Psychology of Work and Organizations N. K. Semmer University of Bern Job Satisfaction A central but underestimated concept in the psychology of work Norbert

Psychology of Work and OrganizationsN. K. SemmerUniversity of Bern

Job Satisfaction

A central but underestimated concept in the psychology of work

Norbert K. Semmer

Universität Bern

Giessen, January 8. 2002


Job Satisfaction: A concept not highly estimated

Satisfaction:

„... The most superficial and ambiguous of all feelings....“

Frese (1990)Frese, M. (1990). Arbeit- und Emotion – Ein Essay. In F. Frei & I. Udris (Hrsg.), Das Bild der Arbeit (S. 285-301). Bern: Huber


Job Satisfaction: A concept not highly estimated

Job Satisfaction as expression of

„unhappiness without any aspirations“

Neuberger, 1980


Topics

1. Arguments against the concept of job satisfaction

2. Arguments against the objections

3. Job Satisfaction as result of an overall evaluation

4. Conceptionel and empirical differentiations

5. Conclusion


Objections

1. High rates of satisfaction are not credible

2. Associations with performance are weak

3. Depends more on personality than on working conditions


Objection 1: Unrealistically high rates of satisfaction

• Typically, at least 75% are „satisfied“

(= 4 or 5 on a five-point Likert scale)


Example:Job satisfaction of sales women

20%74% 6%

Stalder, B. (1989). Verkäuferinnen: Arbeitssituation und Gesundheit. (Saleswomen: Work situation and health). Upublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Psychology, Universität Bern, Switzerland.


High rates of satisfaction:Explanations offered

• People deceive the researchers (e.g., because of fear of a lack of anonymity)

• People deceive themselves (reduction of cognitive dissonance)

• It‘s all a meaningless ritual – answers are given in accordance with social conventions(„How are you? – fine, thanks...“)

• People have reduced their aspirations(Resignation)


High rates are not credible: Data

Questions like:

„Would you choose the same occupation again? “ or

„Would you recommend this profession to your son or daughter?“

Yield noticably lower values (about 45% yes)


Objection 2: Negligible association with performance

Meta-Analyse by Iaffaldano & Muchinsky (1985):

Corrected mean correlation:

r = .17

Iaffaldano, M.T., & Muchinsky, P.M. (1985). Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-273.


Objection 3Characteristic of the person?

• Staw, Bell & Clausen (1986): Affective Dispo-sition in adolescenced and job satisfaction 50 years later: r = .34.

• Staw & Ross (1985): Stability between 1966 and 1971 between r = .37 and .48.

• Arvey et al. (1989): 30% of the variance is genetically determined (twin studies).

Staw, B. M., Bell, N. E., & Clausen, J. A. (1986). The dispositional approach to job attitudes: A lifetime longitudinal test. Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 56-77. Staw, B. M., & Ross, J. (1985). Stability in the midst of change: A dispositional approach to job attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 469-480. Arvey, R. D., Bouchard, T. J., Segal, N. L., & Abraham, L. M. (1989). Job satisfaction: environmental and genetic components. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 187-192.


Arguments regarding objection 1: High rates not credible?

• Research on general well-being yields comparably high rates (Staudinger, 2000).

Argument of anonymity not convincing• Older people often report better working

conditions (Spector, 1997).

not only resignation!• Why should on deceive oneself and others

regarding questions on satisfaction but not regarding questions about recommendations??

Staudinger, U.M. (2000). Viele Gründe sprechen dagegen, und trotzdem geht es vielen Menschen gut: Das Paradox des subjektiven Wohlbefindens. Psychologische Rundschau, 51 185-197. Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, cause, and consequences . London: Sage.


Arguments concerning objection 2: Association with performance negligible?

Iaffaldano & Muchinsky (1985):Corrected correlation over all studies:

r = .17

But:Studies using well established instruments

concerning overall satisfaction (e.g, DI / MSQ):

r = .29

Petty et al. (1984): .31

Judge et al. (2001): .30

Iaffaldano, M.T., & Muchinsky, P.M. (1985). Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-273. Petty, M.M., McGee, G.W., & Cavender, J.W. (1984). A meta-analysis of the relationships between individual job satisfaction and individual performance. Academy of Management Review, 9, 712-721. Judge, T.A., Thoresen, C.J., Bono, J.E., & Patton, G.K. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376-407


Arguments concerning objection 3: Reflecting only disposition?

