern of elevation with the northern part (high elevation) having higher rainfall and being cooler and the southern part (low elevation) of the district characterised by low rainfall and high temperatures.

Buhera experiences hot summers (30-400C) and mild winters (6-250C) with mean temperatures of 220C (Figure 2.1). In June the minimum temperatures sometimes reach below zero degrees Celsius.

Extreme climate events in Buhera

Droughts are a characteristic feature of Agro-ecological Region V. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), which is the number of standard deviations that observed cumulative precipitation deviates from the climatological average, was used to calculate the frequency of occurrence of extreme climate events. The frequency of occurrence of extreme events from 1970 to 2011 using the SPI is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1: Mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures for Buhera

Chapter 2

Climate Profile For Buhera District


Figure 2.2:Annual Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) Values for the period 1970 to 2011 region for Buhera: Source of Data: Zimbabwe Department of Meteorological Services

Droughts have increased in Agro-Ecological Region V since the 1970s (Figure 4). From the 1980s onwards, there were more drought years than wet years. The highest frequency of drought was in the 1990s when most of the years were drought years. The major impacts of these droughts are shortage of water for humans and livestock, crop failure, death of animals and food shortages. Most of the droughts in Zimbabwe are characterised by late onset of rainfall, mid-season dry spells and early

cessation of rainfall.

The region of Buhera that falls in Agro-ecological Region V normally receives about 55 per cent of the normal rainfall, based on a 41-year average from the 1960/61 season to the 2000/2001 season. The normal decadal rainfall graph for Buhera is slightly bi-modal with a dip in early to mid January and two peaks, one in mid-December and the other towards the end of January (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: Mean decadal rainfall for Buhera


The mid-season dry spell experienced in Buhera coincides with the critical period when crops are in their most vulnerable physiological state. Therefore early maturing crop varieties are important.

Participants perceptions of climate change in Buhera

The participants of the focus group discussions were aware that there have been changes in climate over the years and seasonal rainfall changes have been observed. They indicated that in the past the rains started in mid September /mid October up to end of April and were well distributed throughout the season. Currently the season starts from end of November/early December to the end of March/ mid April. During the 2014/2015 season rains came in early December 2014 and rained heavily up to early January 2015. Then there was a long dry spell up to early April 2015 and the rains started again. This resulted in the first crop planting being negatively affected by too much rain, and crops that managed to survive the heavy rain dried up during the dry spell. The erratic rains make it difficult for farmers to plan for future cropping seasons.

Historic and future national climate trends

Zimbabwe’s rainfall and temperature patterns have undergone significant variation and modification in the last 100 years. Mean annual surface temperature has risen by ±0.1º C every ten years. Total annual rainfall does not show any significant trend, but

intraseasonal characteristics such as onset/cessation dates, frequency of droughts and floods (often back to back in one season), mid-season dry spells and the frequency of occurrence of heavy rainfall events have undergone significant shifts.

Projections of future climate trends in Zimbabwe using 10 of the 21 available Global Climate Models (GCMs) used in the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report suggest possible impacts associated with such changes (Table 2.1).

There is a high level of agreement between the projections of temperature generated by the different Global Climate Models. Therefore we can have high confidence in the resulting information. Projected changes are in the range of 2°C to 2.75°C by the 2050s across the different models for the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A2 emissions scenario, which is the estimated global emissions in a world of independently operating nations, a growing global population and regionally orientated economic development. Greater increases are expected across the western parts of the Zimbabwe.

Increases in temperature may change the areas in which various crops can be grown and decrease crop productivity relative to current levels. An increase in temperature may make Zimbabwe more suitable for forest biomes found in the subtropical climates than the temperate climates that currently exist. Higher temperatures affect soil moisture content, thereby altering the supply and quality of water, as well as the demand for agriculture and domestic use, particularly in the rural areas.

“The erratic rains make it difficult for farmers to plan for future cropping seasons”.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 11Table 2.1: A summary of past and future climate trends in Zimbabwe

Climate feature

Key messages Possible impacts Source Confidence in projections

Past climate variability

High variability, frequent drought years and flood events

Historical rainfall records

Past climate trends

Increasing temperatures (~0.1°C/decade)No conclusive changes in precipitation

Historical temperature and rainfall records

Future climate trends

2 – 2.75o C temperature increase by the middle of the century (the period 2046-2065)

Possible decrease in rainfall particularly during the onset stage of the rainy season (Sep-Nov) and later onset of Dec-Jan rainy season is expected by the middle of the century (the period 2046-2065)

Changes in crop yieldsChanges in forest biomesDecreased supply and quality of waterMelting of tar on roadsChanging crop patternsIncreased erosion loss of soil water retentionWells and boreholes dry upDecreased water availability leads to poor sanitation and its associated health impactsDisruption to hydroelectric power

World Climate Research Programme’s Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) Global Climate Model (GCM) multi-model projections (for Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A2 emissions scenario)

High confidence

Low confidence

Source: Adapted from the Department for International Development, UK support to the Strategic Programme Review for Climate Change, Zimbabwe

Uncertainty

While projections of future climate change are important, they should not be seen as the starting point of the adaptation process. Rather, adaptation efforts should focus on those places and people most vulnerable to, and at risk from, current climate conditions. Therefore, adaptation efforts should start by looking more closely at analyses of observed records and how the range of conditions currently experienced impact on different people.


IntroductionMore than 70 per cent of rural communities in Zimbabwe derive their livelihoods directly or indirectly from crop and livestock production as well as goods and services from common pool natural resources. This chapter of the rapid assessment examines the biophysical aspects of the targeted wards in Buhera and proposes some intervention strategies to improve the situation. The chapter begins with an assessment of water resources essential for human wellbeing and productive livelihoods. The quality of water is examined by investigating the chemical and microbial attributes, while investigation of the quantity aspects focuses on problematic access to water resources.

The second part of the biophysical chapter presents the soil assessment, illustrating the extent of degradation. Appropriate management of the soil resource base, where livelihood activities are anchored, is key to sustaining livelihoods in rural communities, particularly in the face of climate change and variability. The final part of the chapter examines the vegetation, wildlife and livestock issues of Buhera.

Water Resources AssessmentIn semi-arid districts of Zimbabwe like Buhera, rainfall unpredictability is a major contributor to crop failure and water scarcity and has the potential to undermine rural livelihoods. Climate change, increasing population pressure and water quality degradation are expected to further compound the problem of inadequacy of surface and groundwater supplies for domestic, irrigation and other uses. A rapid assessment of the present status of water resources in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District was carried out to provide evidence to improve the management of water in a changing climate. The water assessment explored the adaptation options focusing on water quality issues, water demand and supply, and competition for water with different users.

Surface and groundwater are important for socio-economic development in Buhera. Groundwater is the primary source of water for domestic use. Surface

water, especially perennial rivers, is important in administration of smallholder irrigation.

Chemical aspects of water quality

pH

pH is a term used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity as ranked on a scale from 1.0 to 14.0. Acidity increases as the pH gets lower. pH is a measure of hydrogen ions and affects many chemical and biological processes in the water.

