PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE - evirtualguru.comevirtualguru.com/books/ncert/12class/+2 Psychology/Books/Psychology... · Psychology 152 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE Introduction Human-Environment Relationship

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PSYPSYPSYPSYPSYCHOLOGCHOLOGCHOLOGCHOLOGCHOLOGY AND LIFEY AND LIFEY AND LIFEY AND LIFEY AND LIFE

IntroductionHuman-Environment Relationship

Different Views of the Human-Environment RelationshipThe Bishnois and the Chipko Movement (Box 8.1)

Environmental Effects on Human BehaviourHuman Influence on the EnvironmentNoisePollutionCrowdingNatural Disasters

Promoting Pro-environmental BehaviourPsychology and Social Concerns

Poverty and DiscriminationAggression, Violence, and PeaceMahatma Gandhi on Non-violence : Why DoesNon-violence Work (Box 8.2)HealthImpact of Television on Behaviour

CONTENTS

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsProject IdeasWeblinksPedagogical Hints

After reading this chapter, you would be able to:understand how psychology can be applied to common problems in our lives,appreciate the relationship between human beings and the environment,analyse how pro-environmental behaviour helps to deal with environmental stressors,explain the causes and consequences of social problems from a psychological perspective,andlearn about the possible remedies of problems such as poverty, aggression, and health.

Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life 153

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP

Take a moment and try to answer thesequestions : Can a tree be your ‘best friend’?When it gets hot, or when it is crowded,do people become more aggressive? If riversare said to be holy, why do people makethem dirty? How can one remedy thetraumatic effects of a natural disaster suchas an earthquake or tsunami, or of a man-made disaster such as a poisonous gasleak in a factory? Compare two childrenwho grow up in different physicalenvironments, one in an environment filledwith colourful toys, pictures and books,and the other in an environment thatcontains only the bare necessities of life.Will the two children develop the samekind of cognitive skills? People might givedifferent answers to these questions.

In the previous two chapters, you read about some topics related to socialbehaviour and groups. We will now reflect on a set of social concerns witha wider scope, which are linked to each other and involve psychologicalaspects. These issues have to be understood and resolved at the level ofthe community rather than the individual. It is now known that besidesaffecting our physical health, the environment also influences ourpsychological processes and behaviour. Human beings also influence theenvironment through their behaviour, and some of these effects aredemonstrated in stress-producing environmental conditions, such as noise,pollution and crowding. At the same time, environmental stressors such asnatural disasters are not under human control. Many damagingenvironmental effects can be reduced with the help of environment-friendlybehaviour and a state of preparedness. You will read about the causes andconsequences of some social problems such as aggression and violence,health, and poverty and discrimination. You will also get a glimpse of howpoverty and deprivation can make people victims of discrimination andsocial exclusion. An environment of poverty and deprivation has far-reachingimplications for developing human potential, social harmony and mentalhealth. Some ways of reducing poverty are also described. In addition,psychological aspects of health, and the impact of television viewing onviolence as well as other forms of behaviour are explained. This chapterwill show you how psychological understanding can be applied practicallyto aspects such as pro-environmental behaviour, the reduction of violenceand discrimination, and promotion of positive health attitudes.

Introduction

A common idea that comes out of thesequestions is that the relationship betweenhuman behaviour and the environmentplays a special role in our lives. Thesedays, there is a growing awareness thatenvironmental problems such as noise,air, water and soil pollution, andunsatisfactory ways of garbage disposalhave damaging effects on physical health.Less known is the fact that these forms ofpollution, along with many other hiddenfactors in the environment, influencepsychological health and functioning aswell. A branch of psychology calledenvironmental psychology deals withvarious psychological issues pertaining tothe human-environment interaction in avery broad sense of the term. The word ‘environment’ refers to allthat is around us, literally everything that

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surrounds us, including the physical,social, work, and cultural environment. Ingeneral, it includes all the forces outsidehuman beings to which they respond insome way. In the present section, thediscussion will centre around the physicalenvironment. ‘Ecology’ is the study of therelationships between living beings andtheir environment. In psychology, the focusis on the interdependence betweenthe environment and people, as theenvironment becomes meaningful withreference to the human beings who live init. In this context, a distinction can bemade between the natural environmentand the built environment. As the nameitself suggests, that part of nature whichremains untouched by human hand is thenatural environment. On the other hand,whatever has been created by humanbeings within the natural environment isthe built environment. Cities, houses,offices, factories, bridges, shopping malls,railway tracks, roads, dams, and evenartificially created parks and ponds aresome examples of the built environmentwhich show how human beings have madechanges in the environment given bynature. The built environment usually involvesthe concept of environmental design.The idea of ‘design’ contains somepsychological features, such as :• The creativity of the human mind, as

expressed in the work of architects,town planners and civil engineers.

• The sense of human control over thenatural environment, as shown in thebuilding of dams to regulate the naturalflow of rivers.

• The influence on the kind of socialinteraction that takes place in thedesigned environment. This feature isreflected, for instance, in the distancebetween houses in a colony, thelocation of rooms within a home, or inthe arrangement of work desks and

seats in an office for formal andinformal gatherings.

Different Views of the Human-Environment Relationship

There is more than one way of looking atthe human-environment relationship,depending largely on how this relationshipis perceived by human beings. Apsychologist named Stokols (1990)describes three approaches that may beadopted to describe the human-environment relationship.(a) The minimalist perspective assumes

that the physical environment hasminimal or negligible influence onhuman behaviour, health and well-being. The physical environment andhuman beings exist as parallelcomponents.

(b) The instrumental perspectivesuggests that the physical environmentexists mainly for use by human beingsfor their comfort and well-being. Mostof the human influences on theenvironment reflect the instrumentalperspective.

(c) The spiritual perspective refers to theview of the environment as somethingto be respected and valued rather thanexploited. It implies that human beingsrecognise the interdependent relation-ship between themselves and theenvironment, i.e. human beings willexist and will be happy only as long asthe environment is kept healthy andnatural.

The traditional Indian view about theenvironment supports the spiritualperspective. We have at least two examplesof this perspective in our country, viz. thecustoms of the Bishnoi community ofRajasthan, and the Chipko movement inthe Uttarakhand region (see Box 8.1). Bycontrast, we also find examples of peopledamaging or destroying the environment,


Box8.1

The Bishnois and the Chipko Movement

The Bishnois, a small community in Rajasthan, value their trees and wildlife as muchas their lives. Following one of the 29 rules given by their guru, the Bishnois would doanything to prevent the destruction of trees by human beings, including hugging the treesif they are threatened in any way; the destroyer cannot cut the trees without cutting thesehuman bodies. Similarly, the forest cover in the Himalayan Uttarakhand region has beenprotected through the Chipko movement (‘chipko’ literally means ‘sticking to’ or huggingtrees). The aim of this movement is to conserve forests, prevent landslides and soil erosionin the region, and to support the livelihood of the inhabitants. In the 1960s, when theforest department of the government was not quite successful in curbing the indiscriminatefelling of trees in large numbers, people of the economically backward Uttarakhand regionexpressed their concern through the Chipko movement, which became stronger becauseof devastating floods in 1970.

The Chipko movement’s memorandum of demands included six principles: (a) onlyspecific trees and vegetation suitable for a particular geographical region should be grown,(b) forests in landslide and soil erosion zones need to be identified and renewed, (c) thosewho have been customarily living near the forests and depending on them for survivalshould be given the right to do so, (d) the contractor system for commercial timberexploitation should be abolished, (e) trees used by the villagers must be planted near thevillages, and (f) village cottage industries based on minor forest products should be setup to provide jobs to locals for checking migration from villages. This movement has beenrecognised by environmentalists in India and abroad as well as by the government.

which is a negative instance of theinstrumental perspective.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR

The human-environment relationship canbe appreciated fully by understanding thatthe two influence each other, and dependon each other for their survival andmaintenance. When we focus our attentionon the effects of the natural environmenton human beings, we find a variety ofenvironmental influences, ranging fromphysical effects such as a change ofclothing in response to climate changes tosevere psychological effects such asserious depression after a natural disaster.Some of the effects pointed out bypsychologists are described below.

