Upload
others
View
2
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
59 S. A. Mukul et al.Proc. Pakistan Acad. Sci. 45(2):59-68.2008
Introduction
Human beings are dependent on a varietyof living resources for their survival. Biodiversityis vital for many reasons - for example, to sus-tain the production of food or to conserve theecological foundations needed to sustain people'slivelihoods. Over the past few decades, the lossof and threats to biodiversity have became is-sues of global concern. It is also the case that themajority of the world's biodiversity is found inthe world's economically poorest countries [1].In some quarters, it is also believed that the poor-est people of those poor countries, who dependmost immediately upon local ecosystems for theirlivelihoods, are responsible for the degradationof biodiversity, as well as being those who willbe most affected by the consequences of thisbiodiversity loss [2-3]. As a result of both inter-national and national concerns about biodiversity
PROTECTED AREAS OF BANGLADESH: CURRENT STATUS AND EFFICACYFOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
S. A. Mukul1*, M. B. Uddin1, 2, M. S. Uddin1, M. A. S. A. Khan1 and B. Marzan3
1Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, School of Agriculture and Mineral Sciences, Shahjalal Universityof Science and Technology, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh, 2Department of Biogeography, University of Bayreuth, D-95440Bayreuth, Germany, 3Biological Science, Maizdee Balika Biddyanekaton, Maizdee Bazar, Sadar, Noakhali 3800,Bangladesh
Received July 2007, accepted April 2008
Communicated by Prof. Dr. M. A. Hafeez
Abstract: This paper reviews the present status of, challenges to, and prospects for protected areas(PAs) in Bangladesh. The purpose of the study was to provide up-to-date information on country's PAsto various national and international donor and conservation agencies. So far, a total of eighteen PAshave been notified and managed by the country's Forest Department (FD). Although PAs have beenestablished for all of Bangladesh's forest types, in reality these areas are not really protected, mainlydue to poor focus on public involvement in PA management process. Furthermore, the distribution,area and number of PAs are not adequate to conserve the rich biological diversity exceptionally possessedby the country. The study concluded that effective co-management, between PA managers and localforest user groups, which ensures clearly defined rights of various stakeholders on PAs and their activeparticipation in decision-making processes, is necessary to secure the future of PAs in Bangladesh.
Keywords: Protected Area, status and distribution, biodiversity conservation, co-management
1Email: [email protected]
loss and degradation, a succession of strategies(dating from the first World Conservation Strat-egy in 1980) have been developed and adoptedto conserve biodiversity. Protected areas havebeen central to these strategies [4-6].
Protected areas are "areas especially dedi-cated to the protection and maintenance of bio-logical diversity and associated cultural re-sources, which are managed through legal orother effective means"[7], "designated or regu-lated and managed to achieve specific conserva-tion objectives" [4]. PA s have long been consid-ered as the cornerstone of all national and re-gional conservation strategies. While it is oftenargued that they are the most effective and wide-spread measure for conserving forests andbiodiversity [4,5], the importance of complemen-tary off-reserve management has also been ac-knowledged [6,8,9]. Globally, the number of PAs
Biodiversity conservation in Bangladesh 60
has increased significantly over the last few dec-ades in recognition of their importance for con-servation. At present, there are more than 100,000protected area sites worldwide, covering nearly12% of the world's land surface [10-12].
Bangladesh, the world largest deltaic region,lies in the northeastern part of South Asia be-tween 200 34/ and 260 38/ North latitude and 880
01/ and 920 41/ East longitude [13]. The majorityof country's land is formed by alluvium from theGanges and the Brahmaputra Rivers and theirtributaries, and consists mostly of flood plains(80%), with some hilly areas (12%) [14]. Bang-ladesh has a sub-tropical monsoon climate; itsnatural forests are classified into three major veg-etation types occurring in three distinctly differ-ent land types: hill forests (evergreen to semi-
Table 1.Forest types (ecosystem diversity) and areas in Bangladesh.
61 S. A. Mukul et al.
evergreen), plain land Sal (Shorea robusta) for-ests, and mangrove forests. There is contradic-tory information on the actual forest extent ofBangladesh. According to the Bangladesh For-est Department and some other sources [15,16],forests cover is about 2.53 million ha, represent-ing approximately 17.5% of the country's totalsurface area (Table1), but according to FAO'sFRA-2005, forest extent is only about 0.87 mil-lion ha [17]. Officially, the FD manages 1.53million hectares of forest land of the country [18].