In general, the pH of the water sampled in all hydrogeological formations in the rapid assessment was between 7.5 and 8.5, which is within the WHO guideline range of pH 6.5 to 8.5 for drinking water (Figure 3.1). Water samples that were above the recommended pH guidelines were from Mondo Dam and a communal borehole close to Chapanduka Clinic in ward 28.

Chapter 3

Biophysical profile of Buhera

“Appropriate management of the soil resource base, where livelihood activities are anchored, is key to sustaining livelihoods in rural communities”


Turbidity

Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid. It is an optical characteristic of water and is an expression of the amount of light that is scattered by material in the water when a light is shined through the water sample and is reported in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Material that causes water to be turbid include clay, silt, finely divided inorganic and organic matter, algae, soluble coloured organic compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms.

The turbidity of groundwater and surface water in samples from all three wards assessed in Buhera District exceeded the guideline value of 5 NTUs (Figure 3.2).

Groundwater, which is the main source of drinking water in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District is characterised by high levels of turbidity.

Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing, and may also represent a health hazard considering that pathogens such as

bacteria, viruses and protozoa typically attach to particulates.

Figure 3.1: pH of water samples and hydrogeology of target wards in Buhera


Figure 3.2: Spatial variation in turbidity (NTUs) in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District

Salinity

Salinity is a measure of the content of salts in soil or water. Excessive amounts of dissolved salt in water can affect agriculture, drinking water supplies and ecosystem health.

Several water samples from wards 25 and 28 tested positive for salinity. These were collected from borehole water at Romorehoto Clinic, Ngomayevise Primary School, and from a borehole close to a dip tank near Zvenyika Primary School. Water samples from individual wells close to this dip tank were also saline.

Nitrates

Nitrates in water can be advantageous for agriculture. However, excess nitrates in drinking water can be harmful. The concentration of nitrates in all the water samples from the three wards analysed was less than 1 mg/l which is lower than the WHO guideline value of 50 mg/l.

Microbial quality of water

Faecal coliform bacteria generally originate in the intestines of warm-blooded animals and their presence in water may indicate that the water has been contaminated with the faecal material of humans or other animals. When levels are high there may be an elevated risk of waterborne gastroenteritis.

Contamination with faecal coliforms was detected in surface and groundwater samples in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District (Figure 3.3). Water samples from boreholes, as well as unprotected shallow and deep wells, tested positive for faecal coliforms.

Faecal coliform bacteria likely enter unprotected wells through runoff or via use of contaminated containers used to abstract water. With regard to boreholes, seepage from on-site pit latrines is a likely source of faecal bacteria.

“Excessive amounts of dissolved salt in water can affect agriculture, drinking water supplies and ecosystem health”.


Figure 3.3: Distribution of water sampled for faecal coliforms in Buhera District.Figure 3.3: Distribution of water sampled for faecal coliforms in Buhera District.

Water demand and supply issues

With the exception of Murambwe and Save rivers, most streams in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera districts are seasonal. Such streams usually dry up by October. However, in years with below average rainfall most streams dry up by April. For example, seasonal streams had dried up at the time of the rapid assessment in April 2015. In light of the seasonality of these rivers, groundwater is the main source of water for domestic and agricultural use including livestock watering.

Four communities without easy access to potable water were identified during discussions with stakeholders (Figure 3.4). In each of these communities, people travel for more than three kilometres to the nearest borehole to access water. Most households in these communities use privately owned wells that often dry up after continuous abstraction and refill after an hour or more. This unreliable water situation tends to trigger conflicts among water consumers.


Status of smallholder irrigation schemes

The status of irrigation schemes in the target wards in Buhera was assessed through consultations

with stakeholders and direct observations. Bonde smallholder irrigation scheme (Figure 3.5) in the south west of ward 30 was the only irrigation scheme in the target wards. However, it is not functional.

Figure 3.4: Distribution of priority communities for establishment of boreholes in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District.


Figure 3.5 Location of Bonde Irrigation Scheme in Ward 30 of Buhera District

Interventions to enhance water quality and quantity

Groundwater in wells and boreholes in wards 25, 28 and 30 of Buhera District were contaminated by faecal coliforms. This finding is in conflict with the widely held view that groundwater is protected against bacteria of faecal origin (Conboy and Goss 2000). Several waterborne pathogenic diseases including dysentery and bacterial gastroenteritis tend to coincide with faecal coliform contamination. Given how widespread bacterial contamination of drinking water was, boiling drinking water before it is consumed must be a priority. The alternative to boiling the water is treating the water with chlorine. However, this is not feasible given that chlorine is not readily available.

High salinity recorded in water from three sights is cause for concern. Participants in group discussions thought that drinking water with a high salinity is harmful to human health, as well as for livestock watering and crop irrigation. This rapid assessment did not investigate this link. There is need for more research on the relationship between salinity of drinking water and the health of consumers.

There is an urgent need to improve the situation of the four communities in the target wards that lacked easy access to drinking water, by drilling boreholes in each community and strengthening maintenance and management. This will help to alleviate water shortage and improve rural livelihoods.

Bonde irrigation scheme should be resuscitated and more irrigation schemes established. In a changing climate, rural communities with dams and access to irrigation water tend to have more resilience and greater adaptive capacity to climate change (Walker et al. 2002).

Soil assessmentIncreased frequency of droughts and other extreme weather conditions linked to climate change and variability reduce the productivity of soils. The nature of soil degradation at farm and community levels varies due to factors such as soil type and farming practices. Assessment of soil degradation at local level is therefore crucial to adopting climate change adaptation investment plans in order to build resilience of rural communities.

Local indicators of degraded and productive fields and grazing lands highlighted by communities in

“Bonde irrigation scheme should be resuscitated and more irrigation schemes established”.


Buhera included indicator plant species and soil physical attributes. Degraded croplands were characterised by high abundance of witch weed (bise/rutiti), low herbaceous plant abundance and diversity, presence of gullies and rills and soil capping. Indicators of degraded grazing lands included low browse abundance and diversity, poor growth and regeneration of pastures, and the presence of tsinde (Sporobolus pyramidalis) and thatching grass (Hyparrhenia).

Extent of degraded lands in the target wards

The rapid assessment in Buhera District indicated severe degradation (physical, chemical and biological) of both croplands and grazing lands, particularly in wards 25 and 28 (Figure 3.6). More than 90 per cent of the cropped and grazing land in ward 25 was in a degraded state (Figure 3.6).

Ward 25 has granite-derived shallow sandy soils of low inherent fertility, which are prone to physical, biological and chemical degradation. Gullies and silted streams were prevalent in both cropped fields and grazing areas indicating severe soil erosion. Soil chemical analyses results (Table 3.1 ) of samples

collected from both cropped land and grazing land showed low pH (less than pH 4) and low levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, exchangeable bases (calcium, magnesium). The fertility of these soils is too low to support any meaningful crop production or establishment of pastures.