• Environmental influences onperception : Some aspects of theenvironment influence human

perception. For example, as you havestudied in Class XI, a tribal society ofAfrica lives in circular huts, that is, inhouses without angular walls. Theyshow less error in a geometric illusion(the Muller-Lyer illusion) than peoplefrom cities, who live in houses withangular walls.

• Environmental influences onemotions : The environment affects ouremotional reactions as well. Watchingnature in any form, whether it is aquietly flowing river, a smiling flower, ora tranquil mountain top, provides akind of joy that cannot be matched byany other experience. Natural disasters,such as floods, droughts, landslides,quakes on the earth or under theocean, can affect people’s emotions tosuch an extent that they experiencedeep depression and sorrow, a sense ofcomplete helplessness and lack ofcontrol over their lives. Such an

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influence on human emotions is atraumatic experience that changespeople’s lives forever, and can last fora very long time after the actual eventin the form of post-traumatic stressdisorder (PTSD).

• Ecological influences on occupation,living style and attitudes : Thenatural environment of a particularregion determines whether people livingin that region rely on agriculture (asin the plains), or on other occupationssuch as hunting and gathering (as inforest, mountainous or desert regions),or on industries (as in areas that arenot fertile enough for agriculture). Inturn, the occupation determines thelifestyle and attitudes of the residentsof a particular geographical region.Compare the daily routine followed bya person living in a desert with oneliving in a mountainous region, andwith one living on the plains. It hasbeen observed that an agriculturalsociety has to depend on the collectiveefforts of its members. Therefore, themembers of an agricultural societydevelop an attitude of cooperativeness,and consider group interests moreimportant than the individual’s wishes.They are also closer to nature, moredependent on natural events such asthe monsoon, and may face situationsin which necessary natural resourcessuch as water are in limited supply.Accordingly, the members of anagricultural society may become morefatalistic in their beliefs. On the otherhand, highly industrialised societies feelless close to and less dependent onnature. Members of industrialisedsocieties may value independentthinking, develop an attitude ofcompetitiveness, and cultivate a beliefof personal control over what happensto them.

Human Influence on the Environment

Human beings also exert their influence onthe natural environment for fulfilling theirphysical needs and other purposes. All theexamples of the built environment expresshuman influence over the environment.For example, the human being startedbuilding something called ‘houses’ bychanging the natural environment in orderto provide shelter for herself/himself.Some of these human actions harm anddamage the environment, and ultimatelyharm themselves, in numerous ways. Forexample, human beings use appliancessuch as refrigerators and airconditionersthat generate chemical substances (e.g.,CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons) that pollutethe air and, in the long run, may beresponsible for physical diseases such assome forms of cancer. Smoking is knownto pollute the air around us, and theburning of plastic or metal articles hasdisastrous polluting effects on theenvironment. Cutting down trees, ordeforestation, may disrupt the carbon cycleand the water cycle. This may eventuallyaffect the pattern of rainfall in a region,and increase soil erosion anddesertification. Industries that dischargeeffluents, and pump this untreated sewageinto rivers, seem to be unconcerned aboutthe dangerous physical and psychologicalconsequences of this kind of pollution.

What is the psychological message inall of these examples? The message is thatalthough most of the effects mentionedabove are physical in nature, humanbeings have brought about these effects inorder to exhibit their control and powerover the natural environment. It issomewhat paradoxical that human beingsare using technology to change the naturalenvironment in order to improve thequality of their life but, in reality, they mayactually be worsening the quality of life!

Noise, pollution , crowding, andnatural disasters are some examples of


environmental stressors, which arestimuli or conditions in the environmentthat create a stress for human beings. Asyou have already read in Chapter 3, stressis an unpleasant psychological state whichcreates tension and anxiety in theindividual. However, human reactions tothese varying stressors may differ. Some ofthe damaging environmental effects aredescribed below.

Noise

Any sound that is annoying or irritating,and felt to be unpleasant is said to benoise. From common experience it isknown that noise, especially for longperiods of time, is uncomfortable, and putspeople in an unpleasant mood. Exposureto noise for a long period of time may leadto hearing loss. Apart from that, noise hasnegative effects on mental activity becauseit reduces concentration. Many of youmight have experienced this when youtried to study for your examination, withthe neighbours celebrating a marriage withloud music. Three characteristics of noise havebeen found to determine its effect on taskperfor mance, namely, intensity ,predictability, and controllability ofnoise. Systematic research on the effectsof noise on human beings shows thefollowing :• When the task being performed is a

simple mental task, such as addition ofnumbers, noise does not affect overallperformance, whether it is loud or soft.In such situations, people adapt, or ‘getused’ to noise.

• If the task being performed is veryinteresting, then, too, the presence ofnoise does not affect performance. Thisis because the nature of the task helpsthe individual to pay full attention tothe task, and ignore the noise. Thismay also be one kind of adaptation.

• When the noise comes at intervals, andin an unpredictable way, it isexperienced as more disturbing than ifthe noise is continuously present.

• When the task being performed isdifficult, or requires full concentration,then intense, unpredictable, anduncontrollable noise reduces the levelof task performance.

• When tolerating or switching off thenoise is within the control of theperson, the number of errors in taskperformance decreases.

• In terms of emotional effects, noiseabove a certain level causes annoyance,and can also lead to sleep disturbance.These effects are also reduced if thenoise is controllable, or is necessary asa part of the person’s occupation.However, continued exposure touncontrollable and annoying noise canhave harmful effects on mental health.

From these observations, one mayconclude that the stressful effects of noiseare determined, not only by its high or lowintensity, but also by the extent to whichpeople are able to adapt to it, the natureof the task being performed, and whethernoise is predictable and controllable.

Pollution

Environmental pollution may be in theform of air, water, and soil pollution. Wasteor garbage that comes from households orfrom industries are a big source of air,water, and soil pollution. Scientists knowit very well that any of these forms ofpollution is hazardous to physical health.However, there are some research studiesthat have shown direct or indir ectpsychological effects of these forms ofpollution as well. It has to be understoodthat in general, any form of environmentalpollution may affect the nervous systembecause of the presence of toxicsubstances and, to that extent, influence

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psychological processes in some way.Another form of influence is seen in theemotional reactions to pollution which, inturn, cr eate discomfort, and haveconsequences such as decreased workefficiency, lowered interest in the job, andincrease in anxiety level. People do not liketo live or work in a locality that is litteredwith garbage, or has a constant foul smell.Similarly, the presence of dust particles, orother suspended particles, may give afeeling of suffocation and difficulty inbreathing, and may actually lead torespiratory disorders. People whoexperience this kind of discomfort cannotpay full attention to their work, or be ina pleasant mood.

Specific psychological effects of airpollution have been reported by someresearchers. For example, in one part ofKolkata, the psychological reactions to airpollution were compared between a groupliving in an industrial area, and a groupliving in a non-industrial residential area.Those living in the industrial area reportedgreater tension and anxiety than thoseliving in a non-industrial residential area.In a study conducted in Germany, thepresence of pollutants such as sulphurdioxide in the air was found to decreasethe ability to concentrate on a task, andlowering performance efficiency.

Pollution caused by leaks of dangerouschemical substances can cause other kindsof harm. The infamous Bhopal gas tragedyof December 1984 that claimed many lives,also left behind psychological effectsbecause of the gas. Many of those who hadinhaled the poisonous gas, methyl-isocyanate (MIC) along with othersubstances, showed disturbances inmemory, attention and alertness.

There can be harmful air pollution inthe home and office environment (indoorenvironments) also. For example, tobaccosmoke pollution, that is, pollution throughcigarette, cigar or beedi smoking, can also

cause psychological effects. Such effectsare supposed to be more dangerous for thesmoker; however, those who inhale tobaccosmoke (passive smoking) can also sufferthe negative effects. One researcher foundthat inhaling tobacco smoke can increasethe aggression level of individuals.

