Veale and Riley, 2001 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)

Individual differences

CBT BDD(DSM-IV) OCD Mirror gazing(2 types) 9 behavioursresponse prevention 9 point visual analogue scale 4 mirror avoidance

mental cosmetic surgery ‘in vivo’ response costSample and technique

52 patients suffering from BDD and 55 controlsVolunteer BDD and personal contacts (Opportunity)

Methodology and design

Quasi experimentIndependent

Strengths 1st study to look at mirror gazing in BDD controls- questionnaire/pilot study, quantitative (scales)

Weaknesses Self-report measures, sample (personal contacts- ethnocentric bias) ethicsUsefulness Treatment ideas (CBT) and better understanding of BDD

Billington et al, 2007Cognitive style

Individual differences

SQ-R and EQ self-report questionnaires 5 Brain types Eyes Test and FC-EFT Psychometric tests Logistic Regression Parametric test Empathizing (cognitive and affective

component) systemizing (Input-Operations-Output) E-S theory Field Independent Degree subject

Sample and technique

415 students selected from an online database (male=203, female=212).Recruitment was via email post and advertisement throughout the university, with participants being offered an incentive of a prize draw if they completed all tasks. Volunteer (Cambridge students)

Method and design 2 Questionnaires 2 performance tests psychometric testIndependent

Strengths Online sampling Psychometric tests, reliability and validityWeaknesses Online sampling /Quantitative, ethnocentric biasUsefulness Links to Autism, links to degree and career choice

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Rosenhan (1973)Sane in Insane PlacesIndividual Differences

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia in remission pseudo patientsType 1(study 2- insane as sane) and type 2(study 1- sane as insane) errors

Powerlessness Depersonalisation Self-fulfilling prophecy sane and insaneSample and technique

Staff in hospital but 8 pseudo patientsVolunteer

Method and design

Field experiment and observation1st study involved eight sane people (pseudo-patients) attempting to gain admission to 12 different hospitals, in five different states in the USA.  There were three women and five men. Repeated measures?2nd Study staff of a teaching and research hospital, which was aware of the first study, was falsely informed that during the next three months one or more pseudo patients would attempt to be admitted into their hospitalIndependent

Strengths 12 different hospitals- ecological validity, social control issue, quantitative(10 point scale-2nd study) and quantitative/qualitative (observations- 1st study)

Weaknesses Ethics, recording of data, Usefulness Reformed ‘mental institutions’- care in the community, raised awareness of

labelling/stigmatisation of the mentally ill (‘stickiness’ of labels)

Thigpen & Cleckley (1954)Multiple Personality Disorder

Individual Differences

Repressed(White) Regressed (Black) Jane Multiple personality disorder EEG hypnosis projective tests-Rorschach Psychometric tests-IQ Case study

Sample and technique

1 –25yr, white female- Eve White/Black and JaneOpportunity

Method and design Case study and longitudinal (14months/ 100hrs)Repeated measures

Strengths Psychometric and projective tests, hypnosis, qualitative and quantitative data, longitudinal, EEG

Weaknesses Ethics, case study, retrospective dataUsefulness Greater understanding of the multiple personality disorder- treatments

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Freud, 1909Little Hans

Developmental

Psyche- id, ego, superego Oedipus/Electra complex 5 Psychosexual stagesUnconscious/ Latent Conscious/ Manifest content Dream analysis

Phobia of horses Psychoanalysis Free association

Sample and technique

1 (Hans) 3-5yrsOpportunity

Methodology and design

Case study and longitudinalIndependent

Strengths Qualitative data , longitudinal, evidence of psychoanalysisWeakness Use of children- ethics, qualitative data- subjective, ethnocentric, alternative

interpretations of phobia (behaviourist)Usefulness Unconscious role/support for theory psychoanalysis/Oedipus

Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)Aggression

Developmental

Classical conditioning Operant Conditioning Social LearningTheory(Bandura) Matched pairs Bobo doll Partial/imitative

Beh.-verbal+physical 4 Hypotheses 3 conditions (non-agg, agg, control)Sample and technique 72 children matched pairs (36 boys, 36 girls)