In ward 28, more than 50 per cent of the cropped land is degraded (Figure 3.6). The degraded croplands occupy most of the north-western part of the ward bordering ward 25. Similar to ward 25, the soils were sandy with low pH (acidic), and low levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon and exchangeable bases (calcium, magnesium). Pockets of moderately fertile croplands and grazing lands were restricted to the south-eastern part of the ward.

The soils in ward 30 were more fertile pale brown deep alluvial clay soils of calcium-based parent material commonly known as vertisols. Soil physical degradation (gullies, rill erosion, and silted rivers) in ward 30 was low (Figure 3.6). Soils sampled from most of the fields and grazing lands showed high clay content, nitrogen, organic carbon and exchangeable bases (calcium, magnesium), indicating suitability for cropping and establishment of pastures for livestock.

Figure 3.6: Spatial distribution of degraded and productive croplands and grazing lands in wards 25, 28 and 30 in Buhera District, Zimbabwe

“Degraded croplands were characterised by high abundance of witch weed (bise/rutiti), low herbaceous plant abundance”


Clay

(%)

San

d

(%)

Silt

(%)

Org

anic C

(%)

Availab

le P

(mg

kg-1)

pH

Total N

(%)

me%

Ca

Mg

KN

aO

verall fertility statu

s

me%

me%

me%

Ward 28

Productive field

Degraded field

Productive grazing land

Degraded grazing land

Ward 25

Productive field

Degraded field



Ward 30

Productive field

Degraded field



Irrigation Schem

e

9889811973282831

778178787881768129773533

14111412148152139153736

0.5

0.3

0.6

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.3

1.6

0.4

1.4

1.6

75746554104912

4.0

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.8

4.0

4.0

3.9

6.5

3.9

6.3

5.8

0.04

0.02

0.05

0.02

0.04

0.03

0.04

0.04

0.15

0.03

0.13

0.14

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.2

9.8

0.3

8.8

7.3

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.2

7.1

0.2

6.9

8.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.04

0.3

0.04

0.4

0.04

1.3

0.03

0.5

0.9

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.08

0.02

0.1

0.09

Low to m

edium

Low

Low to m

edium

Low

Low

Low

Low

Low

High

Low

High

High

Table 3.1 S

oil Analysis - P

hysical, chemical and

biolog

ical prop

erties of soils samp

led from

cropland

s and g

razing land

s in Buhera D

istrict during

Ap

ril 2015.


Possible climate change interventions

A number of climate change interventions are proposed to address land degradation and low productivity.

Increase crop production on dryland fields

Most of the landscape is in a degraded state, particularly dryland cropped fields and grazing lands in wards 25 and 28. There is little room for expansion and therefore, there is need to increase crop production on the existing land.

Opportunities exist for rehabilitating degraded fields and increasing crop productivity using such practices as integrated soil fertility management. These include consistent use of combinations of locally available organic nutrient resources (manure, woodland litter), liming and multi-nutrient mineral fertilizers as well as the inclusion of nitrogen fixing legumes in the cropping sequences. Given that these wards are in low rainfall areas, integrated soil fertility management could be employed in combination with soil and water management practices such as conservation agriculture.

Once the soils have been rehabilitated, farmers can maximize crop production during good rainfall years and use the surplus grain as reserves for drought years. Small grains such as sorghum and millets are the most adaptable crops in such low rainfall areas.

Prevention of soil erosion

Given that gullies and dongas are also prevalent in these wards, there is also need for extension and the rural district council to enforce construction of contours and storm drains to curb soil erosion.

Enhance irrigation

The major factor constraining crop production is low rainfall. Therefore a key strategy in a potential climate change adaptation plan investment strategy would be to establish new irrigation schemes in ward 30. An opportunity exist for expanding small scale irrigation schemes given that the ward is dominantly covered by irrigable soils (vertisols).

Enhance livestock productionTo supplement livestock feed, fodder legumes and grasses could be established in some of the fallowed fields.

Vegetation degradation in Buhera

Recurrent drought was found to be the main driver of the degraded state of vegetation. As droughts become more frequent there is a decrease in crop yields per hectare. In reaction to this, farmers in the target wards increase the hectarage under crops in an effort to improve yields. Consequently there is a shortage of arable land and farmers resort to converting marginal lands, such as the remaining riverine vegetation and woodlands on hill slopes, to arable land. This increase of arable land has led to the depletion of forest, biodiversity loss and decline in ecosystem services such as graze and browse.

Loss of biodiversity can lead to wildlife-human conflicts, such as baboons raiding crops and quelea birds, which normally feed on grass seeds, raiding sorghum crops. Farmers are moving towards growing more sorghum and millet instead of maize as a coping strategy to the recurrent droughts. However red billed quelea birds are major pest that reduce the yield. Grain in storage is under increasing attack from weevils, some species of the weevils are said to be resistant to known and available remedies.

The recurrent droughts have also driven the local people to over rely on wild fruits, in particular baobab fruit (Adansonia digitata) and “nyii” berries (Berchemia discolor), as a coping strategy. Overharvesting can lead to local extinction of these species.

Cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys are grazed in the rainy season on communal rangelands characterized by remnants of uncleared woodland. In the dry season, cropland which is regarded as private property in the rainy season, becomes a common pool resource during the dry season as cattle graze communally on the harvested cropland.

In southern Africa, grassland is described as sweet or sour veld. Sweet veld maintains a high nutritional content as well as being very palatable to the species that browse the grass, while sour veld lacks a constant nutritional value and palatability. The grassland in the targeted wards was sweet veld consisting of nutritious grass species such as Milinis repens, Heteropogon contotus and Bouteloua dactyloides. Community representatives indicated that there was a shortage of grazing for livestock particularly cattle during the dry season when the sweet veld is depleted. Goats and sheep are less affected as they browse during the dry season on Acacia karroo bushes that are ubiquitous on disturbed land.

Farmers collect all crop residue and store it for supplementary feed for cattle during the dry season.

“In southern Africa, grassland is described as sweet or sour veld. Sweet veld maintains a high nutritional content”

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 21cleared land. The few mature trees had evidence of their branches cut off to provide fencing material for gardens or fuelwood, with limited understory vegetation. The few grasses present were heavily grazed and there was no evidence of seed production of the annual species, thus threatening their local extinction, and further exacerbating land degradation.

The most abundant tree species were Combretum spp and Terminalia spp with a combined tree stand density of 0.01 m-2 for wards 25 and 28. Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) dominated the landscape in ward 30 with a tree stand density of 0.05 m-2.

Trees were generally in good health. However, a 20 per cent sooty mould disease infection rate for baobab trees was recorded during the rapid assessment. In addition, a 95 per cent red/blue gum infection was found on eucalyptus trees in the study area. These tree infections are cause for concern as both diseases kill infected trees within a few years of infection.

The rainy season of 2014/15 yielded very little crop residues because of drought.

Vegetation degradation indicators such as presence of weeds, Acanthospermum hispidium, Acalypha spp, Chenopdium spp, Sporobolus spp and Lantana camara were common in the three targeted wards of Buhera.