The presence of polluting substances inwater and soil are hazardous for physicalhealth. Some of these chemicals can alsohave damaging psychological effects. Thepresence of specific chemicals such as leadcan cause mental retardation by affectingbrain development. Such toxic substancesaffect human beings through variousroutes, i.e. through water, or through soilby being absorbed by vegetables grown inpolluted soil.

Another source of toxicity is householdand industrial waste, or garbage, which arenon-biodegradable. Common examples ofsuch waste are plastics, tin or any metalcontainer. This kind of waste materialshould be destroyed or burned throughspecial techniques, and the smoke shouldnot be allowed to escape into the air thatpeople breathe.

In general, there is sufficient evidenceto show that toxic chemicals in the air,water and soil may lead to harmful effectsnot only on normal psychologicalfunctioning, but may also cause seriousmental disorders. Therefore, there isabsolutely no doubt that all forms ofpollution need to be curbed.

Crowding

Most of us are familiar with crowds, whichare large informal groups of personscoming together temporarily without anyparticular goal. For example, when afamous person suddenly appears on theroad, people who are present in thesituation at the time often collect aroundthe scene, just to watch this person. Butcrowding has a different meaning. It refers


to a feeling of discomfort because there aretoo many people or things around us,giving us the experience of physicalrestriction, and sometimes the lack ofprivacy. Crowding is the person’s reactionto the presence of a large number ofpersons within a particular area or space.When this number goes beyond a certainlevel, it causes stress to individuals caughtin that situation. In this sense, crowdingis another example of an environmentalstressor.

The experience of crowding has thefollowing features :• Feeling of discomfort,• Loss or decrease in privacy,• Negative view of the space around the

person, and• Feeling of loss of control over social

interaction.

The psychological consequences ofcrowding in our country have beensystematically studied by several Indianpsychologists in many Indian cities suchas Allahabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Varanasi,and Jaipur as well as some rural areas ofRajasthan. Some of these researchinvestigations of crowding have beenconducted in the psychology laboratory,but many more have been carried out incommonly encountered settings such ashouseholds, offices, traffic, publictransport such as autorickshaw, cinemahalls, etc. The large population of ourcountry makes crowding much more herethan in other less populated countries.This feature has prompted some foreignpsychologists to study the effects ofcrowding in India.

It should be understood that theexperience of crowding is brought aboutnot merely because of the large number ofpersons as such, nor merely because of theshortage of space. It is related to density,that is, the number of persons within theavailable space. For example, if there are

fifteen persons trying to squeeze into fourseats in a railway compartment, eachperson is likely to experience crowding.Place the same fifteen persons in a largehall, and nobody experiences crowding.

One may ask : Is crowding alwaysexperienced in high density settings, anddo all people experience its negative effectsto the same extent? If you answered bothquestions by saying ‘no’, you are right.When we go to a fair (mela) or a weddingceremony, usually the physical setting hashigh density, and we enjoy it in that form.After all, what is a mela or weddingceremony if there are very few people? Onthe other hand, if there are many peoplesharing a small room, everyone feelsuncomfortable.

The stressful effects of crowding can becompletely understood only when we lookinto its consequences. A summary is givenbelow of the effects of crowding and highdensity as reported in several researchstudies conducted in India and othercountries.• Crowding and high density may lead to

abnormal behaviour and aggression.This was shown many years ago in astudy of rats. These animals wereplaced in an enclosure, initially in smallnumbers. As their population increasedwithin this enclosed space, they startedshowing aggressive and unusualbehaviour, such as biting the tails ofother rats. This aggressive behaviourincreased to such an extent thatultimately the animals died in largenumbers, thus decreasing thepopulation in the enclosure. Amonghuman beings also, an increase inpopulation has sometimes been foundto be accompanied by an increase inviolent crime.

• Crowding leads to lowered performanceon difficult tasks that involve cognitiveprocesses, and has adverse effects onmemory and the emotional state. These

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negative effects are seen to a smallerextent in people who are used tocrowded surroundings.

• Children growing up in very crowdedhouseholds show lower academicperformance. They also show a weakertendency to continue working on a taskif they are unsuccessful at it, comparedto children growing up in non-crowdedhouseholds. They experience greaterconflict with their parents, and get lesssupport from their family members.

• The nature of social interactiondetermines the degree to which anindividual will react to crowding. Forexample, if the interaction is on ahappy social occasion, such as a partyor public celebration, the presence of alarge number of persons in the samephysical setting may cause no stress atall. Rather, it may lead to positiveemotional reactions. At the same time,crowding, in turn, also influences thenature of social interaction.

• Individuals differ in the degree to whichthey show negative effects of crowding,and also in the nature of thesereactions. Two kinds of tolerance canbe mentioned that may explain theseindividual differences, i.e. crowdingtolerance and competition tolerance.

Crowding tolerance refers to theability to mentally deal with a highdensity or crowded environment, suchas a crowded residence (a large numberof persons within a small room). Peoplewho are used to an environmentcontaining many persons around them(for example, individuals growing up ina large family that lives in a smallhouse) develop more crowding tolerancethan people who are used to only a fewpersons around them. Our country hasa large population and many people livewith large families in small houses.This might lead us to expect that

Indians in general should have morecrowding tolerance than people fromother, less populated countries.

Competition tolerance is the ability toput up with a situation in whichindividuals would have to compete withmany others for even basic resources,including physical space. Since there isa greater possibility of competition forresources in a crowded setting, thereaction to that setting would beinfluenced by the extent of tolerance forcompetition for resources.

• Cultural characteristics may determinethe extent to which a particularenvironment is judged to be subjec-tively more crowded or less crowded.They may also affect the nature andextent of negative reactions tocrowding. For example, in cultures thatemphasise the importance of the groupor collectivity over the individual, thepresence of a large number of people inthe surroundings is not taken as anundesirable state. On the other hand,in cultures that emphasise theimportance of the individual over thegroup or collectivity, the presence ofmany other persons in the environmentaround us may make us un-comfortable. Overall, though, regardlessof whether the culture considers thegroup more important than theindividual, or the other way round, itis clear that in all cultures, crowding isexperienced as being stressful.

• Personal space, or the comfortablephysical space one generally likes tomaintain around oneself, is affected bya high density environment. In acrowded context, there is a restrictionon personal space, and this can also bea cause of negative reactions tocrowding.

We find many examples of peopleresponding to the physical environment in


terms of space. In social situations,human beings like to maintain a certainphysical distance from the person withwhom they are interacting. This is calledinterpersonal physical distance, and is apart of a broader concept called personalspace, i.e. the physical space we like tohave all around us. One reason for thenegative reactions to crowding, asdescribed earlier, is the decrease inpersonal space. Personal space can varybetween people, between situations andsettings, and between cultures. Someaverage distances have been observed incertain cultures. Edward Hall, ananthropologist, mentioned four kinds ofinterpersonal physical distance, dependingon the situation:• Intimate distance (upto 18 inches) : The

distance you maintain when you aretalking privately to someone, orinteracting with a very close friend orrelative.

• Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) :The distance you maintain when youare interacting one-to-one with a closefriend, relative, or even with someonenot very close to you in a work settingor other social situation.

• Social distance (4 to 10 feet) : Thedistance you maintain when theinteraction is formal, and not close.

• Public distance (10 feet to infinity) : Thedistance you maintain in a formalsetting, where there is a large numberof persons. For example, the distanceof an audience from a public speaker,or a teacher in a classroom.

