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Psychology of Music Learning
Miksza
Behaviorism
Part I
• Classical Conditioning– Assumptions– Method– Phenomena– Counter conditioning– Figures
There is more detail in this section of the outline than is presented in Driscoll… it’s good information – but focus on Part II for the purposes of this class…
Behaviorist Assumptions
• John Watson (Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, 1913)– Introduced the term Behaviorism– Advocated for objective, scientific, observable forms of inquiry
• Equipotentiality• Learning best studied through stimuli and responses• Internal processes largely excluded (radical perspective)• Learning=change in behavior• Empiricist/blank slate• Learning greatly effected by the environment• Parsimony
Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov (Conditioned Reflexes, 1927)– Basic Form of 3 Steps
• Neutral stimulus – No response• Neutral stimulus/unconditioned stimulus paired –
unconditioned response• Conditioned stimulus – conditioned responses
• Signal learning
• Behavior Elicited – not necessarily conscious response
Watson’s take…
• Law of frequency– “The more frequently a stimulus and response occur
in association with each other, the stronger the S-R habit will become (Ormrod, p. 43).”
• Law of recency– “The response that has most recently occurred after a
particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus (Ormrod, p. 43).”
• Extreme position regarding nature/nurture issues…
Classical Conditioning Phenomena
• Extinction– Behavior goes away
• Spontaneous Recovery– Behavior comes back
• Stimulus Generalization– Response occurs when presented with ‘similar’ stimuli
• Stimulus Discrimination– When an individual learns not to generalize a
response to ‘similar’ stimuli• Higher-order Conditioning
– Another ‘layer’ of pairing stimuli and responses…
More Recent Developments in Classical Conditioning
• Contingency/contiguity vs. random or coincidence-like pairing
• Salience of the conditioned stimulus– Some stimulus/response pairings make more
sense than others
• Cognition a part of the process– S/R relationships among mental
representations– Tolerance to drugs
Altering Conditioned Behaviors• Difficult to do… involuntary• Extinction
– Problems: unpredictable speed, avoidance, spontaneous recovery• Counter-conditioning (better than extinction)
– New response – must be incompatible with old response– Must identify a salient stimulus– Gradually introduced new stimulus in conjunction with old stimulus
• Threshold method– Present a stimulus faintly at first and then gradually increase the
strength• Systematic desensitization
– An example of counter-conditioning that is often applied to anxiety problems
• Exhaustion– The stimulus is presented continuously until the individual can no longer
respond in a habitual way
Other key figures…
• Edwin Guthrie– A stimulus and response relationship can form at full
strength in just one trial
• Clark Hull– Intervening or organismic variables are also important
to consider– A departure from radical behaviorist views in that
internal elements were seen as important…– ‘Drive’ a major factor – laid ground work for early
theories of motivation
Part II
• Operant Conditioning– Groundwork– True theory– Types of reinforcers– Reinforcement vs. Punishment– Conditions…– Phenomena– Eliminating undesirable behavior– Limitations of reinforcement
Groundwork for Operant Conditioning
• Edward Thorndike– Law of Effect
• Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened
• Responses followed by discomfort are weakened• Originally focused on rewards and punishments• Later revised without emphasis on punishment
– Emphasized the importance of consequences in the learning process…
(Ormrod, p. 50)
Operant Conditioning Proper
• B. F. Skinner– Shifted emphasis from strength of S-R connections…
…to… …simply the strengthening of responses• A flip-flop of S-R to R-S (…or R-C)
– “A response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again.”
– “Reinforcer – a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows (Ormrod, p. 52).”
– Rather than ‘elicit’ the focus is now on the individual ‘emitting’ a behavior, or ‘operating’ on their environment
Types of Reinforcers
• Primary– Those that satisfy an inherent biological need
or desire
• Secondary/Conditioned– Those that satisfy all other needs or desires– Material– Social– Activity– Intrinsic
Positive/Negative Reinforcers vs. Punishment
• Reinforcer – response increases• Punishment – response decreases
• Positive reinforcer – present something positive to increase certain response
• Negative reinforcer – take something away to increase a certain response
• Punishment – present or take something away to decrease a certain response
• (see Driscoll, Figure 2.2, p. 37)
Conditions for operant conditioning…
• Reinforcer occurs after response…
• Reinforcer comes immediately…
• Reinforcer is contingent on the desired response...
• Magnitude and appeal of reinforcer affects responses learned…
• Consistency of reinforcement is important…
Operant Conditioning Phenomena• Baseline
– Behavior in absence of reinforcer
• Terminal behavior– Desired response at end of reinforcement program
• Extinction– When response is no longer followed by a reinforcer and the
behavior ceases
• Superstition– When reinforcement is random and not contingent on behavior
• Shaping– Reinforcing successive approximations of a task
• Chaining– Reinforcing one response at a time, and then a sequence of
responses – simple to complex behaviors
Operant Conditioning Phenomena Continued…
• Stimulus generalization– Once a response/reinforcer connection is learned an individual will likely
respond similarly to similar reinforcers
• Stimulus discrimination– When an individual learns under what circumstances a response will or
will not be reinforced…
• Stimulus control– Cueing/Prompting
• Verbal or non-verbal cues that indicate a desired response (flicking lights, conducting, etc.)
– Setting events• Designing an environment that is conducive to the type of response desired…
• Learned Helplessness– The passive acceptance of events seemingly beyond one’s control
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Ratio– Reinforcements contingent on a certain number of
behaviors
• Interval– Reinforcement contingent on the passage of time
• Fixed– Occurrence of reinforcement is consistent
• Variable– Occurrence of reinforcement is not consistent
• (See Driscoll, Figure 2.5 and 2.6, p. 50 and 51)
Eliminating Undesirable Behavior…
• Extinguishing– A particular response is no longer reinforced
• Non-contingent consequences– May be beneficial for those who act out for attention
• Reinforcing other and/or incompatible behaviors– Differential reinforcement
• Contingency contracts• Personalized system of instruction
– IEPS and diverse learners
• CAI – Computer Assisted Instruction
Limitations of Reinforcement
• The reinforcer isn’t salient…
• Lack of consistency in reinforcement…
• Cost/benefit analysis results in an imbalance…
• Shaping a desired behavior too quickly…
• Extrinsic reinforcer may undermine intrinsic interest…
Basic educational implications related to Behaviorist principles…
• Practice
• Positive learning environment
• Methods for breaking bad habits
• Assessing learning by looking for behavioral changes
Part III
• Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA)– Essential components
ABA Assumptions and Pseudonyms…
• Assumptions– Behavioral issues are related to past and present environmental
circumstances…– Operant Conditioning concepts
• Reinforcement, extinction, shaping, chaining, stimulus control, reinforcing incompatible behaviors, etc…
– A=Baseline condition– B=Treatment/Intervention– A=Return to Baseline
• Pseudonyms and similar processes– Behavior Management…– Behavior modification…– Behavior therapy…– Contingency management...
Components of ABA
• Present and desired behavior are specified in observable, measurable terms (Driscoll step 1)
• Behavior is measured before and during intervention• Salient environmental/Intervention conditions and/or
reinforcers are identified (Driscoll step 2)• A specific intervention/treatment plan is developed – with
the individual when appropriate… (Driscoll step 3)• Treatment monitored for effectiveness and modified
along if necessary… (similar to Driscoll step 4 and 5)• Efforts made to show how change in behavior can be
generalized to other situations…• Treatment is phased out eventually…