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Advanced Developmental
Psychology
PSY 620PJanuary 27, 2015
Discussion Leader Assignments January 29
Fraley, R. C., Roisman, G. I., & Haltigan, J. D. (2013). The legacy of early experiences in development: Formalizing alternative models of how early experiences are carried forward over time. Dev Psychol, 49(1), 109-126. Sunni1
Adolph, K. E., S. R. Robinson, et al. (2008). "What is the shape of developmental change?" Psychological Review 115(3): 527-543. Mike1
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y-F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., & Cutrona, C. E. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170-1189. BreAnne1
Oller DK, Niyogi P, Gray S, Richards JA, Gilkerson J, Xu D, Yapanel U, Warren SF: Automated vocal analysis of naturalistic recordings from children with autism, language delay, and typical development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2010, 107:13354-13359. Carolyn1
Optional: Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). I
mprovements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417-439.
Discussion Leader Assignments
Week 4: February 5th – The biological basis of behavior and development Champagne, F. A., & Mashoodh, R. (2009). Genes in Context Gene–Environment Interplay and the Origins
of Individual Differences in Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 127-131. Cf. Szyf, M. and J. Bick (2012). "DNA Methylation: A Mechanism for Embedding Early Life Experiences in the Genome." Child Development.
Burgaleta, M., Johnson, W., Waber, D. P., Colom, R., & Karama, S. (2014). Cognitive ability changes and
dynamics of cortical thickness development in healthy children and adolescents. Neuroimage, 84(0), 810-819. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.09.038
Uddin, L. Q., Supekar, K., & Menon, V. (2013). Reconceptualizing functional brain connectivity in autism
from a developmental perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00458 Chen, E., Cohen, S., & Miller, G. E. (2010). How low socioeconomic status affects 2-year hormonal
trajectories in children. Psychological Science, 21, 31-37. Alternates: Lister, R., Mukamel, E. A., Nery, J. R., Urich, M., Puddifoot, C. A., Johnson, N. D., Lucero, J., Huang, Y.,
Dwork, A. J., Schultz, M. D., Yu, M., Tonti-Filippini, J., Heyn, H., Hu, S., Wu, J. C., Rao, A., Esteller, M., He, C., Haghighi, F. G., Sejnowski, T. J., Behrens, M. M., & Ecker, J. R. (2013). Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development. Science, 341(6146), 1237905. doi: 10.1126/science.1237905
Shaw, P., Greenstein, D., Lerch, J., Clasen, L., Lenroot, R., Gogtay, N., Evans, A., Rapoport, J., & Giedd, J.
(2006). Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents. Nature, 440, 676-679.
Discussion Leader Assignments
February 12th – Perceptual Development (cont)
Vogel, M., Monesson, A., & Scott, L. S. (2012). Building biases in infancy: The influence of race on face and voice emotion matching. Developmental Science, 15, 359-372.
Maurer, D., Mondloch, C. J., & Lewis, T. L. (2007). Sleeper effects.
Developmental Science, 10, 40-47. Papageorgiou, K. A., Smith, T. J., Wu, R., Johnson, M. H., Kirkham,
N. Z., & Ronald, A. (2014). Individual Differences in Infant Fixation Duration Relate to Attention and Behavioral Control in Childhood. Psychological Science. doi: 10.1177/0956797614531295
Jones, W., & Klin, A. (2013). Attention to eyes is present but in
decline in 2-6-month-old infants later diagnosed with autism. Nature, 504(7480), 427-431. doi: 10.1038/nature12715
Dynamic Systems Theory Application
▪ State Space Grid Analysis▪ 2-dimensional grids reflecting co-occurrence of 2 or
more variables
Messinger
Canalization (Waddington)
Design, Measurement & Analysisin Developmental Research
Design Developmental Designs Internal and External Validity of a Study
▪ Threats to Internal Validity
Measurement Reliability and Validity of Measures Instrument Construction Stages Dealing with missing data
Ethics in Developmental Studies Children as vulnerable population Assent
Analysis Visualizing your data Hypothesis Testing Approaches to Analyzing Change over Time
The crisis in behavioral / developmental science
Replicability Access to samples Replicable (objective?) measurement Addressing the crisis…
Data archiving
Replicable or objective measurement
Strange Situation examples
Mattson, et al.,PLOS One, 2013
Can experiments uniquely demonstrate causality? How?
Messinger
Experimental design
Between subject A treatment (independent
variable) is assigned randomly creating treatment and control
groups Within-subject
All infants get treatment and control
Examples▪ Rating study, Face-to-face still-face
Estimated Marginal Means of MEASURE_1
SMILES
321
Est
ima
ted
Ma
rgin
al M
ea
ns
.16
.14
.12
.10
.08
.06
.04
.02
EXP2
Comparison
Exposed
Messinger
Types of observational research Quasi-experimental
differences in naturally occurring groups Observational -
Differences in naturally occurring conditions
Complementary, not exclusive
Is age (development) studied experimentally or observationally?
Gender-stereotypes during adolescence
Is age the key variable?
Alfieri et al., 1996
T indicates children who
have just transition from
junior high school
Validity threats?
Belfort et al., 2013
Messinger
Observational
Quasi-experiment Between subject
exploration of differences in naturally occurring groups▪ Drug exposure, breast-
feeding, and attachment groups
Observational Differences in naturally
occurring conditions▪ Gazing at mother versus
gazing away
Figure 2b.