It may be noted that these distances aremaintained voluntarily, keeping in mindthe comfort experienced by the personsinvolved in the interaction. However, whenthere is a shortage of space, people areforced to maintain much smaller physicaldistance from each other (for instance, in

a lift, or in a train compartment wherethere are too many people). In suchcramped spaces, an individual is likely tofeel crowded, even though objectively, thenumber of persons is not very large. Inshort, people react to available space as apart of the physical environment. Whenfreedom of movement, the sense of privacy,and personal space cannot be maintainednormally, the person experiences stressand responds negatively — with a badmood, or aggressively, and tries to leavethe situation as soon as possible.

The concept of personal space isimportant for the following reasons. First,it explains many of the negative effects ofcrowding as an environmental stressor.Second, it tells us about social relation-ships. For example, two persons sitting orstanding close together are seen to befriends or related to each other. When youvisit your school library, and if your friendis sitting at a table and the place next toher/him is empty, you like to sit next toher/him. But if a person you do not knowis sitting at the table, even if the place nextto her/him is empty, it is unlikely that youwill sit next to this person. Third, it givesus some idea about how physical spacecan be modified in order to reduce stressor discomfort in social situations, or tomake social interaction more enjoyable andfruitful.

Here are some simple examples.Suppose the staff in your school have todecide how to arrange chairs when (i) thereis a social event, such as a culturalprogramme, (ii) there is a meeting betweenparents and teachers, and (iii) some guestspeakers have been invited to address thestudents and teachers. Should thearrangement of chairs be the same in allthree situations? You will find out moreabout what kind of seating arrangementpeople choose in non-crowded settingsif you conduct Activity 8.1.

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Natural Disasters

Environmental stressors such as noise,various forms of pollution and crowdingare the result of human behaviour. Bycontrast, natural disasters are stressfulexperiences that are the result of nature’sfury, i.e. the consequence of disturbancesin the natural environment. Commonexamples of natural disasters areearthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones,and volcanic eruptions. One findsexamples of other disasters also, such aswars, industrial accidents such as theleaking of poisonous or radioactiveelements in industrial plants, or epidemics(e.g., the plague that affected some partsof our country in 1994). However, wars andepidemics are human-made events,although their effects can also be as severeas those of natural disasters. These eventsare called ‘disasters’ because they cannotbe prevented, usually come without anywarning, and result in immense damage to

human lives and property. Sadly, they alsolead to a psychological disorder, calledpost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Science and technology have nowprogressed sufficiently to make it possiblefor human beings to predict these events,to some extent. Yet the psychologicaleffects of natural disasters need to beunderstood and remedied.

What are the ef fects of naturaldisasters? First, they leave peoplepoverty-stricken, homeless, without anyresources, usually along with a loss ofeverything they owned. Second, thesudden loss of all their belongings as wellas their dear ones leaves people shockedand stunned. This is sufficient to create adeep-seated psychological disorder. Naturaldisasters are traumatic experiences, i.e.emotionally wounding and shocking tothose who survive the disaster. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is asevere psychological problem that resultsfrom traumatic events such as natural

What Kind of Seating Arrangements Do People Prefer?

Show the following diagrams, A, B, and C to 5 persons you know, and ask them wherethey would like to sit by writing ‘P’ in that place. [The ‘X’ in these pictures indicates theperson who is already sitting there.]

Note the places chosen by these 5 persons. Do these persons choose the same places?You may repeat this exercise by comparing the chosen places, when, in diagram A, Xis a friend, in diagram B, X is someone you do not know, and in diagram C, X is someoneyou know well.

A. X is your friend : B. X is someone you C. X is someone you knowyou are joining do not know well, and you well, both of you areher/him for tea have to do some work participating in ain the canteen. with her/him as a competition, and each

team member. one wants to win.

Where would you like to sit? Indicate by writing ‘P’ in the chosen place.

Diagram A Diagram B Diagram C

X

X

X

Activity8.1


disasters. This disorder has the followingfeatures.• The immediate reaction to a disaster is

commonly one of disorientation. Peopletake some time to understand the fullmeaning of what the disaster has doneto them. They may actually deny tothemselves that something terrible hashappened. Following the immediatereaction are the physical reactions.

• Physical reactions, such as bodilyexhaustion even without physicalactivity, difficulty in sleeping, change inthe eating pattern, increased heartbeatand blood pressure, and getting startledeasily can be found among the victims.

• Emotional reactions, such as grief andfear, irritability, anger (“Why shouldthis happen to me?”), helplessness,hopelessness (“I could do nothing toprevent this event”), depression,sometimes absolute lack of emotion(numbness), guilt feelings for havingsurvived while someone else in thefamily died, blaming oneself, and lackof interest in even routine activities.

• Cognitive reactions, such as worry,difficulty in concentration, reducedspan of attention, confusion, loss ofmemory, or vivid memories thatare unwanted (or nightmares of theevent).

• Social reactions, such as withdrawalfrom others, getting into conflict withothers, having frequent arguments witheven loved ones, and feeling rejected orleft out. Surprisingly, very often, in themidst of severe emotional reactions tostress, some survivors may actuallyhelp in the healing processes. Havingbeen through the experience, yetsurvived it and staying alive, thesepersons may develop a positive outlookon life and, with empathy, pass on thisattitude to other survivors.

These reactions may last for a long time,in some cases throughout life. However,

with proper counselling and psychiatrictreatment, PTSD can be remedied at leastupto a level where the victims can bemotivated, and helped to start life afresh.The poor, women who have lost all theirrelatives, and orphaned children who aresurvivors of natural disasters need specialtreatment and care. As in the case of theother environmental stressors, people reactwith different intensities to naturaldisasters. In general, the intensity ofreaction is affected by :• The severity of the disaster, and the loss

incurred (both in terms of property andlife),

• The individual’s general coping ability,and

• Other stressful experiences before thedisaster. For example, people who haveexperienced stress before may find itmore difficult to deal with yet anotherdifficult and stressful situation.

Although we are aware that mostnatural disasters can be predicted only ina limited way, there are ways of beingprepared to minimise their devastatingconsequences in the form of (a) warnings,(b) safety measures that can be takenimmediately after the event, and(c) treatment of psychological disorders.These measures, usually taken at thecommunity level, are described below.• Warnings : If you have been listening

to the radio in the recent past, youmight have heard advertisements thatmention what people should do whenit is announced that some naturaldisaster, such as a flood, is likely.When cyclones or high tides arepredicted, fishermen are asked not toventure into the sea.

• Safety measures : Unfortunately, inthe case of some natural disasters suchas earthquakes, even if prediction ispossible, the events come too suddenlyfor people to be warned or to bementally prepared. Therefore, tips are

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given beforehand about what to dowhen there is an earthquake.

• Treatment of psychologicaldisorders : This includes self-helpapproaches as well as professionaltreatment. Often, the very first stepinvolves providing material relief in theform of food, clothing, medical help,shelter, and financial help. Counsellingat the individual and group level is thenext step. This can take many forms,such as encouraging the survivors totalk about their experiences andemotional state, and giving them timefor their emotional wounds to heal.According to some experts who dealwith PTSD, one of the key attitudes tobe developed in the survivors is that ofself-efficacy, i.e. the belief that ‘I cando it!’, or ‘I can come out of this phasesuccessfully.’ Psychiatric help may beneeded for those showing extreme stressreactions. Finally, rehabilitation in theform of employment and a gradualreturn to the normal routine should beundertaken. At some stage, follow-up ofthe victims and survivors is also neededin order to ensure that they have,indeed, recovered sufficiently from theirtraumatic experience.

regard to crowding, it is entirely a human-made problem. Natural disasters, ofcourse, are beyond human control. Yet onecan take the necessary precautions. Somethoughts regarding environment-friendlybehaviour are stated in the next section.

PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL

BEHAVIOUR

Pro-environmental behaviour includesboth actions that are meant to protect theenvironment from pr oblems, and topromote a healthy environment. Somepromotive actions to protect theenvironment from pollution are :• Reducing air pollution by keeping

vehicles in good condition, or changingto non-fuel driven vehicles, stoppingthe practice of smoking.

• Reducing noise pollution by ensuringthat noise levels are low, for example,discouraging needless honking on theroad, or making rules regarding noisymusic at certain hours.