Bangladesh is part of the Indo-Burma re-gion, which is one of the ten global hot-spot ar-eas for biodiversity, with 7,000 endemic plantspecies [19]. Due to its unique geo-physical lo-cation and characteristics, Bangladesh is char-acterized by an exceptionally rich biological di-versity [13,20,21]. Its flora includes an estimated5,700 species of angiosperms alone, including68 woody legume species, 130 species of fibre-yielding plants, 500 medicinal plant species, 29orchid species, three species of gymnosperms,and 1,700 pteridophytes [22,23]. Some 2,260plant species have been reported from the hillyregion of Chittagong alone, which falls betweentwo major floristic regions of Asia [24]. Corre-spondingly, Bangladesh also possesses richfaunal diversity and has approximately 113 spe-cies of mammals, more than 628 species of birds,
126 species of reptiles, 22 species of amphib-ians, 708 species of marine and freshwater fish,2,493 species of insects, 19 species of mites, 164species of algae (or seaweed) and 4 species ofechinoderms [25,26].
The biodiversity situation of Bang-ladesh has worsened day by day mainly becauseof its high population pressure and extreme pov-erty. However, the establishment of PAs for con-serving biodiversity in the country is relativelyrecent. In fact, majority of the PAs of the countryare relatively young and being declared very re-cently (Table 2). Our paper is an initial attemptto review the present status, trends and challengesof PA management for biodiversity conservationin Bangladesh. It also tries to figure out somedirection for the future management of country'sPAs.
Protected Areas of Bangladesh
Three types of protected area were definedunder the Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Act,1974 (Box 1), with the objective of conservingbiodiversity (in situ) and the natural environmentwithin various forest type. The first PAs had beenestablished in the 1960s and 1970s; a secondgroup of PAs were declared in between 1980 and1986, and a third group since 2000 (Table 2).
Box 1. Protected Areas defined under Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Act, 1974
Following are the three different types of protected area defined under Bangladesh Wildlife Pres-ervation Act, 1974;
A. National Park: a comparatively large area of natural beauty to which the members of thepublic have access for recreation, education and research, and in which the wildlife is pro-tected.
B. Wildlife Sanctuary: an area maintained as an undisturbed breeding ground for wild faunaand where the habitat is protected for the continued well-being of the resident or migratoryfauna.
C. Game Reserve: normally comprises a relatively isolated area meant for protection of wildlifein general and to increase the population of specified species.
Biodiversity conservation in Bangladesh 62
Presently, there are eighteen notified PAs - com-prising ten national parks, seven wildlife sanc-tuaries and one game reserve - under the juris-diction of the FD [27,28] (Table 2; Figure 1).Other categories of PAs managed by the govern-ment include eco-parks, safari parks, ecologicallycritical areas (ECAs), World Heritage sites, andRamsar sites. Presently, the PAs (IUCN catego-rized) of the country represents an area of 242,596ha - covering a tiny proportion of total land mass(i.e. 55,598 sq. miles) of the country; which is aswell the second lowest per capita area under PAsin any country [29].
Efficacy of Bangladesh Protected Areas forBiodiversity Conservation
If PAs are to be effective in conservingbiodiversity, the PA system must be representa-tive of all ecosystem types [30-32]. Although thePAs of Bangladesh represent around 11% of thecountryís total forest area (Table 2), they do noteffectively represent all ecosystems, and thusinclude all habitats and species important forconservation. The proportions of each of the threemajor forest types - hill forests, deciduous Sal
Table 2.Protected Areas of Bangladesh.
63 S. A. Mukul et al.
forests and mangrove forests - represented in PAsare 5.2%, 11.2% and 23.3%, respectively (Fig-ure 2).
