PSY 190: General Psychology Chapter 6: Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience We learn primarily by identifying relationships between events and noting regularity of patterns in our world Was a research physiologist, not a psychologist At age 33, earns MD Spends next 20 years studying the digestive system Russias first Nobel Prize winner in 1904 However, its the novel work done over the final 30 years of his life that earns him his place in scientific history In classical conditioning, the organism learns a connection between two stimuli In other words, the organism learns that one stimulus predicts another stimulus A form of associative learning Learning in which connections are formed between internal representations of events (e.g., stimuli and responses) during learning. Procedure Classical conditioning is the presentation of two or more events in an experimentally determined temporal relationship Any change in responding to one of the events is seen as evidence of a learned association Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) In classical conditioning, this is the stimulus that elicits the unconditioned response (UR) without conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, this is the stimulus which comes to elicit a new response by virtue of pairings with the unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response (UCR) In classical conditioning, the automatic (involuntary), unlearned reaction to a stimulus Conditioned response (CR) A learned response elicited as a result of pairings between that NS and an UCS UCS UCR (food) (salivation) NS NO RESPONSE (bell) (no salivation) NS + UCS UCR (bell) (food) (salivation) * This is repeated several times CS CR (bell) (salivation) Pavlovs Participants The decline or disappearance of the CR in the absence of the UCS Presentation of CS alone Pavlovs Paradigm: See next slide UCS UCR NS NO RESPONSE NS + UCS UCR * This is repeated several times CS CR Extinction process is initiated: CS CR CS CR (less response than before) Eventually we get.. NS NO RESPONSE (bell) (no salivation) An extinguished CR will temporarily reappear if after a time delay the CS is presented again even without the UCS This is a reappearance of a CR after extinction despite no further CS-UCS pairings Apparently, extinction does not eliminate the CS-UCS association; just suppresses it Trial 11 represents a two-week rest period What happens next? Extinction continuesCS-UCS pairing After a CR is acquired, stimuli that are similar but not identical to the CS also will elicit the response The greater the similarity between a new stimulus and the CS the stronger the CR will be Conditioned to tone of F Organisms can be conditioned to learn to differentiate among similar stimuli Even a similar tone will not produce a response in certain situations For instance, if two tones are continuously presented but only Tone 1 is paired with the UCS then CR will only appear when Tone 1 is presented A new NS can become a new CS Procedure Results? Kamin (1969) GroupConditioning Phase 1 Conditioning Phase 2 Test Phase Experimental: Blocking Tone/Shock Tone/Light/Shock Tone? Light? ControlNone Tone /Light/Shock Tone? Light? Watson & Raynor (1920) Behavioral psychologists John Watson and grad assistant Rosalie Raynor taught an 11-month old infant to become afraid of a gentle white laboratory rat Little Albert reacting to mask worn by John Watson This illustrates generalization The idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses This concept plays an important role in learning, particularly in understanding the classical conditioning process The idea that phobias are biologically innate? Drug Tolerance Drugs have less of an effect when taken repeatedly (less of a high) Drug users crave more of the drug despite its lessening effects It appears that certain drugs trigger our body to call upon its defenses against the effects of the drug Siegel et al. (1982) Demonstrated that classical conditioning principles might be in effect during drug-injecting episodes Possible reason for overdoses??? UCS UCR (drug) (anti-drug defenses) NS NO RESPONSE (injection ritual) (no defenses) NS + UCS UCR (injection ritual) + (drug) (anti-drug defenses) * Repeated several times CS CR (injection ritual) (anti-drug defenses) Familiar setting anti-drug defenses (usual time, place, etc) (body reacts) New setting no defenses (place, time are different) (body doesn't react) The same dosage now becomes an overdose they get too high as their bodies have been fooled by the new procedure Procedure Rats were preconditioned to a tolerance of large doses of heroin; given daily intravenous injections for 30 days Placebo or heroin given either in animal colony or alone in white noise room on alternate days Counterbalance of treatment For some rats: heroin in WN; placebo in AC For others: heroin in AC; placebo in WN Control group received only placebo in different rooms on alternate days Group 1: Received heroin in the Colony room (their normal living quarters) and placebo in the Noisy room the next day Group 2: Received placebo in the Colony room (their normal living quarters) and heroin in the Noisy room the next day Group 3: Received placebo in the Colony room (their normal living quarters) and placebo in the Noisy room the next day At this point there are the three groups above On Day 31, all rats were then injected with a large dose of heroin (15 mg/kg) But the room in which this potentially lethal dose of heroin was administered was varied between subgroups of rats See