• Managing disposal of garbage sensibly,for example, by encouraging separationof biodegradable garbage from non-biodegradable waste, or composting ofkitchen waste. These practices need tobe adopted both at home and in publicplaces. Special attention has to be paidto the management of industrial andhospital waste.

• Planting trees and ensuring their care,keeping in mind that those plants andtrees should not be planted that haveadverse health effects.

• Saying ‘no’ to plastics in any form, thusreducing toxic wastes that pollutewater, air and the soil.

• Reducing the non-biodegradablepackaging of consumer goods.

• Laws related to construction (especiallyin urban areas) that violate optimalenvironmental design.

Ask your teacher to help you toconduct the following role play, alongwith your classmates. Some studentsenact the role of victims of a naturaldisaster, showing symptoms of PTSD,while some others enact the role ofcounsellors. Get the opinions of yourclassmates and teacher about thebehaviour shown by the counsellors.

Activity8.2

It may be pointed out that althoughpollution due to noise, air and water is nowhere to stay, some practices on the part ofthe community can go a long way inmaking our precious environment lesspolluted and healthier for all of us. With


PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL CONCERNS

If you ask someone to list the mainproblems that our society faces today, youcan be fairly sure that two problems willbe mentioned, among others — povertyand violence. Both of these phenomenahave noticeable effects on the physical aswell as psychological health of people. Ithas to be understood that poverty is notmerely an economic problem, and violenceis not merely a question of breaking thelaw. Rather, these problems can beresolved only if we examine theirpsychological causes. Psychologists haveactively explored these issues, and havefocused on the causes and consequencesof these phenomena. Each of these socialconcerns is discussed below.

Poverty and Discrimination

Everyone agrees that poverty is a curse onsociety, and the more quickly we get rid ofit, the better it will be for society. Someexperts define poverty mainly in economicterms, and measure it in terms of income,nutrition (the daily calorie intake perperson), and the amount spent on basicnecessities of life such as food, clothingand shelter. Some other indicators are alsoused, such as physical health and literacy.Such measures continue to be used insome contexts. However, from the socialand psychological points of view, economicand other physical aspects tell only a smallpart of the story about poverty. From thesocio-psychological point of view, the mostcommonly accepted definition of poverty isthat it is a condition in which there is alack of necessities of life in the context ofunequal distribution of wealth in society.

Some authors add that the sense ofdeprivation and social disadvantage areadditional features of poverty. A distinctionbetween deprivation and poverty is thatdeprivation refers to the state in which a

person feels that s/he has lost somethingvaluable, and is not getting somethingwhat s/he deserves. Poverty refers to anactual shortage of the resources necessaryfor living, and thus can be somewhatobjectively defined. In deprivation, it ismore a question of perceiving or thinkingthat one has got less than what one shouldhave got. Thus, a poor person mayexperience deprivation, but poverty is nota necessary condition for experiencingdeprivation. The situation of the poor isworsened if they also experiencedeprivation. In reality, usually the pooralso feel deprived. Both poverty and deprivation arelinked to social disadvantage, i.e. acondition because of which some sectionsof society are not allowed to enjoy the sameprivileges as the rest of society. Socialdisadvantage poses an obstacle to thegrowth of these sections. In our society, thecaste system has been largely the sourceof social disadvantage, but poverty,irrespective of caste, has also played a rolein creating social disadvantage. Further, social disadvantage becauseof caste and poverty has created theproblem of discrimination. You may recallfrom Chapters 6 and 7 that discriminationis often linked to prejudice. In the contextof poverty, discrimination refers to thebehaviour that makes a distinctionbetween the rich and the poor, favouringthe rich and the advantaged over the poorand the disadvantaged. This distinctioncan be seen in matters of social interaction,education, and employment. Thus, even ifthe poor or disadvantaged have thecapability, they are kept away fr omopportunities that are enjoyed by the restof society. The children of the poor do notget a chance to study in good schools, orget good health facilities, and employment.Social disadvantage and discriminationprevent the poor from improving theirsocio-economic condition through their

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own efforts, and this makes the poor evenpoorer. In short, poverty anddiscrimination are related in such a waythat discrimination becomes both a causeand a consequence of poverty. Clearly,discrimination based on poverty or casteis socially unjust, and has to be removed.

Every society wishes to do away withpoverty. To proceed in this direction, it isimportant to know the psychologicaldimensions of poverty and deprivation, andtheir major causes.

Psychological Characteristics and Effects ofPoverty and Deprivation

Considering that poverty and deprivationare among the glaring problems of oursociety, Indian social scientists, includingsociologists, psychologists and economists,have undertaken systematic research onthe poor and deprived sections. Theirfindings and observations show thatpoverty and deprivation do have adverseeffects on motivation, personality, socialbehaviour, cognitive processes, and mentalhealth.• In terms of motivation, the poor have

low aspirations and low achievementmotivation, and high need fordependence. They explain theirsuccesses in terms of luck or fate ratherthan ability or hard work. In general,they believe that events in their livesare controlled by factors outside them,rather than within them.

• With regard to personality, the poor anddeprived have low self-esteem, are highon anxiety and introversion, and dwellon the immediate present rather thanbeing future-oriented. They prefersmaller immediate rewards to largerrewards in the long run, because in theirperception, the future is too uncertain.They live with a sense of hopelessness,powerlessness, felt injustice, andexperience a loss of identity.

• With respect to social behaviour, thepoor and deprived sections exhibit anattitude of resentment towards the restof society.

• Among the effects of prolongeddeprivation on cognitive functioning, ithas been found that intellectualfunctioning and perfor mance ontasks (such as classification, verbalreasoning, time perception, andpictorial depth perception) is loweramong the highly deprived compared tothose who are less deprived. It has alsobeen clarified that the effect ofdeprivation is because the nature of theenvironment in which children growup — whether it is enriched orimpoverished — makes a difference intheir cognitive development, and this isreflected in cognitive task performance.

• With regard to mental health, there isan unquestionable relationshipbetween mental disorders and povertyor deprivation. The poor are more likelyto suffer from specific mental illnessescompared to the rich, possibly due toconstant worriness about basicnecessities, feelings of insecurity, orinability to get medical facilities,especially for mental illnesses. In fact,it has been suggested that depressionmay be a mental disorder largely of thepoor. Besides, the poor experience asense of hopelessness and a loss ofidentity, as though they do not belongto society. As a result, they also sufferfrom emotional and adjustmentproblems.

Major Causes of Poverty

Poverty is sometimes caused by naturaldisasters such as earthquakes, floods, andcyclones, or man-made disasters such aspoisonous gas leaks. When such eventstake place, people suddenly lose all theirpossessions and have to face poverty.


Similarly, one generation of the poor maybe unable to eradicate their poverty, andthe next generation continues to remain inpoverty. Apart from these causes, otherfactors responsible for poverty have beenmentioned below. However, there are somedif ferences of opinion r egarding theimportance of these factors.• The poor themselves are responsible for

their poverty. According to this view,the poor lack the ability and motivationto put in effort, and make use ofavailable opportunities. In general,such a view about the poor is rathernegative, and does not help at all inmaking them better.

• It is not the individual, but a beliefsystem, a way of life, and values, inwhich she/he is brought up, that is thecause of poverty. This belief system,called the ‘cultur e of poverty’ ,convinces the person that she/he willcontinue to remain poor, and the beliefis carried over from one generation ofthe poor to the next.

• Economic, social and political factorstogether account for poverty. Becauseof discrimination, certain sections ofsociety are denied the opportunitiesneeded for getting even the basicnecessities of life. The economic systemis made to grow in a disproportionateway, through social and politicalexploitation, so that the poor are left outof the race. All these factors can besummed up in the idea of socialdisadvantage, because of which the poorexperience social injustice, deprivation,discrimination, and exclusion.