The effectiveness of Bangladesh's PA s isalso limited because they are portions of reservedforests which have, in most cases, only been de-clared after being degraded heavily by activitiessuch as illegal logging, land clearing, burning,and poaching [33]. Many of country's mammals,birds and reptiles have already been lost, due tothe belated awareness of and action forbiodiversity conservation (Table 3), and the lim-ited effectiveness of measures implemented toconserve biodiversity. The population size andnumber of the remaining wild fauna are also notsatisfactory and these are confined and distrib-uted irregularly in limited forest patches of thecountry. IUCN listed a further 40 mammalianspecies, 41avian species, 58 reptilian species and
8 species of amphibians are under various de-grees of threat in Bangladesh (Table 4). Althoughdata regarding the country's threatened flora isnot complete, it has been assumed that 10% of itis already extinct due to uncontrolled over-ex-ploitation [34]. The Bangladesh National Her-barium (BNH) has previously reported 106 vas-cular plant species at varying degrees of risk ofextinction [35], and Dey [36] has prepared a listof 167 plant species considered vulnerable orendangered in the country.
Challenges of PA Management in Bangladesh
The high and rapidly growing populationof Bangladesh places great strain on all naturalresources, and PAs are no exception [38]. Thesituation in Bangladesh is not atypical; the ma-jority of PAs around the world, not only those indeveloping countries or the tropics, face a vari-ety of problems [39]. A recent survey of ten de-veloping countries with major forest resourceshad found that only 1% of forests PAs are se-cure, with more than 20% suffering degradation,and 60% likely to be threatened in the near fu-ture [40]. The major factors responsible for poorPA management in Bangladesh are:
• Poverty and unemployment: Poverty andunemployment are two basic and relatedproblems in Bangladesh. Around 38 percentpeople of the country live below the pov-
Figure 2. Ecological representations of Bangladeshprotected areas.
Figure 1. Protected areas of Bangladesh.
Biodiversity conservation in Bangladesh 64
erty line [24]. Many rural poor people liv-ing adjacent to forest areas collect forestresources (e.g., food, fodder, medicine, firewood, timber, house building materials) tosustain their livelihoods, mainly in unsus-tainable ways. Further, unemploymentdrives rural people to various illegal forestpractices (e.g., illegal logging or poachingof wild animals).
• Tenure insecurity: Poor recognition of tra-ditional forest practices, and of the rightsof indigenous and local communities at thetime PAs are declared is another importantfactor leading to the poor management of
PAs. There are many misunderstandingsbetween various forest user groups and theFD, particularly among indigenous commu-nities as their culture and lifestyle are solelybased on forests. In most cases, the decla-ration of PA is made without providing theaffected group any alternative livelihoodstrategies, although such declarations im-pose significant restrictions on their custom-ary forest uses and practices.
• Forest Department's limitations: The For-est Department of Bangladesh has long suf-fered a number of limitations, such as inad-equate staffing and facilities, and poor ac-
Table 3.List of animal species extinct from Bangladesh in the last century.
Table 4.Number and conservation status of inland and resident vertebrate species of Bangladesh.
65 S. A. Mukul et al.
cess to modern technologies and equipment.As a result, FD has limited capacity for PAmanagement. This is manifested in anumber of ways, including the lack of propermanagement plans and of their implemen-tation.
• Lack of people's awareness: Most of Bang-ladesh's people are still ignorant about PAsand their importance to conservation. Peo-ples knowledge regarding biodiversity; con-servation and sustainable resource collec-tion is also very poor. Although local andindigenous communities are sometimes be-lieved to possess some more effective andsite specific management regimes and prac-tices, these traditional skills are now highlychallenged by resource scarcity and poorgovernment recognition.
• Other pressures and issues: Fuelwood col-lection for domestic cooking is a major re-source pressure impacting on sound PAmanagement. Sawmills and brickfields lo-cated in and around PAs indirectly threatenthe existence of PAs by encouraging localpeople in illegal logging activities. Inad-equate law enforcement is another signifi-cant factor responsible for deterioration ofBangladesh PAs.