next slide On Day 31: Group 1A were injected with heroin in the Colony room - where they had received all their previous injections of heroin Group 1B were injected with heroin in the Noisy room - where they had never received any previous injections of heroin Group 2A were injected with heroin in the Noisy room - where they had received all their previous injections of heroin Group 2B were injected with heroin in the Colony room - where they had never received any previous injections of heroin Group 3A were injected with heroin in the Colony room - they had no previous injections of heroin Group 3B were injected with heroin in the Noisy room - they had no previous injections of heroin Siegel, Hinson, Krank, & McCully (1982) Group 3 showed substantial mortality (96% died) A group with prior exposure in the same cage showed significant tolerance (only 32% died) A group with the same history of exposure, but tested in an environment not previously associated with heroin showed significantly higher mortality (64% died) Siegel, Hinson, Krank, & McCully (1982) Results 50% increase in death rate in new room Rats show "room-specific" tolerance Implication Some drug users suffer overdose reactions after taking their usual dose, if they take it in an unusual place or under unusual circumstances (Siegel & Ramos, 2002) Siegel, Hinson, Krank, & McCully (1982)) Siegel (1984) In a follow-up study, overdose victims who had survived were interviewed and 70% reported they had changed environmental conditions Typical Procedure Rats are given novel taste (saccharin-flavored water) is followed by an illness-producing drug Gastrointestinal distress Flavored water is again presented Typical Results Decrease or complete avoidance of the flavored water (CS) Rats drink flavored water from tubes that flashed light and made noise when the tubes were licked Group 1: Rats were given electric shocks to their feet two seconds after beginning to drink Group 2: Rats were exposed to X rays (which made them sick) while they drank Later, both groups were tested with a tube of flavored water producing lights and noise and a tube of unflavored water that was not producing lights and noise so rats are basically given a choice between these two tubes to drink from Results Group 1 (rats that had been shocked) avoided the tube producing the lights and noise while Group 2 (rats that had been made sick) avoided only the flavored water Interpretation Doesn't fit exactly within all the rules of classical conditioning; occurs reliably after only a single trial (one pairing) Rats (and other species) have a built-in predisposition to associate illness mostly with what they have eaten or drunk (Group 2 rats) and to associate skin pain mostly with what they have seen or heard (Group 1 rats); this is an another example of biopreparedness Romantic Red: Red Enhances Mens Attraction to Women Andrew J. Elliot & Daniela Niesta (2008) University of Rochester Are men classically conditioned to associate red in a way that leads them to view a womens looks more positively? Elliot & Niesta (2008) Participants Sample: 27 male undergraduates Mean age: years (SD=1.83) Majority of participants were Caucasian Procedure Men had 5s to look at the picture followed by a questionnaire which consisted of questions that assessed how attractive the participants found the woman to be. Results There was a main effect for color such that men in the red condition perceived woman to be more attractive than did men in the white condition. See next slide Elliot & Niesta (2008) An incentive to make you swim faster??? Is there a conditioning principle applied here as well? INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING E. L. Thorndike (1905) Law of Effect Responses that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated and responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be repeated E. L. Thorndike Rewarded behaviors are more likely to recur TRIAL-AND-ERROR LEARNING Thorndike's Puzzle Box In his classic experiment, a cat was locked in the box and enticed to escape by using food that was placed out of the reach from the box Ropes, levers, and latches that the cat could use to escape Trial and error behavior would lead to ultimate success (usually within three minutes) Thorndike felt we learned trial and error through awareness Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which voluntary (controllable and non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced) B.F. Skinner ( ) SKINNERS OPERANT CONDITIONING The organism learns a response by operating on the environment Note: The terms instrumental conditioning and operant conditioning describe essentially the same learning process and are often used interchangeably Basically, Skinner extended and formalized many of Thorndike's ideas Operant Conditioning Response comes first and is voluntary unlike classical where stimulus comes first and response is involuntary Classical: S RClassical: S R Operant: S R SOperant: S R S that becomes that becomes R S R S The Skinner Box Soundproof chamber with a bar or key that could be manipulated to release a food or water reward Operant Conditioning Important terms Primary ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcers Secondary ReinforcersSecondary Reinforcers Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement PunishmentPunishment Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers Innately rewarding; no learning necessaryInnately rewarding; no learning necessary Food, water, etc.Food, water, etc. Secondary Reinforcers A