State of vegetation in Buhera

The three wards were semi-arid with about 89 per cent of the land cover being bare ground (Figure 3.7). The bare ground can be associated with continued land clearance for arable farming which has removed the vegetation cover to below 10 per cent in almost all land of relatively flat gradient. Remnant woody cover was observed on hill tops, cropland boundary hedges and in riverine habitats. Tree stand density was estimated to be about 0.03 m-2 for the three wards.

The majority of trees, which are in the sparse vegetation category, were regenerating on previously

Figure3.7: Vegetation cover maps for three wards in Buhera


Grass cover was constrained under Acacia karroo bushes. The prevalence of these invasive thorn bushes represents bush encroachment on cropland and road sides, as they crowd out grasses and herbaceous species. However, this has the advantage in that they also shield the grass species from grazing, giving the grasses a chance to seed and regenerate. The observed herbaceous species on cropland were Acanthospermum hispidium, Acalypha spp, Chenopdium spp and black jack (Bidens pilosa) whereas grass species were dominated by Melenis repens, Sporobolus spp and Heteropogon contotus.

State of livestock and wild animals in Buhera District

Participants of focus group discussions indicated that cattle, goats and sheep numbers are declining due to livestock sales as a coping strategy, as well as deaths associated with droughts. A significant

number of sheep and goats have been killed by hyenas. As a result very tall fences have been put around goat enclosures in ward 30 to thwart hyena raids.

Participants emphasized the shortage of grazing and fodder for cattle, and indicated that they would face severe food shortages from mid-winter when the remaining grass will be totally dry and depleted. The cattle were observed to be generally in good condition during the rapid assessment.

Farmers indicated that tick born and other diseases such as heart water, anthrax and black leg in cattle and acute heart water in goats and sheep were increasing. Newcastle disease in poultry was also of concern.

Bee keeping is on the rise particularly in wards 25 and 28. It was reported that honey was being harvested in such large amounts that supply exceeds demand.


Introduction

A livelihood system comprises of the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources), and activities required for a means of living. The combination of assets and activities, undertaken usually at the household level is often referred to as the household’s livelihood strategy. The Sustainable Livelihood approach illustrates how, in different contexts, sustainable livelihoods can be achieved through access to a range of livelihood assets or capitals (natural, social, financial, physical, and human) which, within the context of personal, institutional, and environmental provisions and constraints, are combined in the pursuit of different livelihood strategies (Chambers and Conway, 1992).

These livelihoods provide tools that protect rural communities from the extremes of poverty as well as ensuring food security and self-sustenance. In that regard, livelihood profiling is important in understanding the vulnerability of communities to climate variability and change. Further, livelihoods are key determinants of the adaptive capacity of communities and as such there is need to come up with context-specific livelihood strategies. This provides important information on the ability or potential of a community to respond successfully to climate variability and change. Further, livelihood profiling is key in informing interventions to enhance coping strategies and resilience within the context of climate change. The purpose of adaptation is to reduce risks and vulnerabilities faced by the marginalized communities.

This chapter outlines the socio-economic aspects, assets and livelihood strategies, with a focus on dryland cropping and livestock farming for communities in the target wards 25, 28 and 30 in Buhera District, which are in the Save Sub-catchment.

Socio-economic profile

The total population of Buhera District is 245,878 of which 46.4 per cent were males and 53.6 per cent were female (ZIMSTAT, 2013). The average

household size in Buhera District was 4.4 and 67 per cent of the population were engaged in agriculture (ZIMSTAT, 2013). There has been an inter-census growth rate of 2.3 per cent between 2002 and 2012 in Manicaland Province (ZIMSTAT, 2013). The increase in human population has resulted in pressure on natural resources, particularly land. Due to this increase, areas that had been reserved for livestock grazing are now being opened up for crop farming and for homesteads thereby reducing the already limited grazing area. Some communities settled in hilly regions and places that had been reserved for fields.

Settlement patterns in the targeted wards are varied, with separate areas for homesteads, fields and grazing areas in some wards, while in other wards the homestead and the fields are in one area with other fields away from the homestead and separate grazing areas.

Christianity and traditional practices predominate in the three targeted wards. About 80 per cent of

Chapter 4

Livelihoods Assessment for Buhera District


people practice Christianity and main the churches are the Apostolic sects, Zion, Zvapupu, Jeke Mishini, Roman Catholic, Zimbabwe Assemblies of God Africa, Apostolic Faith Mission and Reform Church in Zimbabwe.

The literacy rate for Buhera is high at 95 per cent, while a relatively high percentage, 15.1 per cent, of the adult population had never been to school (ZIMSTAT, 2013).

AssetsTraditional leadership has the authority to allocate communal land. Land for fields and homesteads can be privately owned, however grazing areas, rivers, boreholes, wild fruits and firewood are communally owned, and use is controlled by the community.

Generally men own the land and women have the right to use it. Women own land in cases where their husbands have died. In addition to land, households owned a range of assets including livestock and farm implements (Table 4.2). Most of these assets are perceived to be owned by men who also hold the right to dispose of them. Women tend to own smaller livestock namely goats and poultry. Some women also own cattle as mhombe yehumai, given during lobola transactions for their daughters.

Natural resources, such as thatching grass and wild fruits, were owned by the community. Table 4.2 lists the various assets and indicates their ownership and rights to use and dispose of them, as perceived by the participants of the focus group discussions.

Table 4.1: Ownership of assets and rights to use and disposal of them

List of Assets Who owns the asset

Who has right to use the asset

Who has right to dispose/sell the asset

Cattle Men Family Men

Goats Men and women Family Family

Donkeys Men Men Men

Poultry-Indigenous chickens

Women Women Family

Sheep Men Family Men

Scotch cart Men Family Men

Wheel barrow Men Family Men

Cultivator Men Family Men

Machetes Women Family Women

Car Men Family Men

Land (fields and homestead) Men Family Men or a widow

Pastures-grazing area Community Community Village head can allocate

Firewood Community Everyone but consult village head if one wants to use undried fire wood.

Not allowed for commercial purposes but it is happening illegally

Thatching grass Community Community Community can harvest and sell

Wild fruits Community Community Community can harvest fruits and sell

Wealth groups in Buhera

Participants were asked to list the assets that are owned by households. The asset lists were then used to categorise the affluence levels of the households into poor, moderate and better-off. Table

4.3 shows the wealth groups and the average assets for Buhera, with the majority, 56 per cent, being in the poor category, with about one third in the moderate category and only 14 per cent classified as better-off.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 25Table 4.2: Proportions of wealth groups in Buhera

Assets Wealth group

Poor Moderate Better Off

Cattle 0-3 4-10 6-20

Goat / Sheep 0-5 6-10 11-30

Poultry 0-10 6-20 21-30

Buildings 1-2 Huts, and granary,Hut made of pole and dagga, toilet made from poles or no toilet (uses neighbour’s toilet)

2 rooms on galvanised iron, hut and granary and well

Hut, well, 3-6 roomed house toilet, bathroom ,deep well, fenced

Implements

Hoes

Plough, scotch cart, wheel barrow, hoes

Hoes, cultivator, harrow, Scotch cart, 2-3 ploughs, and wheel barrow

Others Car, businesses, generator

Proportion of the community

56% 30% 14%

Livelihood Strategies

The main livelihood strategies in the target wards in Buhera are: crop production (rainfed and gardens) livestock rearing, illegal selling of fire wood/charcoal, crafts, village savings and lending, and bee keeping. Wild fruits such as baobab (Adansonia digitata), nyii (Berchemia discolour) and makwakwa (Strychnos madascariensis), as well as casual labour, are exchanged for food and cash.