• The geographic region in which onelives is said to be a significant cause ofpoverty. For example, people living inregions (such as deserts) that have ashortage of natural resources and aharsh climate (such as extreme heat orcold) end up being poor. This factorcannot be controlled by human beings.

However, attempts can be made to helppeople in such regions to findalternative means of livelihood, and toprovide special facilities for theireducation and employment.

• The poverty cycle is another importantcause of poverty that explains whypoverty tends to continue among thesame sections of society. Poverty begetspoverty. Beginning with a low incomeand lack of resources, the poor gothrough low health and nutrition, lackof education, and lack of skills. Thisleads to low employment opportunities,which, in turn, continue their lowincome condition, and low health andnutrition status. The resulting loweredmotivational level only makes thesituation worse; the cycle starts andcontinues again. Thus, the poverty cycleinvolves an interaction between thefactors mentioned above, and results indeclining individual motivation, hope,and sense of control.

The only way to tackle the problemsassociated with poverty and deprivation isto work actively as well as earnestlytowards the removal or reduction ofpoverty. Some measures in that directionare described below.

Measures for Poverty Alleviation

Several steps are being taken by thegovernment and other groups to worktowards alleviation or reduction of povertyand its negative consequences.• Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping

the poor to attain self-sufficiency —Initially, financial relief, medical andother facilities may have to be providedto the poor. Care should be taken to seethat this financial and other help doesnot make the poor dependent on thesesources for their livelihood.

• Creating a context for making the poortake responsibility instead of blame for

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their poverty — This step will help themto regain a sense of hope, control andidentity.

• Providing educational and employmentopportunities, following the principlesof social justice — This step may helpthe poor to discover their own abilitiesand skills, thus enabling them to comeup to the level of other sections ofsociety. This will also help in reducingcrime and violence by reducingfrustration, and by encouraging thepoor to earn their livelihood throughlegal rather than illegal means.

• Measures for improved mental health —Many of the poverty reductionmeasures help to improve the physicalhealth of the poor, but their mentalhealth still remains a problem to betackled effectively. With greaterawareness of this problem, it is hopedthat more attention will be paid to thisaspect of poverty.

• Steps for empowering the poor —Through the measures mentionedabove, the poor should be made morepowerful, capable of living indepen-dently and with dignity, withoutdepending on the help given by thegovernment or other groups.

The concept of ‘Antyodaya’, or the riseof the ‘last person’ in society, i.e. thepoorest or the most disadvantaged, hashelped a large section of the poor to getuplifted to a better economic conditionthan they have experienced earlier. UnderAntyodaya programmes, there is provisionfor health facilities, nutrition, educationand training for employment — all theareas in which the poor need help. Manyof these programmes are more active inrural than in urban regions, as the ruralpoor have even fewer facilities than theurban poor. In addition, the poor areencouraged to start their own small-scalebusinesses. Initial capital for these ventures

is provided through small loans or micro-credit facilities. This facility is similar to theidea of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.

Following the 73rd amendment of theConstitution, the aim is to give more powerto people for their development throughdecentralised planning, and throughpeople’s participation. ActionAid, aninternational group dedicated to the causeof the poor, has goals of making the poormore sensitive to their rights, to equalityand justice, and ensuring for themadequate nutrition, health, and facilities foreducation and employment. The Indianbranch of this organisation has beenworking for poverty alleviation in ourcountry.

These measures cannot be expected tohave magical effects in a short time. But,if these efforts towards poverty alleviationare continued in the right spirit and rightdirection, we may see positive results inthe very near future.

Activity8.3

You must have heard the proverb, ‘Abird in hand is worth two in thebush’.

Would people experiencingpoverty ‘Agree’ or ‘Disagree’ with thisproverb? Why? Discuss in class withyour teacher.

Aggression, Violence and Peace

Aggression and violence are among themajor problems in today’s society, and theycover a wide range of behaviours — fromragging of newcomers in educationalinstitutes, through child abuse, domesticviolence, murder and rape, to riots andterrorist attacks.

Psychologists use the term ‘aggression’to refer to any behaviour by one person/persons that is intended to cause harm toanother person/persons. It can bedemonstrated in actual action or throughthe use of harsh words or criticism, or even


hostile feelings against others. Forcefuldestructive behaviour towards anotherperson or object is described as violence.Some psychologists distinguish aggressionfrom violence by pointing out thataggressive behaviour involves the intentionto harm or injure another person, whereasviolence may or may not involve such anintention. For example, burning buses orother public property during a riot is calledviolence as well as aggression. But,suppose you see a person kicking amotorbike violently. Her/his intention maybe only to start the vehicle and, therefore,this act will not be considered a case ofaggression. On the other hand, the personmay also perform the violent act in orderto damage the vehicle, because it belongsto a person s/he dislikes. In this case,because harm was intended, the act wouldbe called a case of aggression. A distinction is also made betweeninstrumental aggression and hostileaggression. In instrumental aggression,the act of aggression is meant to obtain acertain goal or object. For example, a bullyslaps a new student in school so thats/he can snatch the newcomer’s chocolate.Hostile aggression is that which is shownas an expression of anger towards thetarget, with the intention of harming her/him, even if the aggressor does not wishto obtain anything from the victim. Forexample, a criminal may beat up a personin the community for mentioning his nameto the police.

Causes of Aggression

Social psychologists have explored theissue of aggression for several years, andhave come up with the following viewsabout the causes of aggression.1. Inborn tendency : Aggressiveness is an

inborn tendency among human beings(as it is in animals). Biologically, thisinborn tendency may be meant for self-defence.

2. Physiological mechanisms : Aggressioncould also be indirectly triggered byphysiological mechanisms, especially bythe activation of certain parts of thebrain that play a role in emotionalexperience. A general physiologicalstate of arousal, or feeling activated,might often be expressed in the form ofaggression. There could be severalfactors that cause arousal. Forexample, as was seen earlier in thischapter, aggression can result from asense of crowding, especially in hot andhumid weather.

3. Child-rearing : The way an individual isbrought up often influences her/hisaggressiveness. For example, childrenwhose parents use physical punish-ment end up becoming more aggressivethan children whose parents use otherdisciplinary techniques. This could bebecause the parent has set an exampleof aggressive behaviour, which the childimitates. It could also be becausephysical punishment makes the childangry and resentful; as the child growsup, s/he expresses this anger throughaggressive behaviour.

4. Frustration : Aggression is anexpression, and consequence offrustration, i.e. an emotional state thatarises when a person is prevented fromreaching a goal, or attaining an objectthat s/he wants. The person may bevery close to the goal, and yet does notattain it. It has been found that peoplein frustrated situations show moreaggression than those who are notfrustrated. In one of the experimentsconducted to examine the effects offrustration, children were preventedfrom getting some attractive toys thatwere visible through a screen. As aresult, these children were found to bemore destructive in play than thosechildren who were allowed accessto toys.

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An American psychologist, JohnDollard along with his collaborators,conducted research specifically to examinethe frustration-aggression theory. Thistheory proposes that it is frustration thatleads to aggression. As expected, frustratedpersons did demonstrate more aggressionthan non-frustrated persons. Moreover,such aggression was often shown towardsa weaker person who was unlikely,or unable, to react to the aggression.This phenomenon has been calleddisplacement. Often it is observed thatmembers of a majority group in societymay be prejudiced (Chapter 6) againstmembers of a minority group, and mayshow aggressive behaviour towards aminority group member, such as usingabusive language, or even physicallyassaulting the minority group member.This may be a case of displaced aggressionarising out of frustration.

Later on, as more information wasgathered about the causes of aggression,it became clear that frustration is not theonly, or even a major cause of aggression.Observations showed that (i) beingfrustrated does not necessarily make aperson aggressive, and (ii) many othersituational factors may lead to aggression.Some of these situational factors aredescribed below.• Learning : Among human beings,

aggression is largely the result oflearning rather than an expression ofan inbor n tendency. Learning ofaggression can take place in more thanone mode. Individuals may exhibitaggression because they have found itrewarding (for example, hostileaggression allows the aggressive personto get what s/he wants). This would bea case of learning through directreinforcement. Individuals also learn tobe aggressive by observing othersshowing aggression. This is a case oflearning through modelling.