Co-management of PAs: A new concept forpeople oriented conservation
A focus on ecological aspects of PAs, andexclusion of rural forest-related livelihoods, hasbeen one of the most significant difficulties forPA management [41]. In response, several peo-ple-oriented approaches have been developed andpromoted by various international conservationagencies to improve the effectiveness of PAs[42]; comanagement or collaborative manage-ment is a common strategy, with both historicalroots and more recent manifestations. Bangla-desh has a long history of community involve-
ment in forest management; this dates from 1871,when tribal jhum (swidden) farmers in theChittagong Hill Tracts were engaged in the plant-ing of teak (Tectona grandis) trees in abandoneddry land fields under the taungya system. Whilethe concept of co-management or joint forestmanagement has been applied in "traditional"forestry in the form of social and or participa-tory forestry [43,44], it is novel in relation to PAmanagement. With the financial assistance ofUSAID, FD launched a pilot PA co-managementprogram in 2003 in its five protected areas (twonational parks; two wildlife sanctuaries and onegame reserve), known as the Nishorgo SupportProject. The project has already facilitated somesocial motivation programmes in and around theselected PAs, giving local people micro-creditfacilities, technical assistance and financial aidfor activities such as nursery raising, livestockrearing, poultry farming, fisheries, home garden-ing, handicrafts, and developing small cottageindustries. The project also developed infrastruc-ture for eco-tourism, trained local people as eco-tour guides, and formed some community forestpatrolling groups and a co-management commit-tee. Most of these efforts have demonstrated en-couraging preliminary outcomes, but they are stillconfined to a small number of PAs, and need tobe extended to other PAs across the country.
Conclusion
Unquestionably the government and vari-ous public/civil groups of Bangladesh are nowmuch more aware about PAs and their potentialconservation value. However, the mere establish-ment PAs has not been effective in the countryin conserving it's rapidly decreasing biodiversity.This may be because of it's different and com-plicated socio-economic and political context.Significant changes in the approach to PA sys-tem and its management are necessary for long-term and effective biodiversity conservation inthe country. These may include:
Biodiversity conservation in Bangladesh 66
Bringing all remaining natural forest patchesunder a well defined PA management sys-tem and ensuring representation of all veg-etation types under this system;
Developing poverty reduction strategies inareas around PAs, through developing al-ternative income generating (AIG) activi-ties and providing micro-credit facilities torural people;
Creating opportunities to develop eco-tour-ist industries based on PAs, and using theseto generate local income sources (e.g., sell-ing entry tickets, permissions for photo-graph, and souvenirs) for sustainable financ-ing of PAs;
Adopting a participatory PA managementregime, that recognizes local people's in-terests and rights in both benefit sharing anddecision making processes;
Restoring and managing buffer zones as analternative resource exploitation zone toPAs, and identifying allowable resource ex-ploitation limits from PAs, which offer bothecological and economic sustainability;
Establishing a separate institution specifi-cally for the management and monitoringof PAs;
Capacity building of PA managerial staff,including conservation and management ofPAs.
The significant pressures on Bangladesh's for-ests and PAs mean that these tasks are urgent ifthe remaining forests and biodiversity in Bang-ladesh are to be conserved.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Jefferson Foxfor his invaluable comments during preparationof an earlier version of this paper. Literature andother informative support from IUCN-WCPA,
Nishorgo Support Project and the Secretariat ofConvention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) isalso gratefully acknowledged. The valuable com-ments and suggestions provided by two anony-mous reviewers to enhance the quality of themanuscript is highly appreciated and we pay sin-cere gratitude to them.
References
1. Koziell, I. 2001. Diversity not Adversity: Sustain-ing Livelihoods with Biodiversity. International In-stitute for Biodiversity and Development (IIED) andDepartment for International Development (DFID),England. 58pp.
2. SCBD. 2007. Biodiversity and Climate Change.Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diver-sity (SCBD), Montreal, Canada. 48pp.
3. SCBD. 2006. Global Biodiversity Outlook 2. SCBD,Montreal, Canada. 81pp.
4. Mulongoy, K.J. and Chape, S.P. (Eds). 2004. Pro-tected Areas and Biodiversity: An overview of keyissues. SCBD, Montreal, Canada and UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK. 52pp.
5. Lewis, C. (Ed). 1996. Managing conflicts in Pro-tected Areas. Keystone Center and IUCN, Gland,Switzerland, 100pp.
6. Kanowski, P.J., Gilmour, D.A., Margules, C.R.and Potter, C.S. 1999. International Forest Con-servation: protected areas and beyond. DiscussionPaper for IFF. Environment Australia, Canberra,52pp.
7. IUCN. 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Man-agement Categories. World Conservation Union(IUCN), Cambridge, UK.
8. Hale, P and Lamb, D. (Eds). 1997. Conservationoutside nature reserves, Centre for ConservationBiology, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
9. Halladay, P. and Gilmour, D.A. (Eds). 1995. Con-serving Biodiversity Outside Protected Areas: Therole of traditional agro-ecosystems. IUCN, Gland,Switzerland.
