Public Involvement Requirements_Oke (1)

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Public involvement requirements for infrastructure planning in China

Chunyan Shan a,*, Tetsuo Yai b

a The College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, 94, Weijin Road, Tianjin 300071, Chinab Department of Built Environment, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259, Nagatsuda-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8502, Japan

Keywords:

Infrastructure planning

Public involvement

Transportation planning

Legislation

China

a b s t r a c t

The aim of this study is to provide an understanding of the legal requirements and implementation

environment of public involvement(PI) in infrastructureplanning processesat the nationaland local levelsin China. China’s transportation planning is examined to understand the infrastructure planning frame-

work stipulated in thelawsand regulations on city planning. Thecity planning ordinances of 27 provincial

capitals and 4 municipalities directly under the Central Government are investigated and their require-

mentsfor PI areclassied. Factors affecting PI requirements are considered including: geographic location,

population and level of economic development among others. The authors discuss the effect of the social

environment, geography, economic development level and legal requirements on PI implementation.

Legislative and regulatory improvements concerning planning procedures and PI are suggested, with the

advanced cities to be used as models.

2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Rapid population growth and spatial expansion of urban areas has

ledto a sharp increase in thedemand forurbaninfrastructure facilities

and services in Chinese megacities. The current urban infrastructure is

being utilized over and above their design capacity (Ahmed, Lu & Ye,

2008). At the same time, the taking of land and dismantling of exist-

ing buildings are among the major causes of social conicts in China

(Zhang, 2007). There is little public participation in the planning

and decision-making processes. Also, government accountability is

perceived to be low (Cheung & Leung, 2007).

Few academic studies have assessed public involvement (PI) in

infrastructure planning in China. Involving the public in the plan-

ning processes of China has only been attempted sporadically in

some localized areas (Lin & Liu, 2006). Current PI methods used are

based solely on formalities such as questionnaires, surveys, public

presentations and meetings. According to Arnstein’s theory e A

Ladder of Citizen Participation, the current PI activities of China areat the rung 3 “Informing” or rung 4 “Consultation” of “Tokenism”Levels where citizens may indeed hear and be heard, but under

these conditions they lack the power to ensure that their views

will be heeded by the powerful (Arnstein, 1969). In this paper, PI in

China refers to any performance measure or activity allowing the

public to know, consult, participate in and/or inuence the key

decisions of planning.

This study is a review of relevant laws, regulations, rules and

administrative documents at the national, provincial and municipal

levels in China. The purpose is to better understand the legal

requirements and implementation environment of PI in China’s

infrastructure planning processes.

Social background of PI in China

Seeking social stability

Since China opened itsdoors tothe globalcommunity 30 yearsago,

the economy and quality of life for the general population has been

stable. The Chinese government has been undergoing a gradual

process of developing and strengthening its accountability processes

(Cheung & Leung, 2007). Nevertheless,the prevailingpolitical attitudes

in China prioritize social order and stability over individual freedoms

(Chen, 2005).Many if not mostof cialsworry that public participation

in decision-making processes could leadto social disorderand conict.Many planners and decision makers still view the public participatory

processas littlemore than a formality. Thus, although thegovernment

in Chinais tryingto fashion thepolitical systemto reectand engender

an active citizenry, it is also designed to protect political and admin-

istrative processes from an overactive citizenry.

Effects of traditional culture

China’s feudal Confucian-basedtraditional cultureis a value system

based on social stratication with the royal authority at its apex. This

unquestioning obedience to power is worlds apart from the ideas of

* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ86 22 23501117.

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (C. Shan),

[email protected] (T. Yai).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

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doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2010.06.004

Habitat International 35 (2011) 158e166

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modern democratic governance (Wang, 2007). While modern

western democracy rests on the principle of majority rule, this prin-

ciple does not exist in China. The establishment of the People’s

Republic of China led to the implementation of a state-planned

economy, where the citizens have come to be dependent on the

government for everything. As a result, their participation in gover-

nance processes and their sense of ownership of these processes

graduallyfadedaway,and their interest and involvement deteriorated

( Jiang, 2007). Most Chinese people are conditioned to believe that

a strong centralized government is essential to protect their welfare

(Tang et al., 2008). They have developed an overriding tendency to

accept governmental decisions and avoid expressing or injecting their

own personal opinions. Although the latest institutional reforms have

introduced the general concept of public decision-making and public

engagement in some cities, the indisputably dominant role of the

government is still strongly embedded throughout the system.