• Observing an aggressive model : Manyresearch studies conducted bypsychologists such as Albert Banduraand his collaborators show the role ofmodelling in learning aggression. If achild observes aggression and violenceon television, s/he may start imitatingthat behaviour. Without doubt violenceand aggression shown on television andthe film media have a powerfulinfluence on the viewers, especially thechildren. But the question is : Doesmerely seeing violence on televisionmake a person aggressive? Or are thereother situational factors that actuallymake a person show aggression? Theanswer is obtained through informationabout specific situational factors.

• Anger-provoking action by others : If aperson watches a movie that showsviolence, and is then made to feel angry(for example, through insults or threats,physical aggression, or dishonesty) byanother person, s/he may be morelikely to show aggression than if s/heis not made to feel angry. In studiesthat tested the frustration-aggressiontheory, provoking the person andmaking her/him angry was one way ofinducing frustration.

• Availability of weapons of aggression :Some researchers have found thatobserving violence leads to a greaterlikelihood of aggression on the part ofthe observer only if weapons ofaggression like a stick, pistol or knifeare easily available.

• Personality factors : When interactingwith people we notice that some ofthem seem to be ‘naturally’ more hot-tempered, and show more aggressionthan others. We may conclude thataggressiveness is thus a personalquality. It has been observed thatpeople who have very low self-esteemand feel insecure may behaveaggressively in order to ‘boost their ego’.


Likewise, people who have very highself-esteem may also show aggression,because they feel that others do notplace them at the high ‘level’ at whichthey have placed themselves.

• Cultural factors : The culture in whichone grows up can teach its members tobe aggressive or not by encouragingand praising aggressive behaviour, ordiscouraging and criticising suchbehaviour. Some tribal communities aretraditionally peace-loving, whereasothers see aggression as necessary forsurvival.

Reducing Aggression and Violence : SomeStrategies

Knowing that aggression can have morethan one cause, can anything be done toreduce aggression and violence in society?Some of the remedies suggested forcurbing violence and aggression aredescribed below. It may not be easy toensure a society or environment that is freefrom frustrating situations. However, thelearning of aggression can be curtailed by

creating the appropriate attitude towardsthe general problem of growing aggression.• Parents and teachers should be

specially careful not to encourage orreward aggression in any form. The useof punishment to bring about disciplinealso needs to be changed.

• Opportunities to observe and imitatethe behaviour of aggressive modelsshould be reduced drastically.Portraying aggression as heroicbehaviour should be particularlyavoided, because this may set the stagefor learning through observation.

• Poverty and social injustice may be aprominent cause of aggression, becausethey can cause frustration in certainsections of society. Implementing socialjustice and equality in society may helpin reducing frustration levels andthereby curb aggressive tendencies atleast to some extent.

• Apart from these strategies, at the levelof the community or society, it isimportant to inculcate a positiveattitude towards peace. We should notonly reduce aggression, but should also

Box8.2Mahatma Gandhi on Non-violence: Why Does Non-violence Work?

“Non-violence is an active force of the highest order. It is the soul-force or the power ofthe Godhead within us. Imperfect man cannot grasp the whole of that Essence — he wouldnot be able to bear its full blaze, but even an infinitesimal fraction of it, when it becomesactive within us, can work wonders.

I am not a visionary; I claim to be a practical idealist. The religion of non-violenceis not meant for the rishis or saints. It is meant for the common people as well. Non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute …. The dignity ofman requires obedience to a higher law — to the strength of the spirit. Non-violence doesnot require any outside or outward training. It simply requires the will not to kill evenin retaliation and the courage to face death without revenge. This is no sermon on ahimsabut cold reason and the statement of a universal law. Given the unquenchable faith inthe law, no provocation should prove too great for the exercise of forbearance.

With satya (truth) combined with ahimsa (non-violence), you can bring the world underyour feet. Satyagrah in its essence is nothing but the introduction of truth and gentlenessin the political, i.e. national life …. By its very nature, non-violence cannot seize power,nor can that be its goal. However, non-violence can do more; it can effectively control andguide power without capturing the machinery of government. That is its beauty.”

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actively develop and maintain peace.Our own cultural values have alwaysfavoured peaceful and harmoniousco-existence. The father of our nation,Mahatma Gandhi, gave the world a newview on peace that was not simply theabsence of aggression. This was theidea of non-violence, which he himselfpracticed throughout his life (seeBox 8.2).

Health

Our understanding about health and well-being has undergone a major change inrecent times. It is now conceded thatvarious health outcomes are not only afunction of disease but the way we thinkand behave. This finds reflection in thedefinition of ‘health’ provided by the WorldHealth Organisation (WHO), whichincludes biological, psychological andsocial aspects of health. It focuses not onlyon physical but also on mental andspiritual aspects of health. We will concernourselves with physical health in thissection as you have already read aboutmental health in the previous chapters.

Health and illness are a matter ofdegree. One may be suffering from aphysically disabling disease but may bequite healthy otherwise. You may recall thenames of Baba Amte or Stephen Hawkins,both of whom suffer from cripplingdiseases but have made greatcontributions in their fields. We also findthat people differ across cultures in theirthinking about when and how people fallill and, therefore, in the models which theyuse in prevention of diseases andpromotion of health. There are traditionalcultures like Chinese, Indian, and LatinAmerican which hold that good healthresults from the harmonious balance ofvarious elements in the body, and ill-healthresults when such a balance is lost. On thecontrary, the Western cultures view health

as a result of fully functioning machinewhich has no blockage. The differentsystems of medicine developed in differentcultures are based on these models. Thereis another fact that you may want to know.The World Health Reports by the WHOshow that in developing countries such asin Asia, Africa, and Latin America, morepeople die due to communicable diseasesincluding HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB),malaria, respiratory infections, andnutritional deficiencies. In the developedcountries, the leading causes are variouscardiovascular diseases, cancers, andpsychiatric disorders. Such differences maybe explained in terms of how these societiesare economically and socially structuredand their psychological underpinnings.

At the individual level, psychologistspoint to various factors such as health-related cognitions including attitudes andbeliefs, behaviours and social factors whichare associated with physical well-being orillness.(a) Cognitions : You may have observedhow some people are quick to seek doctor’shelp while others do not if they aresuffering from such symptoms as nausea,cold, diarrhoea, smallpox, etc. Thevariations in seeking help are due todifferences in mental representationspeople make relating to disease, its severityand the causes of disease. One may notseek doctor’s help for a cold if oneattributes it to eating curd or for leprosyor smallpox if these are attributed to God’sannoyance.

The level of awareness or informationabout disease; and beliefs about how it iscaused; and about possible ways ofrelieving the distress or improving healthaffect help seeking behaviour as well assticking to a doctor’s regimen. Anotherfactor which influences our help-seekingfrom a doctor is the perception of pain,which is a function of personality, anxietyand social norms.


a mixed impact. Most of the resear chstudies have been carried out on childrenbecause they are seen as being morevulnerable to the impact of television thanadults.

First, television provides a large amountof infotainment in an attractive form, andin the visual mode, for which it became apowerful medium of instruction. At thesame time, because the programmes areattractive, children spend huge amounts oftime watching them. This reduces theirhabit of reading and writing, and also theiroutdoor activities such as playing.

Second, television watching may havean effect on children’s ability toconcentrate on one target, their creativityand ability to understand, and also theirsocial interactions. On one hand, there areexcellent programmes that emphasisepositive interpersonal attitudes and provideuseful factual information, teachingchildren how to design and constructcertain objects. On the other hand, theseprogrammes may distract young viewersand interfere with their ability toconcentrate on one target.