OpportunityMethodology and design Laboratory experiment

Matched pairsStrengths 5 point scale for aggressions, evidence for nurture, quantitative

and qualitative dataWeaknesses Scales, ecological validity, reductionist, deterministic, ethics- use

of children (why not do prosocial?)Usefulness TV violence, media violence, nurture debate

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Langlois, 1991Facial attractiveness

Developmental

Attraction Attractive and unattractive faces (symmetry) Maternal attractiveness Fussing

Cognitive explanation Pictures usedEvolution explanation Same sex Preference

Likert Scale:1-5 Quantitative data Single blind techniqueStandardisation: controls (pictures+procedures) Infant side bias.

Sample and technique

Study 1-(Adults) 110 6-month old infants from children’s research lab at Uni of Texas.Study 2- (Black female)40 Pps 15 boys, 25 girls, average age 6 months, 36 white, 2 black, 2 Hispanic.Study 3- (Babies) 29Pps- 19 boys, 20 girls) middle class families, 37 Caucasian, 2 Hispanic.

Method and design Laboratory experiment, observationIndependent Measures

Strengths Evidence for nature debate?, controls used-standardised procedure, scales (mean average), slides used from a previous study + inter-rater reliability

Weakness Reductionist- scales, ethnocentric sample/generalisable?, ecologically valid- static photos, ethics of fussing,

Usefulness Evolution and mate selection? Role of nature

Nelson, 1980Morals

Developmental

Morality Motive Outcome Heteronomous (Piaget)Autonomous (Piaget) Verbal Story Presentation study 1 study 2 7 point rating scale

Independent variable: story presentation condition (one of three) and the dependent variable: judgment rating of the actor in the story out of seven.

Sample and technique

90 (60 preschoolers and 30 second graders),50:50 gender ratioOpportunity

Method and design Laboratory experimentIndependent measures

Strengths Ethics, sample size/generalising, quantitative data- 7 point scale, controls/procedure, pilot study, nature and nurture- overcame difficulties of previous research using and stories (ecologically valid-pilot study)

Weakness Ethnocentric/sample- Middle class, white, rating scale/quantitative data only, story always a boy- gender bias?, low ecological validity

Usefulness Child development- moral development, nature and nurture

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Maguire et al (2000)Taxi drivers’ brains

Physiological

The Knowledge (London Taxi drivers), PET, topographical memory, semantic memory,

episodic memory, landmark knowledge, sequence, baseline for speech and the

hippocampus. Brain Neuroplasticity rCBF Film frames and plots Factorial design(4

tasks) 3 aims

Sample and technique

Participants were 11 right-handed qualified and licensed male London taxi drivers (mean age 45 +- 7yrs)Volunteer

Method and design

Field? ExperimentRepeated measures

Strengths Ethics, generalisation PET + MRIs, questionnaire/pilot study-ecological validity, quantitative data, counterbalancing

Weakness Ethnocentrism/Generalisation of samplePET + MRIs, ethicsUsefulness Supports animal research and case studies, brain and memory

Dematte, 2007Olfactory cuesPhysiological

Body relevant/non relevant plesant (Geranium, male fragrance) and unpleasant (rubber and body odour) smells olfactometer Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Olfactory

Halo dumping Cross modal Labelled Magnitude Scale (LMS) mate selection and evolution Clean air- control/neutral

Sample and technique

16 untrained female participants from the University of Oxford, mean age 26yrs (ranging from 20-34years)

Opportunity Method and

designLaboratory experimentRepeated measures

Strengths Pilot study, procedure/controls/apparatus, counterbalancing, ethics, a 9-point visual rating scale- quantitative data, nature debate, 40 photos/faces used from a previous study- reliability

Weakness Ecological validity? Ethnocentric- gender bias/CAE/geranium?, only quantitative data, reductionist

Usefulness Cross modality of senses- nature debate/evolution and mate selection

5

Schachter and Singer, 1962Emotion

Physiological

Four experimental conditions state of arousal and a cognition/two factor theory 3 aims injection of ‘Suproxin’ (made up name)  Adrenalin Ignorant Adrenalin Informed Adrenalin Misinformed

Control Group – Placebo euphoria condition or the anger condition epinephrine/adrenaline

Sample and technique

184 male college students, taking classes in introductory psychology at Minnesota University. 90% of which received two extra points on their final exam for every hour they served as subjectsOpportunity/volunteer?