Solo Open Mouth Smiling by Gazing at Mother
Pro
port
ion
of O
pen
Mou
th S
mili
ng O
nly
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Messinger
Predicted or dependent variables
Experimental and all observational approaches measures variables
Variable - a measurable component of behavior or physiological functioning that can take on different values
Not all aspects of behavior or physiology specific features of interest
Messinger
Qualitative methods
Intensive description in regular language Not measuring variables
▪ E.g., baby biography, one infant described over time Pro: Insight into individual and
developmental process Emerged with romantic emphasis on individual
Con: Not generalizable Complementary, not exclusive
Developmental Designs
Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional designs
Longitudinal-sequential design
Messinger
Longitudinal
Same infants over time
Pro: Answers ‘How do individuals change in time?’
Con: Takes a long time Attrition 1 2 3
Bayl
ey C
ogni
tive S
core
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
YearM = 93.5n = 200
YearsM = 79.1n = 190
YearsM = 82.1n = 132
Typical Trajectory:Cognitive Scores Decline
Other difficulties with longitudinal?
Rosenquist et al. PNAS | January 13, 2015 | vol. 112 | no. 2 | 357
Messinger
Cross-sectional
Different infants at different times
Pro: Efficient, large numbers of subjects
Con: Differences do not necessarily reflect individual’s development e.g. cohort
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
DifferentIndividuals
OneYearTwoYearThreeYear
Messinger
Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional
Development is relatively stable on large time scales Motor, physical,
emotional, communicative
But choppy on smaller scales
Only longitudinal research can show individual development
What is the Shape of Developmental Change?Adolph et al, 2008
Many developmental trajectories
Accurate depiction of trajectory depends on sampling rate of observations
“Microgenetic method” – small time intervals to observe developmental process
Overly large sampling intervals can distort shape of change
Gangi
Messinger
What type of research produced this commonly used chart?
Birth 13.75”
6 mos.. 17”
12 mos. 18”
24 mos. 19”
Messinger
Individual differences
Messinger
Hypothetical example (Lamb et al.)
Messinger
Continuity and Stability
Continuity(=absolute change) Behavior level is continuous
(discontinuous) across ages How does a behavior change in form
and/or function over the course of development?
Stability Rank of individual in group is
stable How does a behavior change differently
among individuals in the same group? (=relative change)
1 2 3
Bay
ley
Cog
niti
ve S
core
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
YearM = 93.5n = 200
YearsM = 79.1n = 190
YearsM = 82.1n = 132
Typical Trajectory:Cognitive Scores Decline
Validity of Developmental Studies
External validity =
Internal validity =
Methodological soundness of study allowing changes in DV to be attributed to the IV
Threats to internal validity = uncontrolled confounds▪ Need to control for various methodological confounds
through adequate sampling, random assignment (when possible), inclusion of control group etc.
Threats of particular concern in Developmental Studies (cont)
History:
Maturation:
Testing:
Instrumentation:
Regression: ▪ Example of Regression * Selection effect
Threats of particular concern in Developmental Studies:
Regression High anxious freshmen selected for
intervention in first week of school; by mid-year show significant decrease in anxiety
Pretest Intervention Posttest 90 70
Measurement Issues in Developmental Studies
The process of quantifying abstract concepts such as:
▪ Intelligence▪ Sociability▪ Emotion Regulation
Developmental assessments often rely on indirect measures i.e., habituation/dishabituation in infancy
as index of processing
Messinger
Validity
Are we measuring what we think we’re measuring, Do the variables measured the
constructs mentioned in the research questions?
There is no final answer▪ Reunion behavior = Attachment?▪ Smiling = Joy?▪ Looking = Preference?▪ Heart rate = Arousal?
Measurement Issues in Developmental Studies (cont)
Requires Detailed operational definitions Creation of sensitive instruments Rules for scoring instrument to create
summary scores
Measurement Issues in Developmental Studies (cont)
Validity Does measure provide intended information for intended population?
▪ Can vary with age and subgroup (e.g., ethnicity or SES)
Reliability How consistent is children’s behavior?
▪ Tends to increases with age and diversity of sample
Messinger
Observing behavior
Observed on-line or video-recorded Measured with
Trait rating - global judgement Time sampling Event sampling (frequency) Event sampling (duration)
Messinger
Time-sampling & event-sampling
Messinger
Physiological measures
Heart rate & respiration (video) avoidant infants, infants on visual cliff
Electroencephalogram Relative lateral activation during crying
Actigraphy Index of ADD?
Increasingly important supplement to behavioral measures
Measurement Issues in Developmental Studies (cont)
Missing Data Most common reason for low power in
studies of change over time
Options Deletion Substitution Imputation
Approaches to handling missing data have improved dramatically in recent years.
The methodological literature favors maximum likelihood and multiple imputation a strong theoretical foundation, less
restrictive assumptions, and the potential for bias reduction and greater power.
Benefits are especially important for developmental research where attrition is a pervasive problem
Enders, Craig K.Child Development Perspectives, Vol 7(1), Mar 2013, 27-31.
Messinger
Adequacy of measures
Reliability Consistency of measurement
▪ Inter-rater reliability of observations Bias
Systematic impact of unmeasured variables▪ Blinding in drug studies▪ Keeping observations independent
Ethics in Developmental Studies
Design, Measurement & Analysisin Developmental Research
Analysis Approaches to Analyzing Change over Time
▪ Describing group level patterns of change over time
▪ Describing individual differences in patterns of change
▪ Processes underlying/modifying patterns of change
▪ Mediating and moderating variables