The ideology of public interest in China

Public decision-making in China is designed to achieve the goal of

safeguarding people’s interests and places emphasis on collective

rights and interests over the rights of the individual (Cheung & Leung,

2007; Zhang, 2007). During the planned economy stage, the socialinterests of the population were unilaterally determined by the state.

Individuals were required to “sacrice” their personal interests for the

national/collective interests when the former came into conict with

the latter (Li, 2004; Tang, Wong, & Lau, 2008). In recent years, with

China’s amazing economic and social transformation, the public has

been clamoring for more information and clarication on what is

“public interest” (Han, 2004; Ren & Hu, 2004; Zhang, 2007). The

renewed attention to the denition of “public interest” increased

especially with the passage of the Property Law (NPCSC, 2007a),

which safeguards the fundamental interests of the people and

increasesprivate propertyrights. Howeverthe reality remains that the

concept of “public interest” can still be manipulated by powerful

stakeholders andusedas an excuse or pretext forjustifying theactions

or decisions of the government.

Transportation planning framework as stipulated in the laws

and regulations on city planning in China

The infrastructure planning framework is illustrated by taking

transportation planning as an example. The relevant provisions on

transportation planning in the laws and regulations on city plan-

ning are presented below to help clarify the framework.

Laws and regulations of city planning

The national State Council promulgated the City Planning Ordi-

nance in 1984, which was eventually abolished in 1990 after the City

Planning Act was approved by the National People’s Congress. The

City Planning Act is a major milestone in the history of city planning

since it is rst to present a comprehensive urban planning system.

The regulation entitled Regulation on the Formulation of City Planning

(RFCP) was enacted in 1991 and revised in 2005 by the Ministry of

Construction (MoC) e the agency responsible for urban construc-

tion at the national level. The RFCP is a departmental statute

specically designed to dene and implement the City Planning Act.

Eighteen years later, on January 1, 2008, the Urban and Rural Plan-

ning Act replaced the City Planning Act .

Transportation planning framework

There are no specic national laws regarding transportation

planning. Transportation planning is generally considered to be one

component of cityplanning. The city planning processincludesmaster

planning and detailed planning e which is further divided into

detailed development control planning and detailed construction

planning (NPCSC, 2007b, Article 2, section 2). District-level plans are

not compulsory and can be amended according to the local situation.

According to the Urban and Rural Planning Act , the content of master

planning shall address issues on city development such as layout,

functional zones, land use distribution, comprehensive transportation

system analysis, construction zoning, as well as sectoral planning

considerations (NPCSC, 2007b, Article 17, section 1). The correspond-

ing requirements for transportation planning content at each city

planning level are illustrated in Fig. 1. Detailed sectoral planning of

transportation shall be conducted in accordance with the city’s master

plan. In addition, the Design Criterion on Urban Road Transportation

Planning (GB 50220-95), enacted by the MoC in 1995, stipulates that

urban road transportationplanning shall be based on thecity’s master

plan in such a way as to meet the transportation needs of the pop-

ulation e taking into account land use designations and geographic

layout e and to obtain maximum utilization of urban road trans-

portation as it corresponds to land development (MoC of the PRC.

1995. Article 1.0.4). In these laws and regulations, the provisions

relating to transportation planning are limited to technical issues.

Transportation planning is conducted by most cities followingconventional practice since there are no specic regulations and

guidelines for planning procedures.

PI requirements in the laws and regulations on city planning

Requirements for PI at the national level

Existing requirements for PI in national laws and regulations on

infrastructure planning are quite limited. The 1990 City Planning Act

only stipulates that urban plans shall be announced to the public

sometime after they are approved (NPCSC, 1989). The 1991 RFCP

mentions that the opinions of related administrative bodies and

citizens shall be widely solicited, but there is no implementation

procedure to follow. It has been gradually realized over the pastdecade that public involvement should be made mandatory and

ensured by law. The RFCP was revised in 2005 and provisions

concerning PI were added specically stating that before submit-

ting the city master plan for approval, the city government shall

adequately solicit public opinions by implementing effective

measures in accordance with the law (Moc of the PRC, 2005). The

new law 2008 Urban and Rural Planning Act prescribed the stage,

format and time span for PI as illustrated in Table 1.

