30 YOGA LIVING July/August 2007

YOGA PRACTICE AND PSYCHO-THERAPY SHARE MANY OF THE

SAME AIMS, SUCH AS PROMOTING

HEALTH AND CREATING COGNITIVE,BEHAVIORAL, AND EMOTIONAL CHANGE.They promote introspection, self-awareness,self-acceptance, and connection, and canhelp individuals cope with difficult exper-iences and mental states. However, thereare important differences in the twoapproaches, the most fundamental of whichis their respective frameworks.

Because the frameworks for yoga and psy-chotherapy are different, the emphases,techniques, and practices also differ. Theconvergence of many of the aims and out-comes – most notably the promotion ofhealth – is, therefore, quite remarkable.

Yoga is based in promoting the experienceof union and the realization of universal,nondualistic consciousness (samadhi).“Side effects” of the practice include heal-thy change and the experience of bliss(ananda). In contrast, psychotherapy iscentered on promoting health (whether ofthe individual or of relationships), reliev-ing symptoms and difficulties, and increas-ing self-understanding. A “side effect” oftherapy may include greater connection(i.e., reduced alienation from self, others,and nature).

Yoga philosophy proposes that our diffi-culties are rooted in separation (whichcauses dissatisfaction and suffering), ignor-ance of our true nature, and our falseidentification with what we experience.Western psychological theory posits thatour troubles stem from a combination ofgenetic/biological predispositions, stress,harmful experiences, and negative cogni-tive and behavioral habits.

The following discussion draws attention toa few theoretical aspects of Eastern yoga-based and Western psychological thought

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that set the stage for aproductive and thera-peutic integration, andalso points out importantways in which psycho-therapy and yoga therapydiffer. Specifically, thisarticle focuses on howpsychotherapy and yogaeach facilitate (1) self-awareness and introspec-tion, (2) behavioralchange, (3) cognitivechange and self-accept-ance, and (4) connection.

The discussion belowattempts to make generalstatements about psycho-therapeutic approaches, without disting-uishing between the different orientations,schools of thought, or their emphases.Similarly, there are distinctions betweendifferent types and schools of yoga practicethat are not addressed below.

Self-Awareness & IntrospectionPsychotherapyPsychotherapy develops introspection andself-awareness through the process of re-flecting on, verbally identifying, and explor-ing one’s feelings, thoughts, and behavior.Psychotherapy may focus on a client’s pre-sent feelings/thoughts (e.g., “What are youfeeling now?”), and ways in which aware-ness appears to be limited or restricted.Therapy may encourage a client to reflecton what is healthy, on the client’s goals,and on what impedes healthy choices andbehaviors. It is assumed that such en-hanced awareness and insight will lead tohealthy self-integration and change.

YogaEach of the eight limbs of yoga leads toenhanced awareness. Through the yamas(restraints promoting ethical behavior)

The Intersection of

Yoga & Psychotherapy

Psychology & Health | by Christine (Citrini) Jeuland Ware, Ph.D.

and niyamas (observances of healthyattitudes) practitioners have the oppor-tunity to reflect on their intentions, choic-es, actions, and greater purpose. The inte-gration of asana (postures), pranayama(breathing practices), and dharana (con-centration) enhance awareness of body,breath, mind, and their interrelation. Thedevelopment of “one-pointed” focusthrough pratyahara (sense withdrawal) anddharana flows into dhyana (meditation).Through practices such as asana and medi-tation, yoga teaches practitioners to be pre-sent to immediate experience. Dhyana, inturn, leads to the experience of higherstates of consciousness and to the exper-ience of “witness consciousness.” Ulti-mately, practitioners experience universalawareness, in which the distinctionbetween subject and object (or knower andknown) dissolves.