• Elfering, Semmer & Kälin, 2000:

Stability of job satisfaction over one year: .32

For „Stayers“: .41

For „Leavers“: .29

Controlling for personality characteristics: Hardly any change in stability (stayers: .43; leavers: .23)

Stabilities for personality characteristics noticibly higher: r = .60 (Agreeableness) to .79 (Extraversion)

• Dormann & Zapf (2000): Partialing out working conditions reduces stability of job satisfaction to zero.

Elfering, A., Semmer, N. & Kälin, W (2000). Stability and change in job satisfaction at the transition from vocational training into „real work“. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 59, 256-271.Dormann, C. & Zapf, D. (2001). Job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of stabilities. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 483-504.


Conceptual issues: Definitions

• Job satisfaction as a „pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‘s job or job experiences“ (Locke, 1976)

versus• Job satisfaction as Attitude

(involving the weighting of pro‘s and con‘s) e.g. Spector (1997)

Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 1297-1350). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally (p. 1300).Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, cause, and consequences. London: Sage.


Job Satisfaction and turnover within one year (voluntary quitting in per cent)

(Computer specialists - Baillod & Semmer, 1994)

47.8

25.9

13.7

6.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

"++" "+" "-" "--"

General Job Satisfaction (Quartiles)

Fre

iwill

ige

Kü

nd

igu

ng

(%

)

Baillod, J. & Semmer, N. (1994). Fluktuation und Be-rufsverläufe bei Computer-fachleuten (Turonver and professional careers among computer specialists). Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, 38, 152-163.

r = .37

n = 153 n = 139 n = 143 n = 134


Job Satisfaction and Turnover(Computer Specialists)

stay-stay(n=272)

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

t1 t2 t3

stay-leave(n=40)

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

t1 t2 t3

leave-leave(n=40)

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

t1 t2 t3

leave-stay(n=73)

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

t1 t2 t3

Semmer, N. & Schallberger, U. (1996). Selection, Socialization, and mutual adaptation: Resolving discrepancies

between people and their work. "Applied Psychology": An International Review,45, 263-288.


Turnover and the Development of Job Satisfaction among Computer Specialists

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

mehr als 1 Jahr vorWechsel

weniger als 1 Jahr vorWechsel

weniger als 1 Jahr nachWechsel

mehr als 1 Jahr nachWechsel

Unternehmenswechsel

more than a yearbefore the change

more than a yearbefore the change

less than a yearbefore the change

less than a yearafter the change

more than a yearafter the change

Stadler, R. (1994). Berufliche Veränderungen bei Computerfachleuten (Career changes among computer specialists). Unpublished Master‘s Thesis, University of Bern, Switzerland.


Fig. 3

COM 3 COM 1 COM 2 .71 .79

TURN 12 TURN 23

.88 .81 .85 .88 .84 .90 .90 .84 .90

.34 .39

GJS 3 GJS 1 GJS 2

.82 .71

.41 .43

.84 .74 .89 .72

.35

.13

-.39 .30

.67 .70 .76

-.32

.24 .22

Chi2 = 195.36, df = 112, p =.00, rmr = .03, gfi = .94, agfi = .92, aic = 277.36

.33 .36

.53 .60

.10 .15

ζ

ζ

ζ

ζ

General Job Satisfaction and Turnover

Semmer, N.K:, Grob, A. Elfering, A. & Baillod, J. (2001). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors and conse-quences of turnover: A three-wave investigation Unpublished manuscript, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology, Bern, Switzerland


Predicting voluntary turnover for different motivations to quit

COM COM+1 .64/.78

TURN

.24/.40

GJS GJS+1

.30/.29

.71/.76 .80/.76

0.0

.00/.02

.46/.54

.47/.76

0.0

ζ

ζ

Pull Motivation

.61/.65

COM COM+1 .71/.77

TURN

.51/.48

GJS GJS+1

.50/.55

.72/.76 .70/.73

-.53/-.46

.13/.35

.32/.48

.49/.43

.28/.21

ζ

ζ

Push Motivation

.54/.43

Semmer, N.K:, Grob, A. Elfering, A. & Baillod, J. (2001). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors and consequences of turnover: A three-wave investigation Unpublished manuscript, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology, Bern, Switzerland


Changes in Job Satisfaction

F i g . 5

G e n e r a l J o b S a t i s f a c t i o n

T i m e 2 T i m e 1 T i m e 3

S t a y e r s

L e a v e r s ( P u l l )

L e a v e r s ( P u s h ) L e a v e r s ( O t h e r s )

5 . 0

4 . 5

4 . 0

3 . 5

3 . 0

2 . 5

2 . 0

Semmer, N.K:, Grob, A. Elfering, A. & Baillod, J. (2001). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors and consequences of turnover: A three-wave investigation Unpublished manuscript, University of Bern, Dept. of Psychology, Bern, Switzerland