Requirements for PI at the municipal level

There are 27 provinces and 4 municipalities directly under the

Central Government in China. Since there are many cities with

varying levels of development in each province, the city planningordinances of the 27 provincial capitals and the 4 municipalities

were chosen. The provincial capitals are meant to be the political

center of each province and responsible for maintaining territorial

integrity and social stability within its borders (Lin, 2002). Most of

these capitals are large or extra large cities and reect the most

advanced forces and levels of development of the province in

general. Because any municipal ordinance should be enacted in

accordance with provincial ordinances, the authors initially

reviewed provincial ordinances on city planning to better under-

stand background circumstances (Standing Committee of the

People’s Congress (SCPC) of Anhui Province, 2004; SCPC of Fujian

Province, 1995; SCPC of Gansu Province, 1997; SCPC of

Guangdong Province, 1997; SCPC of Guangdong Province, 2004;

SCPC of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, 1997; SCPC of

C. Shan, T. Yai / Habitat International 35 (2011) 158e166 159


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Guizhou Province, 1991; SCPC of Hainan Province, 2004; SCPC of

Hebei Province, 2000; SCPC of Heilongjiang Province, 2000; SCPC

of Henan Province, 2005; SCPC of Hubei Province, 1998; SCPC of

Hunan Province, 1997; SCPC of Jiangsu Province, 2004; SCPC of

Jiangxi Province, 1992; SCPC of Jilin Province, 2001; SCPC of

Liaoning Province, 2004; SCPC of Inner Mongolia Autonomous

Region, 2002; SCPC of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, 1994;

SCPC of Qinghai Province, 2001; SCPC of Shaanxi Province, 1991;

SCPC of Shandong Province, 1991; SCPC of Shanxi Province, 1997;

SCPC of Sichuan Province, 1995; SCPC of Xinjiang Uygur

Table 1

Provisions for PI in the laws and regulations on city planning at the national level.

City Planning Act (1990)

Article 28: City plans shall be publicly announced by the People ’s government of the city after they have been approved.

Urban and Rural Planning Act (2008)

Article 26: Before submitting urban and rural plans for examination and approval, the responsible government agency shall announce the draft plan according to law,

and solicit opinions from experts and the public by means of that debate, hearings and other formats. The announcement period shall not be less than 30 days.

Regulation on the Formulation of City Planning (2005 Amendment)

Article 16: Before submitting the city master plan for examination and approval, the People ’s Government of the city shall solicit public opinions

adequately by taking effective measures according to the laws.

In the formulation of city detailed plans, the opinions of the general public and members of organizations affected by the plan shall be heard

adequately through means such as open house, consultation and so on. The results of all public opinion considerations processes shall be announced.

Fig.1. Transportation planning framework as stipulated in the Regulation on the Formulation of City Planning. *32.4 means the content is stipulated in the section 4, article 32 of the

Regulation on the Formulation of City Planning .



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Autonomous Region, 2004; SCPC of Xizang Autonomous Region,

1992; SCPC of Yunnan Province, 1997; SCPC of Zhejiang Province,

1997); then the municipal ordinances of the capitals were investi-gated. The ordinances reviewed refer to those promulgated by the

Provincial/Municipal People’s Congresses or their Standing

Committees, which are the local legislative organs.

The requirements for PI of the 27 provincial capitals and 4

municipalities are classied and divided into three categories

(Table 2). Level 1 indicates that there is no public opinion

requirement during the city planning process except that the plan

shall be publicly published after approval. Level 2 refers to those

cities having stipulations regarding the solicitation of public opin-

ions but with no communication guidelines. This includes the cities

of Beijing, Chengdu, Chongqing, Changchun, Shenyang, Urumqi,

Zhengzhou, Jinan, Nanjing, Lhasa and Hangzhou. The cities in Level

3 are those that not only require the solicitation of public opinions,

but also clearly describe communication strategies in the

provisions. They are Shanghai, Tianjin, Wuhan, Changsha, Nan-

chang, Fuzhou, Haikou and Guangzhou (Fig. 2).

In general, PI practice in Level 3 cities are more advanced. InGuangzhou, PI activities were conducted from November 2008 to

January 2009 in developing the Renewal Plan for South Square

Area of Haizhu Bridge. The PI process organized by the government

included preparation of materials, publicity and exhibition, opinion

collection, classication of feedback, and plan modication. Pub-

lished information also concerned the planning process in addition

to initial draft plans. Many PI tools are utilized to inform the public

and solicit opinions. These include: putting up posters, distributing

leaets and pamphlets, advertising in newspaper and television,

organizing community forumsand online fora and so on (Zhou& Qi,

2008). Citizens are able to access the planning process through the

following means: getting pamphlets and feedback cards from local

planning bureau and communities; visiting the website of the local

planning bureau; and sending letters and emails.