Crop production

A variety of crops are grown in Buhera including white and red sorghum, maize, pearl millet, finger millet, cow peas, roundnuts/ bambara nuts and ground nuts. Most crops are marketed through sales or barter trade amongst the community. Some are also bought by some private buyers. Red sorghum is purchased at specific points in the farming area by Delta Corporation for the manufacture of beverages.

There are a number of groups in ward 28 who grow red sorghum for contract farming with Delta Corporation. These groups, such as Mvurere, Sorwe, Nendanga, Kubatana and Mujeje have about 50 to 70 members.

Farmers prefer white sorghum as a food crop to red sorghum due to its colour and palatability, although they do consume red sorghum in times of food shortages. Red sorghum needs to be dehulled, roasted and then milled. If it is milled without de-

hulling and roasting it is unpalatable. Farmers in ward 30 indicated that they have stopped producing white sorghum, the Marcia variety, because it does not do well in severe drought years as well as being affected by weevils. Field observations and consultations with farmers in April 2015 indicated that red sorghum is the most drought tolerant crop. It is also not eaten by quelea birds which prefer white sorghum.

Farmers used to grow cotton, however due to declining prices most have abandoned this crop and only a few farmers remain producing it. The main crops being grown for cash are red sorghum and roundnuts.

Small grains have a potential to improve food security in dry regions because of their adaptability to such arid environments. Farmers in Buhera are increasingly putting more land under drought tolerant crops, rather than maize. A trend analysis of small grain crop production in Buhera indicates that there have been fluctuations in production over the years, with a peak in 2014 and a sharp decline in 2015. Pearl millet has the highest production amongst the small grains in Buhera and reached a peak in 2014.

Table 4.4 gives an estimation of the area planted by the households for various crops, out of a total of approximately 1.8 hectares cultivated by households in the targeted wards in Burhera. An indication is given of the prices obtained for each crop in a good year (Table 4.4).

Livelihood Strategies hulling and roasting it is unpalatable. Farmers in

“Small grains have a potential to improve food security in dry regions because of their adaptability to such arid environments”.


Table 4.3: Estimates of area planted under different crops and prices of products

Crop Area planted (Hectare) Percentage (%) Average price in good year (USD)

Per tonne Per 20 litre tin

Red sorghum 0.2 11 285

White sorghum 0.4 22 6

Finger millet 0.1 6 6

Pearl millet 0.2 11 5

Bambara nuts 0.6 33 5-8

Ground nuts 0.2 11 4

Maize 0.1 6 6

Total 1.8 100

Farmers indicated that there had been a reduction in red sorghum as the money sometimes came late. More land is being put under bambara nuts which are grown both as a source of food and for cash.

Crops that were perceived to be most helpful during drought periods are millets, sorghum and roundnuts. Although millets and sorghum are good for coping with drought, grinding them for meal is expensive. For example, sorghum/millets costs USD 2 to grind a 20 litre bucket compared to USD 1 to grind a 20 litre bucket of maize. In addition, sorghum and millets require another USD 1 for dehulling. Some farmers do not have access to dehullers. After dehulling the grain needs to be toasted. This process means that the grain has to go through the milling process twice, first to dehull and then to grind, which is more expensive and laborious.

Sources of seedThe main sources of seed are retained seed by the farmers. The farmers indicated that 90 per cent of the seed they use is from retained seed whilst 10 per cent is purchased, predominantly maize seed. The challenge is that the retained seed is no longer true to type and not very vigorous. There is need to buy seed from other regions.

Stocks

In a good year cereals produced by farmers last about 5 to 6 months. However, in a poor rainfall year stocks may last up to just one month.

Irrigation There is only one irrigation scheme in the three targeted wards. This is Bonde Irrigation Scheme with water from Dewure River, in ward 30. However,

this irrigation scheme is not functional as the pumps need to be rehabilitated. Therefore, no households in the targeted wards 25, 28 and 30 have access to an irrigation scheme.

Gardening

Consolidated community gardens and individual gardens are found in the targeted wards. The gardens are concentrated near water bodies such as rivers, dams, boreholes, and dambos. Some gardens have crops throughout the year depending on the water source. In some gardens production was discontinued when the source of water dried up, especially in the case of boreholes drying up. Some organisations have introduced consolidated gardens at existing water points such as boreholes and this has resulted in too much pressure at such points as the water is also used by livestock and for domestic use.

The crops that are grown in gardens are maize for green maize, green leaf vegetables, (covo, tsunga, rape), onions and tomatoes.

Consolidated gardens tend to create a glut of a particular produce as a number of people will produce one type of crop at the same time. Those with individual gardens can grow crops before others have them and those individuals make more money. Households can make 50 USD per month for about 4 months from June to September which was found to be the main gardening months.

Livestock rearing

The main livestock reared are cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry (indigenous chickens, turkeys, broilers and guinea fowls). Cattle breeds are mainly the Mashona type and in some cases crosses with exotic breeds, usually Brahman.

“Crops that were perceived to be most helpful during drought periods are millets, sorghum and roundnuts”.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 27There were two markets for cattle sales in the sampled wards, at Mutiusinazita and Gwama. Deductions are made on cattle sales at organised markets by the Livestock Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development for grazing and by the Council for conducting auctions and maintenance of the market. Prices of livestock vary depending on size and quality (Table 4.5). Buyers come from Masvingo, Mutare, Harare as well as local buyers. Regular cattle buyers are Omega, Surrey, Montana Meats, Koala Park, Molusi and Madziro.

Table 4.4: Average prices of livestock in the targeted wards in Buhera

Type of livestock Price (USD)

Cattle 250-500

Goats 20-35

Indigenous chickens 5-12

Turkeys 10-15

Guinea fowls 6

The carrying capacity to guide the livestock numbers that can be supported in communal grazing areas has not been assessed since 1992. The number of cattle in the Buhera District has fluctuated from 1989

to 2012 with a marked increase between 1995 and 2004, when cattle numbers reached a peak of over 160,000 (Figure 4.1). However, there was a decline in numbers since 2008.

There is need for more investment by the livestock departments and research organisations into compiling and disseminating information for commercial production of indigenous poultry and goat products. Goats and indigenous chickens are drought tolerant and are not easily affected by diseases, unlike broilers in the case of chickens.

Selling firewood

Firewood is sold for commercial purposes at business centres such as Murambinda town. Women and children collect firewood from surrounding hills in the early morning and sell bundles in town for between USD 0.50 and USD 1.50. Smallholder farmers indicated that those who sell firewood can make as much as USD20 a month. Selling firewood is used as a coping mechanism by about 86 per cent of households in the poor and moderate wealth group. Consequently there is serious pressure on tree resources during drought periods, causing deforestation.