Forms of Job Satisfaction(Bruggemann, 1974)

COMPARISON: perceived reality - personal goals

Stabilising SATISFACTION

Raising of Standards

Diffuse DISSATISFACTION

Constructive Job

Dissatisfaction

Fixated Job

Dissatisfaction

Pseudo – Job

Satisfaction

Stabilized Job

Satisfaction

Progressive Job

Satisfaction

Resignative Job

Satisfaction

Keeping of Standards

Lowering of Standards

Keeping of Standards

Distortion of Reality

No Problem-Solving

Attempts

Problem-Solving

Attempts

After Bruggemann, A. (1974). Zur Unterscheidung verschiedener Formen von "Arbeitszufriedenheit" (Distinguishing different forms of job satisfaction). Arbeit und Leistung, 28, 281-284.


Resigned attitude towards work(after Oegerli, 1984)

• My work is not ideal but after all, it could be worse

• Quitting my job would imply even more disadvantages; so I stay in spite of all

• It is best to swallow one‘s anger when bothered by something at work

• As an employee one really cannot expect a lot

Oegerli, K. (1984). Arbeitszufriedenheit: Versuch einer qualitativen Bestimmung. Unveröfftl. Dissertation, Universität Bern, Philosophisch-historische Fakultät.


Job satisfaction and resignation in four samples

Comp Arch Sales Secr

3.50(.94)

4.15(.90)

4.18(.65)

4.12(1.04)

General job satisfaction

Resignation 1.85(.79)

1.87(1.02)

3.28(.79)

2.27(1.14)

Comp = Computer scientists (Baillod, 1994)Arch = Architects (unpublished data, University of Bern, Dept. of PsychologySales = Saleswomen (Stalder, 1989)Secr = Secretaries (Ruch, 1985)

Baillod, J. (1992). Fluktuation bei Computerfachleuten (Turnover among computer specialists). Bern: Lang.Ruch, L. (1985). Strukturvergleich im Sekretariatsbereich (A comparison or working structures among secretaries). Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Bern, Department of Psychology. Stalder, B. (1989). Verkäuferinnen: Arbeitssituation und Gesundheit. (Saleswomen: Work situation and health). Upublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Psychology, Universität Bern, Switzerland.


Forms of job satisfaction & Health Complaints(Saleswomen)

2.59 2.59

1.94

2.44

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Sat- Res- Sat- Res+ Sat+ Res- Sat+ Res+

Forms of job satisfaction

he

alth

co

mp

lain

ts

Stalder, B. (1989). Verkäuferinnen: Arbeitssituation und Gesundheit. (Saleswomen: Work situation and health). Upublished Master’s Thesis, Department of Psychology, Universität Bern, Switzerland.

Sat+/Res- significantly different from all other groups


Forms of Job Satisfaction & Intention to Quit(Computer Specialists)

3.64 3.64

2.122.51

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4



he

alth

co

mp

lain

ts

Baillod, J. (1992). Fluktuation bei Computerfachleuten (Turnover among computer specialists). Bern: Lang.

Sat+/Res- significantly different from all other groups


MEAN Irritation

t1: Forms of Job Satisfaction (N=1356)

Sat+/Res+ Sat+/Res- Sat-/Res+ Sat-/Res-

5,00

4,00

3,00

2,00

1,00

3,37 3,02

3,48 3,12

** *

Forms of job satisfaction and well-being: Irritation among job beginners

(Young Workers from five occupations, t1)

Unpublished data, Aequas-Study, University of Bern,Psychology of Work and Organizations


3.16

3.74

3.12

3.33

2.82.9

33.13.23.33.43.53.63.73.8



he

alth

co

mp

lain

ts

t2, n = 632

Forms of job satisfaction and well-being: Irritation among job beginners

(Young Workers from five occupations, t2)

Unpublished data, Aequas-Study, University of Bern,Psychology of Work and Organizations

p < .10


General Job Satisfaction and resigned attitude towards work:

Associations with third variables

Job satisfaction

Resignation

Intention to quit(Computer specialists)

- .37* .27*

Health complaints(salespeople)

-.31* .45*

Back pain(Secretaries)

-.14 .23*


Resigned attitude and „unwinding“:Changes in adrenalin in the evening compared to the end

of work (in per cent)

-16

12

-17

3

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15


he

alth

co

mp

lain

ts

Res -Res - Res + Res +

t1 t2

Aequas sub-project Bern, unpublished data

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Psychology of Work and Organizations N. K. Semmer University of Bern Job Satisfaction A central but underestimated concept in the psychology of work Norbert