Table 2

Classication requirements for PI in municipal ordinances on city planning of provincial capitals.

Level 1: There is no requirement for soliciting public opinion except that plans be published after approval.

Shijiazhuang (1997), Taiyuan (2003), Hohhot (1997), Harbin (2004), Nanjing (2004), Hefei (2007), Guiyang (2004), Kunming (2005), Xi ’an (2005),

Lanzhou (2002), Xining (1998), Yinchuan (1997).

Level 2: There is a requirement for soliciting public opinion but there are no communication strategies prescribed.

Beijing (1992): Article 17 In the formulation of urban plans, the relevant departments shall be involved and public opinion shall be solicited widely.

Chengdu (1990), Sichuan Province (1995) a : Article 13 In the formulation of urban plans, the people ’s governments of cities shall solicit opinion

widely and compare and demonstrate the multiple alternatives suggested.

Shenyang (1991): Article 14 In the formulation of urban plans, the opinions of relevant departments and the public shall be solicited widely,

and multiple alternatives presented shall be compared and demonstrated.

Changchun (2004), Jilin Province (2001)a: Article 12 In the formulation of the master plan and detailed plans, the opinions of relevant organs,

organizations and citizens shall be solicited widely.

Hangzhou (2002), Zhejiang (1997)a: Article 10 In the formulation of urban plans, comparison of multiple alternatives as well as economic and technical evaluations

shall be conducted while the opinions of relevant governmental departments, relevant experts and local residents shall be solicited.

Jinan (2001), Province (1991)a: Article 12 In the formulation of urban plans, the opinions of the public and relevant departments shall be solicited widely, comparison of

multiple alternatives and economic and technical evaluations shall be conducted.

Zhengzhou (2004): Article 19 In the formulation of urban master plan, district plans, important detailed plans and street landscape plans of major artery,

the draft plans shall be published, and the opinions of all social organizations and citizens shall be solicited in public.

Nanning (2005), Guangxi (1997)a: In the formulation of urban plans, the determinate principles advocated by the City Planning Act shall be followed, the opinions of

relevant departments and the public shall be solicited widely, comparison of multiple alternatives as well as economic and technical evaluations shall be conducted,

and national traditions and local features shall be retained.

Chongqing (2000): Article 18 In the formulation of urban plans, the opinions of experts, citizens and relevant organizations shall be solicited, and comparison

of multiple alternatives as well as technical and economic evaluations shall be conducted.

Lhasa city (2001), Xizang (1992)a: Article 13 In the formulation of town plans, the comparison of multiple alternatives as well as technical and economic

evaluations shall be conducted, and public opinions shall be solicited by using appropriate methods.

Urumqi (2003): Article 6 With regard to urban planning, urban design and important construction project design plans, an election system, a procedurefor expert review and mechanisms for public involvement shall be implemented.

Level 3: There is a requirement for soliciting public opinions and communication strategies are specied.

Tianjin (2006): Article 21 In the formulation and adjustment of every type of urban plan, public opinion shall be solicited through publication, consultation,

and open houses etc. Public opinion must be considered and incorporated in the plan.

Shanghai City (2003): Article 26 In the formulation of plans, public opinion shall be solicited. The draft detailed development control plan shall be published.

Public meetings, discussion meetings, public hearings etc may be held to solicit public opinion.

Fuzhou (1999): Article 12 Urbandistrictplans, detailedplans and sectoralplans shallbe formulated in accordance withthe following requirements:.Public opinion shall

be solicitedwidely;explanations and demonstrations shall be conducted by organizing the relevant departments and experts;and comparison of multiplealternatives on

economic, technical and environmental impacts shall be conducted. Before being nalized, signicant urban designs and landscape plans shall be published and public

opinion shall be solicited through open houses, public hearings etc.

Nanchang (2001): Article 13 In the formulation of urban plans, public opinion shall be solicited widely, demonstrations shall be conducted by organizing relevant

departments and experts, and comparison of multiple alternatives on economic, technical and environmental impacts shall be conducted. With respect to signi cant

urban designs and landscape plans, public bidding shall be conducted, the plans shall be published and public opinion shall be solicited through open houses,

public hearings etc.