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010YEAR

100000

120000

140000

160000

180000

Cattl

e Num

ber

Figure 4.1: Livestock numbers in Buhera District Source: Calculated from dip tank records


Crafts

Crafts, in particular mats, are made mainly from baobab tree bark. Some people process the baobab bark and sell it to mat-makers, making up to USD 20 a month. The prices of mats range from USD20 to USD150 depending on size, ranging from 0.5m2 to 4m2. Selling of processed baobab bark and mats is usually undertaken during the off-farming season.

Wild fruits

Wild fruits are both a source of food and cash. The fruits that are mainly for food are makwakwa, tsubvu (Vitez mombasane) whilst nyii and baobab provide both food and cash. A 20 litre bucket of baobab seed is sold for USD 1 and a household can make as much as USD 20 per month, whilst a 20 litre bucket of nyii can make USD 3. The fruits are usually sold on the road side. Traders buy and resell at urban markets such as Mbare in Harare and Sakubva in Mutare. There are a number of small enterprises that have been formed by non- governmental organisations that are processing baobab into a number of high value products such as powder, oil and coffee.

There is need to undertake economic valuation of common natural resources such as baobab and nyii, so that the economic value can help establish correct prices for the products from the wild resources. In addition, there is need to research on the effects of removing bark on baobab trees and how long it takes for them to recover.

Bee keepingTwo groups in wards 28 and 30 undertake bee keeping. Bees require water and they do well in places where there are water sources throughout the year. In ward 28, Chapanduka group has 54 beneficiaries (31 men and 23 women) and in ward 30 Gunura group has 39 beneficiaries (21 men and 18 women). Honey marketing is the biggest challenge for the bee keepers. Another challenge is that the traditional bee hives used do not produce good quality honey. There is need to encourage farmers to have more of the Kenyan type bee hives for good quality honey.

Village savings and lendingThere are organised groups of village savings and lending in all the wards, however none were formally registered. The groups ranged from between 10 to 15 members and they contributed between USD 5 and USD 10 per month. For cash, interest rates for members were 10 per cent and 15 per cent for non-members. Some groups used indigenous chickens instead of money and when a member had a number of chickens these could then be sold. The market is Cresta Oasis Lodge in Harare which serves traditional meals and has agents that purchase indigenous chickens in Buhera. The veterinary department inspects the chickens, which are transported to Harare where they are slaughtered. Chicken prices range from USD 5-8.

Funds from village savings and lending are used to buy assets such as goats; pay for school fees;

buying fertiliser and other crop inputs; funding small businesses such as selling mobile phone air time, peanut butter making and selling second hand clothes from Mozambique; and sometimes for paying lobola. This is usually done at the end of the year when proceeds are shared and an individual may get as much as USD 400-500.

Conclusion The majority of households in the targeted wards of Buhera are subsistence farmers, relying on rain-fed agriculture. Households also engage in a range of other non-farm activities, many of which depend on natural resources. Natural product enterprises have the potential to increase income and improve wellbeing.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 29Chapter

5Impacts of Climate Hazards and Coping Strategies

Introduction

The chapter examines climate and other hazards experienced and the various strategies adopted to cope with them. It looks at policies, institutional frameworks, practices and support for facilitating climate adaptation and building resilience.

Impacts of hazards and coping strategies

The major climate hazard experienced in the target wards in Buhera was drought. Droughts were

experienced in the years 1992, 2002, 2008, and 2015. The droughts of 1992 and 2002 were regarded as the most severe. The drought of 2008 was exacerbated by the economic crisis at the time. The 2015 long mid-season drought affected productivity of even the drought resistant crops being grown such as pearl millet, finger millet, sorghum, bambara nuts and cow peas.

In Table 5.1 participants of the focus group discussions narrated the experiences of previous hazards on different groups and natural resources.


Table 5.1: Impacts of previous hazards on communities and natural resources, as perceived by focus group participants in Buhera

Men Lost their livestock; were stressed because of shortage of food and lack of jobs; and were under-nourished. Whilst looking for food in places such as Mozambique some were affected by malaria and died.

Women Stressed because they had to look for food for the children; were malnourished.

Aged Starved, were malnourished and some died.

Disabled Starved, were malnourished and some died.

Out of school of youth Stressed because of lack of employment and having to look for food. They were malnourished.

School going youth Dropped out of school. Performance decreased.

Children Malnourished, suffered from kwashiorkor.

Livestock Incurred injuries from going into mountains to eat ‘murakwani’-dry leaves on the ground under trees; defecated sand as they ate soil.

Livestock was stolen.

Water resources Rivers, dams, boreholes and wells dried up.

Vegetation Most dried up.

Infrastructure Houses collapsed due to lack of maintenance.

Table 5.1 highlights the suffering by all groups in times of drought, in particular hunger and starvation.

Participants in the focus groups listed the various coping strategies that were put in place in addition to their usual livelihood strategies, and how their coping strategies could be strengthened (Tables 5.1 and 5.2)

Table 5.2: Coping strategies put in place and how they can be strengthened

Group Coping strategies that were put in place How can their coping mechanisms be strengthened

Men Went to Rusape, Chimanimani and Mozambique and other areas looking for food. Exchanged labour for food.Weaved baskets from baobab (Adansonia digitata) bark and ilala (Hyphaene petersiana) trees as these do not dry in drought period.

Irrigation for income generation.Dams, boreholes for water.Food for Work programmes.To be assisted with seed to produce small grains.To be assisted with markets for selling produce form irrigation scheme.

Women Prepared porridge for children from baobab fruit.Boiled baobab seed to make it soft and gave children to eat.Some went back to their parents’ homes if they had food.Gardening where water sources did not dry. Clay moulding.

Income generating projects such as poultry, sewing, baking bread. Increase the contributions to village savings and lending groups. Closer markets for buying and selling.

Aged Relied on the active group. Need food aid.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 31Disabled Relied on the active group. Need food aid.

Out of school of youth

Boys helped the elders to look for food. Boys hunted for birds.Girls turned to sex work to get cash and buy food, got married or were married off to better families.

Income generating projects-vocational centres for building, carpentry and sewing.

School going youth

Were given food at schools through food aid programmes.Looked for nuts from marula trees.

School feeding schemes.

Children Given porridge at feeding points like clinics and village centres.

Need to be given balanced diet from food aid.

Table 5.3: Coping strategies put in place for natural resources and how they can be strengthened

Resource Coping strategies that were put in place

How can their coping mechanisms be strengthened

Livestock Cattle ate dry leaves.Donkeys ate bark of baobab or stems of pawpaw plants.Provided supplementary feed, such as maize stover for animals. Cattle died from anthrax.Cattle were provided with local veld products (Rusungwe) and Goats browsed Muunga (Acacia spp.).

Provide grazing land, and reduce number of livestock. Reserve food to be used in future-stover.Buy processed salt.Create paddocks.Enforce reserving areas for grazing.Limit the number of livestock.Dose cattle and other livestock.

Water resources Nothing was done because even when they dug wells they could not get water.