Third, about forty years ago a seriousdebate was raised in the USA and Canadaregarding the effect of television viewing onaggressiveness and violence among theviewers, especially children. As discussedearlier in the context of aggression, theresults of research showed that watchingviolence on television was, indeed, linkedto greater aggressiveness in the viewers. Ifthe viewers were children, they tended toimitate what they saw; they were notmature enough to think of theconsequences of such behaviour. However,some other studies pointed out that merelywatching violence on the television doesnot make children more aggressive. Otherfactors need to be present in the situation.Other research findings show thatwatching violence may actually reduce the

(b) Behaviour : Psychologists have foundstrong evidence which shows thatbehaviours we engage in and our lifestylesgreatly influence health. People differgreatly in terms of such behavioural riskfactors as smoking or tobacco use, alcoholand drug abuse, and unsafe sexualbehaviour, diet and physical exercise. It iswell accepted now that such behavioursare associated with incidence of coronaryheart disease (CHD), cancer, and HIV/AIDSbesides many other diseases. A newdiscipline called Behaviour Medicine hasemerged, which seeks to alleviate stressdue to diseases through modification inbehaviour.(c) Social and cultural factors : There isnow a growing body of research whichshows that social and cultural differencesmay influence our physiological responses,and may not be the same across allcultures. For instance, the relationshipbetween hostility and anger and CHD isnot found to be the same in all cultures,(e.g., in India and China). While interactionbetween culture and physiologicalresponses requires more evidence, socialand cultural norms associated with roles,and gender, etc. greatly influence ourhealth behaviour. In Indian society,medical advice by or for a female is oftendelayed because of various reasons — theyare less valued, or because of the beliefthat they are hardy, or the shameassociated with the disease.

Impact of Television on Behaviour

There is no doubt that television has beena useful product of technological progress.However, from the point of its psychologicalimpact on human beings, both positive andnegative effects have been observed. Manyresearch studies have inquired into theeffects of television viewing on cognitiveprocesses and social behaviour, especiallyin Western cultures. Their findings show

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natural aggressive tendency of the viewers :what is ‘bottled up’ gets an outlet, and thuscleans the system, like a choked drainpipebeing cleaned. This process is calledcatharsis.

Fourth, in the case of adults as well aschildren, it is said that a consumeristattitude has developed, and this is due totelevision watching. Numerous productsare advertised, and it is very natural for theviewer to get carried away.

No matter how these results areinterpreted, there seems to be sufficient

Key TermsAggression, Air pollution, Communicable diseases, Competition tolerance, Crowding tolerance, Crowding,Disaster, Displacement, Ecology, Environment, Environmental psychology, Instrumental perspective,Modelling, Noise, Peace, Personal space, Physical environment, Post-traumatic stress disorders, Povertyalleviation, Poverty, Pro-environmental behaviour, Self-efficacy, Social Environment, Spiritual perspective,Transactional approach.

Activity8.4

Make a list of all those pieces ofinformation that you obtained bywatching TV in the last one week,and write down the answers to thefollowing questions :

Which shows did you watch?Which pieces of information

indicate a positive form of behaviour,and which ones indicate a negativeform?

evidence to pose a warning to unlimitedtelevision watching.

• We take renewable and non-renewable resources from the physical environment tomeet the needs of growing population, rapid industrialisation and human consumption.Undesirable human activities have altered the conditions in the environment thathave resulted in pollution, noise, crowding and intensified the occurrence of naturaldisasters.

• The environmental crises and their solutions can be understood through transactionaland traditional Indian approach.

• Pollution adversely affects our mental and physical health and psychologicalprocesses.

• Noise also adversely affects our thinking, memory and learning. The elevated soundlevels can cause permanent hearing loss, increase heartbeat, blood pressure andmuscle tension.

• Crowding is the psychological feeling of not having enough space available. Crowdingnegatively affects cognitive performance, interpersonal relationships, and physicaland mental health.

• A natural disaster disrupts the normalcy within a society and causes damage,destruction and human suffering. In the aftermath of a disaster, post-traumatic stressdisorder is the most common feature. Counselling the disaster-affected people andcreating scope for collective activities can reduce such stress. Also, preparedness ofindividuals and communities to respond rapidly and effectively to possible disasterscan lessen the adverse effects.

• Pro-environmental behaviour includes both actions that are meant to protect theenvironment from problems, and to promote a healthy environment.

• Social and psychological concerns arise out of vexed problems that affect a largesegment of people in a society.


• Lower economic status entails poverty. It relates to deprivation and disadvantage. Itadversely affects cognitive performance, personality and social behaviour. Manyprogrammes are being implemented for social and economic empowerment of thepoor.

• Aggression and violence are among the major problems in today’s society. The learningof aggression can be curtailed by creating the appropriate attitude towards the generalproblem of growing aggression.

• Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. The challengebefore the nation is to reduce communicable diseases like diarrhoea, tuberculosisand HIV/AIDS, and non-communicable diseases like anaemia, cancer, diabetes andstress-related disorders. Positive lifestyle habits can induce positive emotions, physicalfitness and reduce the health problems.

• Both positive and negative effects of television viewing on human behaviour havebeen observed. Most of the research studies have been carried out on children becausethey are seen as being more vulnerable to the impact of television than adults.

Review Questions

1. What do you understand by the term ‘environment’? Explain the dif ferent perspectivesto understand the human-environment relationship.

2. “Human beings affect and are affected by the environment”. Explain this statementwith the help of examples.

3. What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour.4. What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences

of crowding.5. Why is the concept of ‘personal space’ important for human beings? Justify your answer

with the help of an example.6. What do you understand by the term ‘disaster’? List the symptoms of post-traumatic

stress disorder. How can it be remedied?7. What is pro-environmental behaviour? How can the environment be protected from

pollution? Suggest some strategies.8. How is ‘poverty’ related to ‘discrimination’? Explain the major psychological effects of

poverty and deprivation.9. Distinguish between ‘instrumental aggression’ and ‘hostile aggression’. Suggest some

strategies to reduce aggression and violence.10. Discuss the psychological impact of television viewing on human behaviour. How can

its adverse consequences be reduced? Explain.

ProjectIdeas

1. Conduct a survey of 10 households in your locality. Prepare an interview schedule andmeet the head of each household and ask: What pollutions do you experience? Whatare the effects of each pollution on the health of your family members? Summarise thedata, and divide the health effects into physical and mental symptoms or diseases.Prepare a report and offer suggestions on how pollution can be abetted.

2. Conduct a survey of 20 elderly people in your locality to understand their social problemsand their remedies. Prepare a list of the social problems, and write them on cards (4” 4”). Request each elderly person to arrange the cards in order of priority, keeping themost important social problem first and the least important social problem last. Enterthe rank in your schedule against each problem and ask the causes and remedies ofeach problem arranged on the card. Prepare a report and discuss it with your teacher.

Psychology176

Weblinkshttp://library.thinkquest.org/25009/causes/causes.cycle.htmlhttp://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/99/2.18.99/crowding.htmlhttp://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychological_trauma.htmhttp://joannecantor.com/montrealpap_fin.htm

Pedagogical Hints1. Students could be asked to share

their views, by giving real-lifeexamples, on psychological effectsof noise, pollution, crowding andnatural disasters on humanbehaviour.

2. Students may be encouraged tothink of various initiatives taken bythe government and the NGOsworking in the field of environment,while discussing the topic ofpromoting pro-environmentalbehaviour.

3. Teachers could adopt strategies likequestions, stories, anecdotes,games, experiments, discussion,dialogues, examples, analogies,role-playing, etc. which are helpfulin promoting peace-related valueswhile transacting the contents of thechapter.

4. In the topic of psychology and socialconcerns, teachers should attemptto shift from mere imparting ofinformation to debate anddiscussion. This approach tolearning will keep the students aliveto social realities.

Documents

PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE - evirtualguru.comevirtualguru.com/books/ncert/12class/+2 Psychology/Books/Psychology... · Psychology 152 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE Introduction Human-Environment Relationship