consequence that is learned by pairing with a primary reinforcerA consequence that is learned by pairing with a primary reinforcer For people, money, good grades, and words of praise, etc. are often linked to basic rewardsFor people, money, good grades, and words of praise, etc. are often linked to basic rewards Positive Reinforcement Behavior is strengthened when something pleasant or desirable occurs following the behavior With the use of positive reinforcement chances that the behavior will occur in the future is increasedWith the use of positive reinforcement chances that the behavior will occur in the future is increased Punishment Any stimulus presented immediately after a behavior in order to decrease the future probability of that behavior Negative Reinforcement One of the most misunderstood terms in psychology Definitely a problem with semantics here The word reinforcement means that a response is strengthenedThe word reinforcement means that a response is strengthened The word negative seems to imply that the response is somehow weakenedThe word negative seems to imply that the response is somehow weakened This is not the case here! So how literally can a response be negatively reinforced??? Often, this term is misapplied to term punishment So lets try to proceed slowly in our attempts to figure this out Negative Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement is a reward Thats easy enoughThats easy enough Punishment is something that weakens a response Again, this is pretty basicAgain, this is pretty basic In an attempt to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, an operant response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. This is negative reinforcement. Negative Reinforcement So we are learning to do something to turn off a bad stimulus Example: We put on boots to prevent sitting in class with wet socks onExample: We put on boots to prevent sitting in class with wet socks on Increasing a behavior to stop a bad thing from occurring Shaping Training a behavior not in an organisms behavior repertoire Reinforce progressive steps toward the behavior Reinforcing successive approximations Skinner taught pigeons unpigeon-like behaviorsSkinner taught pigeons unpigeon-like behaviors Others have trained monkeys to help quadriplegicsOthers have trained monkeys to help quadriplegics Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement Reinforcement delivered every time a particular response occursReinforcement delivered every time a particular response occurs Partial Reinforcement Reinforcement is administered only some of the timeReinforcement is administered only some of the time Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Interval Schedules Provides reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last rewardProvides reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last reward Number of responses doesnt matter only timeNumber of responses doesnt matter only time Variable-Interval Schedule Reinforce the first responses after a certain amount of time has pastReinforce the first responses after a certain amount of time has past Again number of responses doesnt matterAgain number of responses doesnt matter But this time the amount of time changesBut this time the amount of time changes Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement provided after a fixed number of responsesReinforcement provided after a fixed number of responses Food every tenth bar press Variable-Ratio Reinforcement after a variable number of responses (works on a average)Reinforcement after a variable number of responses (works on a average) Unpredictable number of responses are required (slot machines) Applications of Operant Conditioning: In the Workplace Pedalino & Gamboa (1974) To help reduce the frequency of employee tardiness, these researchers implemented a game-like system for all employees that arrived on timeTo help reduce the frequency of employee tardiness, these researchers implemented a game-like system for all employees that arrived on time When an employee arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a cardWhen an employee arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a card Over the course of a 5-day workweek, the employee would have a full hand for pokerOver the course of a 5-day workweek, the employee would have a full hand for poker At the end of the week, the best hand won $20At the end of the week, the best hand won $20 Observational Learning Major components involved in observational learning: Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Self-efficacy Albert Bandura Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) The Bobo" Doll Experiment Note : Bandura did a large number of variations on the Bobo doll experimentwell look at a few Phase 1 Pre-schoolers were divided into two groups and put into two separate rooms and allowed to play with "attractive" toys while Bobo an unattractive inflatable, adult-sized, egg-shaped balloon creature (the kind that bounces back after it's been knocked down) sat by itself at the far end of the roomsPre-schoolers were divided into two groups and put into two separate rooms and allowed to play with "attractive" toys while Bobo an unattractive inflatable, adult-sized, egg-shaped balloon creature (the kind that bounces back after it's been knocked down) sat by itself at the far end of the rooms Bobo Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963) The Bobo" Doll Experiment Phase 2 Group 1: While playing with the attractive toys the children witnessed adults