Method and design Laboratory experiment- observation, self-reportIndependent measures

Strength One way mirror, controls/procedureWeakness Ethnocentrism of sample/generalisation, ecological validity, ethics 11 of the

participants results discardedUsefulness Development of theory of emotion

Dement & Kleitman (1957)Sleep and Dreaming

Physiological

REM Non-REM Dream content 3 aims REM Rebound electroencephalogram(EEG) EOGStages of sleep

Sample and technique

9 adults, 7 males. 5 studied intensively.Opportunity/volunteer?

Method and design

Laboratory experimentRepeated measures

Strengths Controls self report, EEG, quantitativeWeakness Sample- ethnocentric/generalisation, ecological validity, self report, ethics?

Correlation dataUsefulness Relationship between dreaming and sleep

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Mann et al, 2002High stake liars

Cognitive

Veracity, high stake liar, high stake truth, 6 behaviours (blink, pause), Pinocchio, coding motivational impairment effect single blind micro-expressions cognitive load behavioural control

Sample and technique 16 suspects, 13 male, 3 female. 4 juveniles (3 aged 13yrs and the other aged 15yrs). 15 Caucasian (English first language), 1 Asian (first language Punjabi but also fluent in English).Opportunity

Methodology and design Quasi/natural experiment, observation, content analysisIndependent

Strengths Inter-rater reliability-coding, single blind, ecological validity- previous studies tend to be Lab experiments

Weaknesses Sample size (16), use of video footage, sensitive topic, Usefulness Complexity of lying: no obvious universal signs

Loftus and Pickrell, 1995False memories

Cognitive

Rating scales (clarity for event 1-10, confidence 1-5) self report- mailedEthnocentric- sampling and generalization ethics Hansel and Gretel

Ecologically valid- based on relatives retrospective data to construct the story (false memory)Retroactive proactive false memory Trojan horse

Sample and technique

3 males, 21 femalesOpportunity (university of Washington students)

Methodology and design

Quasi/natural experimentRepeated measures (2 interviews)

Strengths Controls for events/stories, interviews, ethics, quantitative data- coding/scales clarity and confidence, ecological valid stories

Weaknesses Materials used, ethnocentric, ethics, results of only 5 used, coding/scalesUsefulness Criminal court: possible problems of Eye Witness Accounts

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Baron-Cohen, 2001Revised Reading the Eyes Test

Cognitive

Asperger Syndrome (AS)/ High Functioning Autism (HFA)Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) Theory of Mind Attribution theory Normal distribution

Forced choice Phenotype Ceiling effect Basic emotionsGaze direction Semantic opposites (concerned/unconcerned) Social intelligence

Sample and technique

Group 1 - (HFA/AS) N=14 ALL Male, mean 21.9 Volunteer/self- selectedGroup 2 -General population males- 26, females 26.4 OpportunityGroup 3- Students, males 27.3 and females 28.6OpportunityGroup 4-IQ matched controls 30.9 Random??

Methodology and design

Psychometric test (self-report questionnaire/test)Independent Measures

Strengths Reliable and valid, quantitative data, quick/easy, sensitive/subtle individual differences, improvement on 1997 test, normal distribution

Weaknesses Ecological validity-Static pictures, computer reaction times?Usefulness Autism spectrum, Children’s Eyes Test, Eyes test has been used during fMRI,

valid test for social intelligence, brain-damaged patients following amygdalectomy.

Held and Hein, 1963PerceptionCognitive

Deprivation plasticity Sensorimotor coordination Neck yoke/body clamp Tests -Visual Cliff (Gibson and Walk), Blink response, visually guided paw placement Kitten Carousel (exposure apparatus)

Bottom-up (Gibson, nature), Top-down (Gregory, nurture) Other tests-Pupillary reflex/size, Tactual placing response, Visual pursuit of a moving object Nature/Nativist versus Nurture/Empirist

Sample and technique

Ten pairs of kittens were used, each pair from a different litterOpportunity sample?