Are there limits to awareness?Like modern Western research psycho-logists, yoga practitioners recognize thatthe ordinary (i.e., untrained) mind isunable to accurately study itself. Theuntrained mind remains too much a part

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of what is being studied; it is swayed, overwhelmed, or caught upin its own thoughts. According to yoga practitioners, however,meditation techniques gradually extend the mind’s capacity forobserving itself objectively, overcoming the limitations of un-trained introspection (Rama, Ballentine, & Ajaya, 1976).

As we have seen, psychotherapeutic practices count on intro-spection and self-reflection to develop awareness and promotehealthy change. On the other hand, Western psychology postu-lates that there will always exist an indeterminate amount ofunconscious material unavailable for introspection, making it dif-ficult – if not impossible – for human beings to achieve a con-sciousness of the self. A frequent critique of Western perspectivesby yoga practitioners is that Western psychology has limited itsexploration and theorizing about levels of consciousness to only alimited range of “I-ness” (ahankara), referring only to personalidentity and failing to involve transcendence of the ego.

In contrast, practitioners of yoga believe that yoga deals withlevels of consciousness beyond the ego level, outlining a path forfurther development (Rama et al., 1976). Transcending “average”awareness is, thus, an important goal in yoga practice. To theextent that Western-based psychotherapy encourages self-actuali-zation and the exploration of one’s potential (most often seen inexistential, humanistic, and transpersonal theories), such goalsmay also be promoted in psychotherapeutic treatment. Suchapproaches may consider clients’ search for meaning and purposein the midst of apparent meaninglessness, isolation, helplessness,and hopelessness. They may recognize and acknowledge thevaried levels of human experience, including the spiritual leveland our connection to that which is beyond the individual self.Such therapeutic approaches may also take into account the con-

text and relativity of experience, the integration of body-mind,the difficulties that arise when there are discrepancies betweenclients’ ideal and true selves, and the healing experience of unionof different aspects of self and consciousness.

Behavioral ChangePsychotherapyBehavioral change is one of the central goals of psychotherapy.Many clients seek therapy in order to change behaviors that arenot working for them. When a client is engaged in life-threaten-ing self-injurious behavior, treatment must initially focus on de-creasing the behavior and promoting safety. When a client is nota danger to self or others, therapy will, at some point, help theclient to examine why he/she behaves in unhealthy or unsatis-fying ways.

Behavior theory specializes in explaining how both problematicbehaviors and new healthy behaviors are learned and maintained.Therapy may involve reflection on the origins, meaning, or func-tion of a behavior, and the thoughts, emotions, and environment-al factors that contribute to the behavior. Certain psychothera-peutic methods emphasize skill building, such as communicationskills, social skills, and parenting skills training. Other orientationsencourage “experiments,” getting clients to try different things,particularly when what they have been doing has not beenworking or has stopped working.

Psychotherapists have also appreciated the therapeutic benefits ofrelaxation for behavior change, developing techniques such as pro-gressive relaxation, autogenic training, and biofeedback (Rama etal., 1976). Relaxation itself may be restorative and counter sympt-oms such as anxiety. Given his use of the psychoanalytic couch

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Psychology & Health

and hypnosis, Freud, interestingly, recognized that relaxation canpromote healing by encouraging introspection and ultimately be-havioral change. These methods are compatible with yoga becauseboth seek to produce deep relaxation and its concomitant benefits.

YogaYoga psychology also recognizes that positive and negative habits,be they mental, physical, or energetic (e.g., tension), are learnedover time. For example, yoga philosophy includes discussion ofsamskaras (impressions derived from past experiences in previousincarnations and/or in this lifetime that influence future responsesand behavior). Yoga uses the tools of asana, pranayama, and med-itation to reshape habits of the body and mind. Such reshapingmay occur via practices that target the physical body, releasingtension and calming the body, through breathing and concentra-tion practices that affect body and mind, and through practicesthat increase focus and promote meditation (i.e., mantra repeti-tion, visualization, mindfulness).