Wuhan (2006): Article 20 Before submitting master plans, district plans, detailed control plans, statutory plans and sectoral plans for approval, the body organizing the

plan formulation shall present the draft plan to the society and the time duration for presentation shall not be less than 20 days, discussion meetings, demonstration

meetings, public hearings etc shall be held for soliciting public opinion.Changsha (2006): Article 6 The formulation, adjustment and implementation of urban plans shall be presented to the society and public hearings shall be held in

accordance with the laws.

Article 9: In the formulation of urban plans, public and democratic decision-making processes shall be used, including the opportunity for public bidding,

a system of expert review, as well as a system for plan-publishing.

Guangzhou City, 1996, Guangdong (1997)a: Article 12 In the formulation of urban plans, investigations and studies must be conducted, the opinions of relevant

departments, experts, scholars and citizens shall be solicited widely, comparison of multiple alternatives, as well as economic and technical demonstrations shall be

conducted, and basic data regarding reconnaissance, measurement and other indispensable relevant aspects shall be included.

Haikou (2004): Article 7 When organizing the denite formulation of urban master plans, the city planning department shall listen to the opinions from relevant work

units located in the city as well as ordinary citizens through every effective channel available.

a This level is classied based on the provincial ordinance and the article is quoted fromthe provincial ordinance (because the requirementlevel of the municipal ordinance

for PI is lower than the provincial ordinance). () The year in which the ordinance was last revised.



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Analysis of factor in uencing PI requirements

The local requirements for PI are unequal in China. Among the31 cities investigated, the percentage having Level 1, Level 2 and

Level 3 PI requirements are 39%, 35% and 26%, respectively. What

factors inuence local requirements? Conducting impact analyses

of local conditions would be useful for exploring suitable imple-

mentation methods of PI at the local level.

(a) Geographical distribution

Five of the 8 cities with Level 3 requirements are located in the

eastern (coastal) region of China, including Tianjin, Shanghai,

Fuzhou, Guangzhou and Haikou. Half of those having Level 1

requirements lie in the western region of China (Fig. 2, Table 3).

The PI requirement levels are signicantly different between the

eastern (coastal) and western (far inland) regions (p< 0.05).

Furthermore, there are other coastal cities that have more

extensive PI requirements than their provincial capitals, such

as Shenzhen and Zhuhai in Guangdong province, Xiamen inFujian province and Qingdao in Shandong province (SCPC of

Shenzhen City,1998; SCPC of Zhuhai City, 2006; SCPC of Xiamen

City, 2005; SCPC of Qingdao City, 2004). The degree of PI

requirement tends to decrease across regions from east to west.

(b) City size

It has also been found that in general, larger cities have more PI

requirements (Table 4, Fig. 3). All of the megacities with urban

(nonagricultural) population more than 5 million require PI at

Level 2 or Level 3, including Beijing, Chongqing, Chengdu, Tianjin,

Shanghai, Wuhan and Guangzhou. In contrast, most medium-

sized cities withurban population between 800,000 and 2 million

do not have any provisions for PI. The PI requirement levels of

megacities are signicantly different from large cities andmedium cities (p< 0.05).

(c) Economic development levels

Current literature proposes that levels of PI implementation are

strongly correlated to local economic development levels,

Fig. 2. Classication of PI requirements in the planning processes of 27 provincial capitals and 4 municipalities. Base map is produced by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, http://

www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/china_pol96.jpg.

Table 3

Geographic distribution of 27 provincial capitals and 4 municipalities along with

their PI requirement levels.

Location Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Total

Eastern (costal) 2 5 5 12

Central (inland) 4 2 3 9

Western (far inland) 6 4 0 10

Total 12 11 8 31

Notes: of cial designations of these three macro-regions used. The eastern region

includes nine provinces (Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Shandong,

Hebei,Liaoning and Hainan) andthreemunicipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, andShanghai).

The central region contains nine provinces: Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia,

Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi and Anhui. The western region includes nine

provinces (Shaanxi, Sichuan, Gansu, Qinghai,Xinjiang,Ningxia, Guizhou, Yunnan and

Tibet) and one municipality (Chongqing).

Table 4

Population size of 27 provincial capitals and 4 municipalities (2007).