Methodology and design

Laboratory Experiment and ObservationRepeated Measures

Strengths Controls (exposure apparatus/kitten carousel) Animal, nature/nature Weakness Ethics (deprived or modified?), use of animals-sample and generalisation to

humans?Usefulness Nature/nurture debate for perception- transaction/interaction

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Milgram (1963)Obedience

Social psychology

Obedience Legitimate authorityWWII Genocide Electric shock generator

$4.50 Agentic stateBuffers 1 hour

Gradual commitment ProdsSample and technique

40 males aged between 20 and 50 years. A wide range of occupations, including postal clerks, high-school teachers, salesmen, engineers and labourers. Paid $4.50 Volunteer

Method and design

Laboratory experiment? no control condition (i.e. all of the participants took place in the same experimental procedure)Independent

Strength Situational/individual, internal validity, external/ecological validity(variations of studies), control/procedure

Weakness Ethics, Ecological validity, Ethnocentrism/generalisability, reductionistUsefulness Genocide Holocaust/WWII obedience/disobedience Importance of the situation,

nurture not nature

Zimbardo, 1973

Stanford Prison StudySocial

Conformity to role DehumanizationPrison simulation Pathological prisoner syndromeNumber of days Emasculation

Uniforms- stereotypes of roles Warden Mundane RealismDeindividuation Maslach ‘outsider role’

Sample and technique

24 normal, healthy male college students who were predominantly middle class and white.Volunteer

Method and design Field experimentindependent

Strength Situational and individual, Ecological validity, controls, mundane realismWeakness Ethics, Ecological validity, Ethnocentric/generalisability, reductionistUsefulness Prison reform importance of the situation, nurture not nature

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Piliavin et al (1969)Subway Samaritans

Social

Diffusion of responsibility Arousal-cost reward theory Kitty GenovesePluralistic ignorance Altruism Helping BehaviourVictim characteristics Inter-rater reliability New York Subway

Critical areaSample and technique

4450 men and women travelling on a particular stretch of the New York underground system between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. on weekdays during the period of April 15th to June 26th, 1968 45% black and 55% whiteOpportunity

Method and design

Field experiment (snapshot)Independent

Strengths Large Sample, ecological validity, quantitative data- inter- rater reliability, qualitative data

weakness Ethics, lack of control, neglects to look at the behaviour of the murderer/focuses on audience,

Usefulness Explanation for why people do and don’t help, selfish gene?

Tajfel, 1970Discrimination

Social

Discrimination Sherif- real conflict theoryIn-group and out-group Jane Elliot- Brown eyes, Blue eyes

Prejudice Exp 1- over and under estimatorsMaximum joint profit/differences Social identity Theory (S.I.T)

Authoritarian personality Minimal group effectSample and technique

Study 1- subjects were 64 boys, 14 and 15 years old from a comprehensive school in a suburb of Bristol.Study 2- 48 new boys were used as subjects and all the subjects knew each other well.Opportunity

Method and design

2 Laboratory Experiment Independent

Strengths Controls/procedure, Weakness Ethnocentrism-CAGE, Ethics, demand characteristics (groups-competition),

ecological validityUsefulness Reductionism

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Veale and Riley, 2001 Billington et al, 2007 Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) Cognitive style

Individual differences Individual differences

Sample 40 males (ages 20 – 50)

Sample 252 children from UK

Ecological Validity

37 Ecological Validity

52

Ethics 11 Ethics 26Usefulness 94 Usefulness 75Difficulty 56 Difficulty 90

Rosenhan (1973) Thigpen & Cleckley (1954)Sane in Insane Places Multiple Personality DisorderIndividual Differences Individual Differences

Sample Staff in hospital but 8 pseudo patients

Sample 1 – case study

Ecological Validity

94 Ecological validity 98

Ethics 32 Ethics 65Usefulness 90 Usefulness 15Difficulty 61 Difficulty 72

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