Avoid stream bank cultivation.Drill boreholes and deep wells.

Vegetation Some shed leaves. Afforestation and enforcing of policies that protect cutting down of trees.

Infrastructure Nothing was done. Build strong houses to avoid the need for thatching grass every year which might not be available during a drought year.Maintain infrastructure.

Policies and practices for facilitating climate adaptation and building resilience

A number of policies and legislation support climate adaptation, the majority of which proactively protect

the environment (Table 5.4). The Environmental Management Act is an over-arching Act that provides for environmental protection and sustainable management of natural resources.


Table 5.4: Acts that proactively protect the environment

Legislation Key elements Implementing authority

Forest Act (1949) Provides for demarcating forests and nature reserves, conserving timber resources, regulating trade in forest produce, and regulating the burning of vegetation.

Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate

Parks and Wildlife Act (1975)

Establishes national parks and nature reserves, conserving timber resources, regulating trade in forest produce and regulating the burning of vegetation


Communal Land Forest Produce Act (1988)

Controls the use of wood resources within communal lands. Such resources in communal lands should be used for domestic purposes by the residents only


Rural District Councils Act (1989)

Allows for the establishment of Rural District councils responsible for initiating and regulating development in rural areas.

Ministry of Local Government and National Housing

Environmental Management Act (2002)

Creates a framework for environmental management, makes provisions for the formulation of environmental quality standards (water, air, noise, effluents, waste and hazardous substances), and development of the national environmental action plan.


Challenges to building resilience to the impacts of climate change

During group discussion, farmers indicated that they were aware of the policies that prohibit cutting down of trees to protect forests, stream bank cultivation within 30 metres to protect water sources and veld (bush) fires to protect pastures. They were also aware that they are required to have contours in their fields to conserve moisture and the soil. However enforcement of policies remains a challenge which may hinder adaptation to climate change. For example, regarding stream bank cultivation within 30 meters of the stream, farmers say that there is moisture close to the river, particularly during dry periods, and in addition, there are limited alternative water sources away from the river. Regarding tree cutting, most business centres were using fire wood for commercial purposes such as cooking and heating water in lodges. Firewood is a cheaper source of energy for businesses compared to either electricity or gas. Challenges of enforcing policies relate to limited alternatives and the open access to communal resources.

The state of infrastructure and services has a bearing on the ability of rural communities to adapt to the impacts of climate change and build resilience

towards drought. Markets, especially for horticultural produce are difficult to access due to the poor state of gravel roads. This makes the produce more expensive and less competitive. Regarding marketing of field crops, farmers indicated that although the Grain Marketing Board price is good, farmers were not receiving cash so could not plan for the next season. Farmers are not able to build their asset base that would help with resilience due to poor access to markets.

In times of drought there is an increase in school drop outs and also poor performance due to exhaustion of walking for long distances. Primary schools tend to be nearer whilst secondary schools are 12 to 20 kilometres away.

People travel as far as 15 kilometres to the nearest health centre. Such distances exert a lot of strain on communities and this situation is exacerbated during drought.

In some cases police stations are far from most households, for example, it was reported that people at times have to travel for 28-38 kilometres. This makes it very difficult to get clearance to sell cattle. Transport for the police has to be paid for and this affects one’s coping strategies during drought periods.

“In times of drought there is an increase in school drop outs and also poor performance due to exhaustion of walking for long distances”.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 33Some areas have a good mobile communication network thus people can receive and send money and also notify each other on issues of importance. Information and communication technologies have potential to disseminate climate and other information such as markets and prices, especially to farmers.

Rural electrification can help support income generating projects and assist in building resilience towards droughts.

Support towards building resilience

A local practice known as Zunde Ramambo is a community based concept that helps to build resilience in the local communities. The practice varies from one locality to another, and generally involves a field being set aside by the headman, or village head where people from the community come to cultivate. The proceeds are put in a separate granary that is managed by a committee. A village head brings a report of households that are struggling and need assistance from Zunde Ramambo. The committee makes an assessment of the request and one 20 litre bucket of grain is provided to each needy household. This does not work very well if there is a drought as there are too many cases requiring assistance. It would be useful to strengthen the governance and transparency of Zunde Ramambo, as well as scale up the practice.

Government departments and other organisations

such as the Dewure Sub-catchment Council and the Buhera Rural District Council are undertaking a range of programmes that support farmers towards building resilience against future drought hazards. The activities include:

* Lobbying for the rehabilitating of Bonde Irrigation Scheme

* Promotion of drought tolerant crops* Training in conservation agriculture both

mechanised and manual * Awareness on importance of protecting the

environment such as wetlands, and trees* Establishment of nutrition gardens* Training and building standard granaries* Pegging contours around field areas, and

conservation works around gardens* Bee keeping * Tree planting

The Environmental Management Agency provided seed packs for drought tolerant crops, namely red sorghum, white sorghum-Marcia and cowpeas, as well as fertiliser. The Agency also imparts knowledge on climate change and supports consolidated gardens and fish farming.

No non-governmental organisations, apart from World Vision in ward 25, were reported to be active in the target wards. The farmers indicated that some of the operational consolidated gardens were set up through assistance from Christian Care and Africare. A number of local organisations support activities that help to build resilience (Table 5.5).

Table 5.5: Local organisations that support building resilience in Buhera

Organisations /clubs Benefits Activities being undertaken to promote resilience

Village savings and lending groups Access to finance and loans Payment in kind and finance projects

Garden groups Food and income Barter trade produce from garden with food

Apiculture groups Food and income Selling honey

Bonda Irrigation Committee Organising rehabilitation of scheme

When scheme is operational it will provide food and cash to surrounding community

Strategies for strengthening resilience to climate hazards

Participants elaborated how their current strategies for crop production could be made more resilient to future droughts:

* Construction of contour ridges in fields to encourage moisture retention and conservation of the soil.

* The Bonde Irrigation Scheme needs to be supported. There were plans to set up an irrigation scheme at Masekwe but the project never took off.

“The Environmental Management Agency provided seed packs for drought tolerant crops”


* Seed should be provided on time so that farmers have the seed by October so that they can use the first rains.

* The retained seed is now of varying quality and there is need to inject new seed from other areas. For example, there is need to introduce a short season sorghum variety that is true to type as the retained seed is now over used.

* There is need for training on how to prevent post-harvest losses particularly on seed through weevils.

* There is need to strengthen the processing side for small grains as it is cumbersome. There is need for research into machinery required for threshing, winnowing, dehulling and roasting the grain. There is need to also create a demand from urban areas for small grains so that they can grow into strong economic crops for the country. There is need to introduce varieties that are not affected by birds, other than Marcia - white sorghum.

* There is need to keep on encouraging conservation agriculture both manual and mechanised.

* Practice early planting, planting short season varieties and continue training in good farming practices.

Participants elaborated how their current strategies for livestock production could be made more resilient to future droughts:

* There is need to provide more water for livestock, for example by scooping small dams. There is need to drill boreholes that can be driven for example by windmills. The cattle condition deteriorates from August to September until the rains come. There is need to consider the depth when drilling boreholes so that they do not dry in the most extreme drought events such as the one that was experienced in 1992. There is need to strengthen governance structures around borehole maintenance to remove over reliance on external support to rehabilitate boreholes in future.