Population size Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Total

Medium (5 million) 0 3 4 7

Total 12 10 8 31


http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/china_pol96.jpghttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/china_pol96.jpghttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/china_pol96.jpghttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/china_pol96.jpg


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with public participation being more robust in developed

regions ((Min, Ding, & Zheng, 2002). The results of the study

support this hypothesis. The mean Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) per capita for each PI level group is ranked as Level

3> Level 2> Level 1 (Fig. 4). The GDP per capita is signicantly

different between groups at Level 1 and Level 3 (p < 0.05). This

indicates that developed cities tend to put greater emphasis on

accountability and transparency in public affairs. Rapid

economic development and advances in technology have also

been critical in the progressive changes in governance regimes

and ideology.

(d) Time of ordinance revision

Of those areas grouped in PI requirement Level 3, 6 cities have

revised their ordinances since 2003. However, 8 cities have

not revised related ordinances since the beginning of 2000.

Therefore, the results shown in Table 1 may not accurately

represent the reality of PI implementation in planning processes

to some degree since there have been signicant changes in city

planning systems in the recent years. Since the new Urban and

Rural Planning Act was implemented in January 2008, more

detailed requirements for PI can be expected at local levels in

the coming years.

Other relevant local requirements

In accordance with laws and regulations at the national and

provincial levels, follow-up administrative regulations and docu-

ments were released by provincial governments and administra-

tions to notify the public of the planning processes. Most provinces

have recently issued circulars or directives on public notication and

accessibility of city planning processes. Master planning, district

planning and detailed planning, as well as sectoral planning are

required to be published publicly before and after the approval of

planning decisions. Table 5 lists the requirements of some provinces

on the time duration for public presentation for each level of

planning (MoC of Anhui Province, 2007; MoC of Guangxi Zhuang

Autonomous Region, 2007; MoC of Guizhou Province, 2006; MoCof Heilongjiang Province, 2002; MoC of Henan Province, 2003;

MoC of Hunan Province, 2006; MoC of Jiangsu Province, 2003;

MoC of Jiangxi Province, 2004; MoC of Shanxi Province, 2006;

MoC of Autonomous Region, 2006). As shown as Fig. 5, regions

such as Anhui, Hunan, Guangxi, Beijing and Shanghai stipulate that

public presentation procedures of the draft plan and responses to

public opinion must be included before being granted approval

(Infrastructure Planning Department of Beijing Planning Committee

& Transportation Research Center of Beijing University of

Technology, 2003; MoC of Anhui Province, 2007; MoC of Guangxi

Zhuang Autonomous Region, 2007; MoC of Hunan Province, 2006;

Shanghai Urban Planning Management Bureau, 2006). In general,

the sequence of procedures that is required proceeds as follows:

publication of the draft plan; solicitation of public opinions;

summarization of public opinions; presentation of the opinions

adoption proposals; and then revision of the plan accordingly. Only

when the process is complete will government responses to the

public’s opinions be revealed.

Discussion

Challenge of social stability

The Chinese government is cautious of public participation

because it seeks above all social stability and wants to protect

administrative processes from an overactive citizenry. However, the

Fig. 3. Urban (nonagricultural) population of 27 provincial capitals and 4 municipalities (2007). Source: China City Statistical Yearbook 2008 (China Statistical Bureau, 2009). Data of

Jinan is from Shandong Statistical Yearbook 20 08 ( Shandong Provincial Bureau of Statistics, 2008).

Fig. 4. Per capita GDP of 27 provincial capitals and 4 municipalities (2007). Source: China City Statistical Yearbook 2008.



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existing lack of opportunities to involve citizens into the planning

process has also resulted in conicts between citizens and

governments, endangering the social order. For example, in January

2008 Shanghai citizens marched to protest the Maglev railroadextension proposal, asking the government to provide suf cient

information and opportunities for public input (Guangming

Daily Newspaper Group, 2008). In another demonstration in the

seaport city of Xiamen in 2007, thousands of citizens tried to block

a huge chemical plant slated for construction in a city suburb

(Southern Weekend, 2008). As a result of increasing public conicts

over infrastructure construction and city development, local

governments and of cials are being forced to rethink the role of PI

for maintaining social order. They are attempting to develop a new

mode of ruling that combines administrative order with a public-

participation mechanism.

Impact of geography and economic development

on traditional value

The obvious disparity of PI requirement levels between the

eastern and western regions can be attributed to many factors such

as provincial discrepancies in implementing reforms and economic

policy that favorsthe eastern region. Market reforms and relaxation

of state control over local development since the late 1970s

have allowed a large number of cities to ourish as a result of their

advantageous geographical conditions. As a consequence, all of

the special economic zones, open coastal cities, and open economic

regions are located on the southern and eastern coasts (Sun &

Dutta, 1997). Advantageous geographic conditions and economic

policies of the eastern region have brought progressive ideas to

both of cials and citizens.