enter the room and start beating the daylights out of the clownGroup 1: While playing with the attractive toys the children witnessed adults enter the room and start beating the daylights out of the clown Group2: While playing with the attractive toys the children witnessed adults enter the room and play nicely with BoboGroup2: While playing with the attractive toys the children witnessed adults enter the room and play nicely with Bobo Phase 3 The attractive toys were taken away from each groupThe attractive toys were taken away from each group Results: What happened next? Poor Bobo Bandura (1965) The Bobo" Doll Experiment In the 1965, version kids watched films of adults beating on Bobo but each had different endings Film 1: Adult praised and rewarded with candy and soda by another adult who was heard saying, Youre a strong championAdult praised and rewarded with candy and soda by another adult who was heard saying, Youre a strong champion Film 2: Adult is scolded by another adult, Youre very bad or Hey there, you big bully, you quit picking on that clownAdult is scolded by another adult, Youre very bad or Hey there, you big bully, you quit picking on that clown Bandura (1965) The Bobo" Doll Experiment Results The kids modeled adults behavior regardless of the film they watched Interpretation Vicarious reinforcement and punishment was received given to children thus leading to their vicarious motivations Criticism Well, thats what the critics saidthose things are made to punched arent they? Responding to criticism that Bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, Bandura did a film of a young woman beating up a live clownResponding to criticism that Bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, Bandura did a film of a young woman beating up a live clown When the children went into the other room, what should they find there but -- the live clown! When the children went into the other room, what should they find there but -- the live clown! Glamorizing Violence Plagens et al. (1991) Typical American child sees 200,000 acts of violence on TV by age 18Typical American child sees 200,000 acts of violence on TV by age 18 Children who watch a lot of violent TV are more violent towards peersChildren who watch a lot of violent TV are more violent towards peers Experimental studies, in which violence is controlled, also find effects of watching violenceExperimental studies, in which violence is controlled, also find effects of watching violence Other studies have found By the end of elementary school, a typical American child will have seen: 8,000 murders8,000 murders More than 100,000 other acts of violence.More than 100,000 other acts of violence. 2003 study found 534 separate episodes of prime- time violence during a 2 week period. The most violent TV shows are targeted to children (e.g., cartoons). Violent Video Games Several studies have shown significant results indicating that playing violent video games is associated with a history of property destruction and hitting other students Anderson & Dill (2000)Anderson & Dill (2000) College students randomly assigned to play a violent video game (Wulfenstein) later had more aggressive thoughts and feelings than those who played a nonviolent game (Tetrix) Immediate Effects of Media Violence Aggressive models increase aggressive behavior among children and adults Models can be live or on filmModels can be live or on film Violent imagery in the music industry associated feelings of hostility and aggressive thoughts Playing violent video games can increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors Long-Term Effects of Media Violence Exposure to TV violence at ages 6-9 positively correlated with aggression as adults No gender differenceNo gender difference Cross-cultural study found relationship between early viewing of TV violence and later aggression Black & Bevan (1992) Movie-goers filled out an aggression questionnaire as they entered and left: a violent movie, or a nonviolent movie DV: aggression IV: type of movie Modeling can have a positive effect Friedrich and Stein (1972): The Mister Rogers Study:The Mister Rogers Study: Showed a preschool group Mister Rogers every weekday for four weeks During the viewing period, children from less educated homes became more cooperative, helpful, and more likely to state their feelings Other studies: Children, especially males, who watched educational television became teens who earned higher grades, read moreChildren, especially males, who watched educational television became teens who earned higher grades, read more Cookie Monster is on a diet.. Sesame Street is doing its part All components of observational learning and operant conditioning are involved Kudos to the Cookie Monster and his friends Maybe a new name? After all these years, still not a role model 1993 Nike commercial caused much controversy SpongeBob may cause preschoolers to act hurried Lillard & Peterson (2011) Frantic pace can cause preschoolers to act franticallyFrantic pace can cause preschoolers to act frantically SpongeBob and friends Conclusion: Application of Banduras Theory Prosocial behavior Bandura feels it can be used to promote prosocial behavior helping behaviorBandura feels it can be used to promote prosocial behavior helping behavior Violence in schools Bandura feels his theory applies to todays violent times as wellBandura feels his theory applies to todays violent times as well Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites: ce.htmce.htm icRedPresentation.ppticRedPresentation.ppt