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 35* Group feed lots can be introduced so that once

farmers are familiar with this system it can be used as a coping strategy in times of drought to maintain the breeding herd of cattle.

* There is need to promote commercial production of goats and indigenous poultry as these are the best for coping with drought. Cattle in times of drought need adequate feeding or else they die or they will not reproduce. The promotion should be targeted at the poor and moderate households who are most vulnerable in times of drought.

Conclusion

Droughts and unreliable rainfall are already having a major negative impact, resulting in low crop yields, food insecurity and increased poverty. Current use of irrigation for enhancing agricultural production is absent, although the potential for irrigation is large and could transform the livelihoods of households living in dry regions. New seeds and appropriate technology would help to promote the production of small grains.


Analysis of past, current and future climate trends clearly indicate that Buhera, especially the southern wards in Agro-ecological Region V, will continue to experience unreliable rainfall and an increase of extreme climate events, in particular droughts. In order to counter the adverse effects of droughts and unreliable rainfall distribution, there is need for the densification of weather observation networks to be coupled with forecasts that are tailor-made to deliver reliable weather forecasting services to the communities in Buhera.

The precarious rainfall situation makes water a key element. The chemical quality of drinking water is not a major issue in the target wards as the concentration of nitrates, salinity and pH are within the WHO guidelines. However, high turbidity and high salinity in some a water sources was a cause of concern, and would require further investigations on health impacts.

A priority area identified in the water assessment was microbial contamination of water. Evidence of contamination was found in water sampled from unprotected shallow wells, deep wells and boreholes, in addition to surface water samples. This problem needs to be addressed through raising awareness on pathways of contamination and treating the water before it is consumed by people.

Four remote communities were identified as having serious problems of access to potable water (Figure 9). These are priority areas for investment in boreholes.

A major finding of this rapid assessment was that there were no functioning irrigation schemes in the three target wards. Farmers in semi-arid regions that rely on irrigation tend to be more food secure and resilient to climate change than ones that rely on rainfed agriculture (Jackson et al., 2001). Therefore, irrigation development must be one of the most important investments that can make communities in Buhera resilient to the negative impacts of climate change. Investments in irrigation must involve technically sound irrigation schemes, robust management systems and continuous

Chapter 6

Conclusion and Recommendations for a Climate Resilient Buhera

maintenance and repairs, creating a viable and sustainable solution.

The low and erratic rainfall makes rainfed agriculture unreliable except for drought resistant crops such as millet, rapoko and sorghum.

The driving force of land degradation in the target wards was identified as the recurrent droughts that force people to adopt regressive coping strategies, such as increasing area under cropland and increasing reliance on forest products, which leads to lead to unsustainable use and harvest. Some livelihood strategies have an adverse impact on the environment and natural resources. The unsustainable coping strategies trigger positive feedback that drive the landscape into cyclic feedback loops of degradation. Therefore, external intervention is necessary to help the local communities not only to scale up but to adopt sustainable coping strategies to climate change.

In light of large scale land degradation, low soil fertility and reliance on rainfed agriculture in an increasing hazardous climate, agriculture may not be practical and the most viable livelihood option. There is need to diversity into non-farm livelihood activities, in particular sustainable use of natural products such as honey and indigenous fruits.

Proposed interventions for building resilience to climate change in Buhera

Buhera rural households identified priority areas for investments to address water scarcity, and enhance crop and livestock production, based on their experience during droughts and rainfall variability.

Priorities for increased water access

* Construction of new water sources such as dams, weirs and drilling boreholes

* Rehabilitation of the existing water sources,

Profile of Save Sub-catchment in Buhera District 37such as rehabilitation of old boreholes, pipes and casings that need replacement.

* Capacity building in management of water resources and irrigation schemes.

* Capacity building in management of catchment areas for the whole community.

Priorities to enhance crop production

* Opening up of new areas for irrigation and gardens.

* Rehabilitation of the Bonde irrigation scheme in a holistic manner, which incorporate the issue of pumps, conservation works and governance of the irrigation system to improve its sustainability.

* Market linkages for produce from the irrigation schemes.

* Experiment with and adopt high value crops that can be grown to ensure cost recovery.

* Improved technology for processing small grains and promote their consumption in both urban and rural areas.

Livestock production

Priorities to enhance livestock production are:

* Improving the breeds of goats and cattle

by introducing Boer bucks and Tuli bulls respectively. The introduction of bulls requires feasibility assessment and potential impacts that might arise from such introductions.

* Have organised markets for goats and poultry run on a commercial basis.

* Increase dip tanks and feed lots for livestock.

Priorities for diversifying livelihoods

* Value addition of wild resources such as fruits and honey.

* Strengthening business skills to enhance an entrepreneurial approach to natural product enterprises.

* Create markets for natural products.

Participants pointed out the danger of over reliance on donor support for food aid, for the aged, disabled and children as a coping mechanism. They recommended training for transformation that can capacitate communities to solve their problems with minimal external support.


ReferencesAnderson, I.P., Brinn, P.J., Moyo, M. And Nyamwanza, B. (1993). Physical Resource Inventory of the Communal Lands of Zimbabwe – An Overview. Natural Resources Institute Bulletin 60. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute.

Chambers, R., and Conway, G. R. (1992). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century, Institute of Development Studies Discussion Papers, 296. Cambridge.

Conboy, M. J. and M. J. Goss. (2000). Natural protec-tion of groundwater against bacteria of fecal origin. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 43:1-24

FAO (2011). Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA) Project Findings and Recommendations. Global Environment Facility, United National Environment Programme, and FAO, Rome.

Government of Zimbabwe (2013). Second Round Crop and Livestock Assessment Report, 7 June 2013. Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development, Harare.

Government of Zimbabwe (2015). Zimbabwe National Climate Change Response Strategy. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Management, Harare.

Jackson, R. B., S. R. Carpenter, C. N. Dahm, D. M. McKnight, R. J. Naiman, S. L. Postel, and S. W. Run-ning (2001). Water in a changing world. Ecological Applications 11:1027-1045.

Moyo, M., (1994). Environmental responses to ecosystem degradation in the Save River catchment of Zimbabwe: Unpublished major paper for Masters in Environmental Studies, York University, Canada.

Vincent, V. and Thomas, R.G. (1961). An Agricultural Survey of Southern Rhodesia, Part One –Agro-ecological Survey. The Government Printers, Salisbury.

Walker, B., S. Carpenter, J. Anderies, N. Abel, G. Cumming, M. Janssen, L. Lebel, J. Norberg, G. D. Peterson, and R. Pritchard (2002). Resilience man-agement in social-ecological systems: a working hy-pothesis for a participatory approach. Conservation Ecology 6.

ZIMSTAT (2013). 2012 Population Census Results. Final Report. ZIMSTAT, Harare.

ZIMVAC (2014). Rural Livelihoods Assessment 2014 Report. ZIMVAC, Food and Nutrition Council, Harare.


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