Behavior change is also encouraged through the yamas (re-straints), which promote a commitment to ethical behavior (e.g.,refraining from lying, stealing, violence toward self or others) andmoderation (e.g., eating until you are satisfied; eating in a waythat is healthy for one’s body), and through karma yoga, whichencourages service to others.

Cognitive Change & Self-AcceptancePsychotherapyMany psychotherapeutic approaches focus on creating cognitivechange – in other words, helping people think differently. Thisincludes how clients think about themselves.

Some approaches actively challenge “faulty” cognitions through“cognitive restructuring,” or through problem-solving or copingskills training. Some types of therapy may focus on unresolvedissues, including automatic ways of negatively perceiving, inter-preting, or reacting to events. Therapy may also highlight theemotional impact of one’s thought patterns. Clients may beencouraged to see how a pattern of thinking developed andbecame generalized as a response to a given situation or as acreative adaptation to a past situation. This cognitive patternfrom the past, although adaptive and/or necessary to the client’ssurvival at the time, may be problematic or maladaptive in cur-rent environments. Therapy, through cognitive change, seeks toalter these patterns of thinking to allow clients to experience,react to, and adjust to present circumstances.

The psychotherapeutic relationship, via the acceptance andunderstanding of the therapist, also becomes a model for self-understanding and kindness toward oneself. The therapist,through empathy, often aims to create a safe “holding environ-ment,” (Winnicott, 1960) in which clients can work on theirissues, developing insight and promoting change while remainingcompassionate toward themselves.

YogaYoga instructors also aim to create environments in which practi-tioners can compassionately and non-judgmentally observethoughts and emotions that surface during the practice. While yogaand meditation can be seen as more passive or organic – perhapsless forceful – ways to support cognitive change than certainpsychotherapeutic techniques, both psychotherapy and yoga en-courage self-reflection, self-acceptance, and transformation.

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Yoga is based in a number of principles that support self-accept-ance. For example, yoga philosophy maintains that we are “justright” as we are and that we have forgotten this over time. Whilepromoting the experience of union as our natural state, yoga aimsto help practitioners question false, illusory identifications withour perceptions, beliefs, and patterns.

Yoga also helps practitioners learn to be present to and cope withanxiety, tension, anger, negative memories, and conflicts. Thepractices of asana, pranayama, concentration, and meditationoften assist practitioners in becoming aware of distractions,strengthening focus and mental clarity, and, ultimately, reducingdistractions. Through the niyamas (observances), yoga helps prac-titioners cultivate and strengthen other healthy attitudes such asmindfulness, generosity, equanimity, simplicity, calm, and joy.

There is also a yogic assumption that we are different from ourthoughts. The mind is filled with continually changing thoughts,images, internal commentary, and fantasies. Yogis believe that it ispossible to observe thoughts, if one cultivates the ability to dis-identify from them. Although practitioners often initially exper-ience their identity as a stream of thoughts, emotions, and urges,one eventually witnesses the stream of consciousness. Such obser-vation of and separation from the cognitive process naturallyleads to cognitive transformation.

Integrating approaches to cognitive changeThe combination of yoga and psychotherapeutic practices may beparticularly potent for clients who have more difficulty expressingthemselves and healing through traditional talk therapy. We arebeings with bodies and experiences that are sometimes difficult todescribe through language. Emotions and sensations may also beembodied in physical experiences. Clients may be blocked orstruggling with powerful physical reactions and memories, such asthose evoked by trauma, eating disorders, anxiety, or medicalconcerns. Physical, yoga-based work may assist specific thera-peutic goals, such as helping clients feel more comfortable in andaccepting of their bodies, as well as helping clients who haveproblematic reactions to their bodies and bodily functions.

Connection

PsychotherapyThe various psychotherapeutic orientations place different degreesof emphasis and importance on connection. At some level, how-ever, all psychotherapies recognize connection and the role thisplays in treatment.