10. Scherr, S.J., White, A. and Kaimowitz, D. 2004.A New Agenda for Forest Conservation and Pov-erty Reduction- Making markets work for low-in-come producers. Forest Trends, Washington, D.C.,CIFOR, Bogor and IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 35pp.
11. Chape, S., Blyth, S., Fish, L., Fox, P. andSpalding, M. (Eds). 2003. 2003 United Nations Listof Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland andCambridge, UK and UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge,UK. ix + 44pp.
12. Tuxill, J. and Nabhan, G. P. 2001. People, Plants
67 S. A. Mukul et al.
and Protected Areas: A Guide to In Situ Manage-ment. Earthscan, London, UK. 248pp.
13. Hossain, M.K. 2001. Overview of the ForestBiodiversity in Bangladesh. In: Assessment, Con-servation and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity(CBD Technical Series no. 3). SCBD, Montreal,Canada. pp. 33-35.
14. Islam, Sk. Sirajul. 2003. State of forest genetic re-sources conservation and management in Bangla-desh. Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers,Working Paper FGR/68E. Forest Resources Devel-opment Service, Forest Resources Division. FAO,Rome, Italy. 31pp.
15. Khan, M.A.S.A. Uddin, M.B., Uddin, M.S.,Chowdhury, M.S.H., and Mukul, S.A. 2007. Dis-tribution and Status of Forests in the Tropic: Bang-ladesh Perspective. Proc. Pakistan Acad. Sci.44:145-153.
16. Hossain, M. K. 2005. Conversion of dipterocarps-dominant natural forests to short rotation planta-tions - an unrecoverable threat to the nativedipterocarps in Bangladesh. Paper presented atAPAFRI Conference [URL: http://www.apafri.org/8thdip/Session%204/S4_Hossain.doc].
17. FAO. 2006. Global Forest Resource Assessment2005 - Progress towards sustainable forest man-agement. FAO Forestry Paper 147, FAO, Rome,Italy. 320pp.
18. Roy, M.K. 2005. Nishorgo Support Project: Design-ing a co-management model for the protected areasof Bangladesh. In: Nishorgo - Protected Area Man-agement Program of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangla-desh. pp.1-5.
19. Mittermeier, R.A., Myers, N., Thomsen, J.B., DaFonseca, G.A. and Olivieri, S. 1998. Biodiversityhotspots and major tropical wilderness areas: ap-proaches to setting conservation priorities. Conser-vation Biology 12: 516-520.
20. Nishat, A., Huq, S.M.I., Barua, S.P., Reza,A.H.M.A. and Khan, A.S.M. 2002. Bio-ecologi-cal Zones of Bangladesh. World Conservation Un-ion, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 141pp.
21. Barua, S.P., Khan, M.M.H. and Reza, A.H.M.A.2001. The Status of Alien Invasive Species in Bang-ladesh and their Impact on the Ecosystems. In: Al-ien Invasive Species- Report of workshop on AlienInvasive Species. Ed. Balakrishna, P. IUCN Re-gional Biodiversity Programme of Asia, Colombo,Sri Lanka. pp.1-7.
22. Firoz, R., Mobasher, S.M., Waliuzzaman, M. andAlam, M.K. (Eds). 2004. Proceedings of the Re-gional Workshops on National Biodiversity Strat-egy and Action Plan. IUCN Bangladesh CountryOffice, Dhaka. 167pp.
23. Khan, M.S. 1977. Flora of Bangladesh, Report No:4, Camelinanceae. Bangladesh National Herbarium(BNH) and Bangladesh Agriculture Research Coun-cil (BARC), Farmgate, Dhaka.
24. Annonymous. 1993. Forestry Master Plan- MainPlan. ADB (TA No. 1355-BAN), UNDP/FAO BGD88/025.162 pp.
25. Islam, M.M., Amin, A.S.M.R. and Sarker, S.K.2003. National Report on Alien Invasive Species of 'Bangladesh'. In: Invasive Alien Species in South-Southeast Asia: National Reports & Directory ofResources. Eds. Pallewatta, N., Reaser, J.K. andGutierrez, A.T. Global Invasive Species Programme(GISP), Cape Town, South Africa. pp. 7-24.