All psychotherapeutic orientations acknowledge that we aresocial, that we are affected by our environment and culture, andthat we affect and are affected by others. All psychotherapies alsorecognize the central importance of the client-therapist relation-ship and its effect on treatment. In fact, the therapeutic relation-ship has been identified as a key, perhaps the key, factor in heal-ing. Therapists are trained to consider the interpersonal dynamicsof therapy. For example, therapists are often aware of the effect oftheir “expert” role and knowledge on clients.

Furthermore, most modern psychotherapeutic approaches acknow-ledge the link between mind and body, as well as the connectionbetween thoughts, emotions, and behavior. The degree and mannerin which this is addressed in therapy may vary greatly however.

YogaYoga, as a practice and experience of “union,” can be seen as aphilosophy and practice of connection, as an individual developshis/her sense of internal relatedness and relationship to other

people, other beings, the environment, and the universe. An indi-vidual develops a sense of connection to himself or herselfthrough yoga, becoming aware of the links between mind, body,breath, feelings, memories, experiences, health, and states of con-sciousness. In observing these internal connections, one developsgreater understanding of the self, others, and our relationships.Yoga not only promotes the experience that all beings all inter-related, but the ultimate experience of direct realization of theSelf, the reunion of the individual self (jiva) with the Absolute orpure consciousness (Brahman) (Sivananda Yoga Center, 2000).Yoga refers to “any method by which an individual human beingis brought into union with God, with reality, with the ground ofbeing, or with source” (Cope, 1999, p. 311). The techniques ofyoga aim to uncover and highlight these connections.

Conclusions

Psychotherapy and yoga practice can be seen as complementarypractices. Because both promote introspection and self-awarenessin different ways, the combination of both practices may enhance“inner work.” Both practices attempt to resolve splits (e.g., themind-body split) in order to promote a healthy, integrated self. Aswe have seen above, both approaches also promote behavioral,cognitive, and emotional change. Both aim to help clients moreclearly experience the present. Yoga and psychotherapy both focuson promoting a sense and experience of connection.

On the other hand, the differences between yoga and psycho-therapy also suggest that each approach has distinct assets andlimitations. Psychotherapy, for example, tends to encompass amore historical focus, using the past to reflect on the present,whereas yoga tends to focus more on the here-and-now of imme-diate experience. In certain cases, psychotherapy may advancecognitive change more quickly than yoga through its direct chal-lenge to long-standing, automatic, or unchallenged patterns ofthinking. On the other hand, reflection on the past may, from ayogic perspective, be viewed as leading to continued misidenti-fication with samskaras and illusions if it mistakenly encouragesdwelling on the past rather than more clearly seeing and exper-iencing reality. Furthermore, one could argue that yoga placesgreater emphasis than many psychotherapeutic orientations onboth intrapsychic connection and universal connection, and lessemphasis on interpersonal connection and improving contactbetween people.

Yoga practice is not a substitute for professional psychological andpsychiatric care when this is needed. Traditional psychothera-peutic means may first be needed to stabilize and alleviate someclients’ distress and/or self-destructive patterns. Nonetheless,given the complementary and distinct benefits of each approach,an integrated therapy, adapted to an individual’s needs, has thepotential to be uniquely effective. For some individuals, yogapractices may enhance the benefits of traditional psychologicalinterventions. Others may find that therapy deepens the yogapractice, promoting greater insight and integration. ▲

REFERENCES

Cope, S. (1999). Yoga and the quest for the true self. New York: Bantam Books.Prochaska, Redding, and Evers, 1997.Rama, S., Ballentine, R., & Ajaya, S. (1976). Yoga and psychotherapy: The evolutionof consciousness. Honesdale, PA: Himalayan International Institute of Yoga Scienceand Philosophy.Sivananda Yoga Center. (2000). The Sivananda companion to yoga. New York:Fireside.Winnicott, D. (1960). The theory of the parent-child relationship. InternationalJournal of Psychoanalysis, 41:585-595.