26. IUCN. 2000. Red list of threatened animals of Bang-ladesh. World Conservation Union, Dhaka, Bang-ladesh. 54pp.
27. Mukul, S.A. 2007. Biodiversity conservation strat-egies in Bangladesh: the state of protected areas.Tigerpaper 34:28-32.
28. NSP. 2006. Protected Areas of Bangladesh: A visi-tor's guide. Nishorgo Support Project, Dhaka. 41pp.
29. Sharma, R., DeCosse, P., Khan, M. andMazumder, A. 2005. Co-Management of ProtectedAreas in South Asia with special reference to Bang-ladesh. Nishorgo Support Project, Dhaka, Bangla-desh, 16pp.
30. Dudley, N. and Parish, J. 2006. Closing the Gap-Creating ecologically representative protected areasystem (CBD Technical Series: 24). SCBD, Mon-treal, Canada. 108pp.
31. Blockhus, J.M., Dillenbeck, M.R. Sawyer, J.A.and Wegge, P. (Eds). 1992. Conserving biologicaldiversity in managed tropical forests. IUCN/ITTO,Gland, Switzerland.
32. MacKinnon, J., MacKinnon, K., Child, G. andThorsell, J. 1986. Managing Protected Areas in theTropics. UNEP/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
33. Choudhury, J.K. 2002. Bangladesh country paperon National Forest Policy Review. Country reportto the 19th session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Com-mission. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
34. Mukul, S.A. 2007. Biodiversity conservation andsustainable development in Bangladesh: An over-view of the present status, management problemsand future prospects. A review report submitted atthe Department of Forestry and Environmental Sci-ence, Shahjalal University of Science and Technol-ogy, Sylhet, Bangladesh. iv + 28 pp (available onlineat: http://www.mtnforum.org/oldocs/1159.pdf).
35. Khan, M.S., Rahman, M.M. and Ali, M.A. 2001.Red Data Book of Vascular Plants of Bangladesh.Bangladesh National Herbarium, Dhaka.
Biodiversity conservation in Bangladesh 68
36. Dey, T.K. 2006. Useful Plants of Bangladesh (inBengali), 2nd revised edition. Aligarh Library, Dhaka,Bangladesh. pp.945-949.
37. Rahman, M.M. 2004. Forest resources of Bangla-desh with reference to conservation of biodiversityand wildlife in particular for poverty alleviation. In:Forests for poverty Reduction: opportunities withclean development mechanism, environmental serv-ices and biodiversity. Eds. Sim, H.C. Appanah, S.and Youn, Y.C. pp.139-148. FAO-RAP, Bangkok.,Thailand.
38. Millat-e-Mustafa, M. 2002. A review of ForestPolicy Trends in Bangladesh. Policy Trend Report2002:114-121.
39. Tol, G.V. and Gidda, S.B. 2004. Protected ForestAreas: Their Representativeness and Efficacy forthe Conservation of Biological Diversity. In:Biodiversity Issues for Consideration in the Plan-ning, Establishment and Management of ProtectedArea Sites and Networks (CBD Technical Series no.15). SCBD, Montreal, Canada. pp. 63-69.
40. Dudley, N. and Stolton, S. 1999. Threats to forestprotected areas. A research report from the IUCNand the World Bank / WWF Alliance for ForestConservation and Sustainable Use. IUCN, Gland,Switzerland.
41. Scialabba, N.E. and Williamson, D. 2004. Thescope of organic agriculture, sustainable forestmanagement and ecoforestry in protected area man-agement. FAO, Rome, Italy. 53pp.
42. Jeanrenaud, S. 2002. People-Oriented Approachesin Global Conservation: Is the Leopard Changingits Spots? IIED, London and Institute for Develop-ment Studies (IDS), Brighton, UK. 68pp.
43. Zashimuddin, M. 2004. Community forestry forpoverty reduction in Bangladesh. In: Forests for pov-erty reduction: can community forestry makemoney? Eds. Sim, H.C., Appanah, S. and Lu, W.M.pp. 81-94. FAO-RAP, Bangkok, Thailand.
44. Poffenberger, M. (Ed). 2000. Communities and for-est management in South Asia. IUCN, DFID andAsia Forest Network, Indonesia. pp. 35-46.