In the “state-planned economy”

period of China, citizens wereused to being dependent on the government and used to sacricing

their individual interests for the collective interests. In the transition

toward a socialist market economy, the decentralization of decision-

making has given local government’s greater freedom and incentive

to reform regimes for meeting social and public needs. Private

property rights and individual interests are becoming more essential

in daily life and people are becoming more aware of the issues

affecting their lives. The rise of the middle class, including private

businessmen, legal scholars and an economic elite, has heightened

the demand for public participation in the government’s policy and

decision-making processes. Citizens in China want to participate in

governance because they want to protect their primary lawful rights

and interests from ill administrative decision-making, operation and

performance.

Lack of legal and administrative back-up

The insuf ciencyof legislation for PI and the absence of statutory

planning procedures are major obstacles in the public promotion of infrastructure planning processes in China. Although requirements

for PI in planning processes are increasing at both the national and

local levels, PI in China is still in its infancy today. According to the

laws on city planning, the stage for conducting PI during the plan-

ning process in China can be classied as: Stage A e announcement

of planning decisions after their approval, Stage B e publication of

draft plan beforenal approval (Fig. 5). It can be saidthat, in general,

public opinion has little practical inuence on infrastructure plan-

making processes (Shan & Yai, 2008). At Stage A, the public is only

informed about planning decisions after the fact. At Stage B, the

public is provided with opportunities to comment on draft plansthat

have already been formed and therefore dif cult to be signicantly

changed. Nevertheless, even for PI practiced at Stage B, the available

information for planning is extremely limited and far frombeing accurate or precise. For example, most cities publish road

construction planning maps without accompanying information

that would enable the ordinary citizen to understand the gure.

Communication channels such as public hearings and websites are

ineffective in bridging the huge communication gap that exists

between the government and its citizens.Questionnaires, interviews

and surveys conducted in the review processes of planning are

generally conducted in small-sized sample groups and only for some

specially selected questions (He & Zao, 1999).

Therefore, in order to implement PI effectively in practice,

guidelines for participatory planning processes (which present PI

Table 5

Time duration for public presentation of planning processes in selected provinces of China (unit: day).

Province Shanxi Heilongjiang Jiangsu Anhui Jiangxi Henan Hunan Guangxi Guizhou Xinjiang

Year circular released 2006 2002 2005 2007 2004 2003 2006 2007 2006 2006

A. Public notication of the draft plan before submission for approval

Master planning 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 30

District planning 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 30

Sectoral planning 15 15 15 10 10 15 15 10 30

DDCPa 15 15 15 15 15 10 15 15 15 30DCPb for important plots 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 10 30

B. Public notication of the plan after approval

Master planning 15 60 Long term Long term 60 60 30 Long term

District planning 15 60 Long term Long term 60 60 30 Long term

Sectoral planning 15 60 10 10 60 60 15 Long term

DDCP 15 30 10 30 30 30 Long term

DCP for important plots 10 30 10 10 30 30 15 Long term

a DDCP: detailed development control planning.b DCP: detailed construction planning.

Planning Process

Upper Level Plans

Draft Plan

Stage B

Final Plan

Stage A

Presentation process of selected provinces and cities*:

1) Publication of the draft plan;

2) Solicitation of public opinions;

3) Summarization of public opinions;

4) Presentation of opinions adoption proposal;

5) Revision of the draft plan.

* Summarized from the administrative regulations of Anhui province, Hunan province, Guangxi province, Beijing

City and Shanghai City.

Submission for Approval

Fig. 5. Presentation processes of selected provinces and cities in China. *Summarized

from the administrative regulations of Anhui province, Hunan province, Guangxi

province, Beijing City and Shanghai City.



8/9

procedures and illustrate techniques in detail) should be created

and provided by government agencies to guide of cials in con-

ducting PI. In the U.S. Federal law derived from the National Envi-

ronmental Policy Act (NEPA), the Intermodal Surface Transportation

Ef cient Act (ISTEA) and the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st

Century (TEA-21) mandates opportunity for PI in state-level trans-

portation planning (Stich & Eagle, 2005). States and local trans-

portation planning agencies constructed citizen participation plans

and planning procedures complying with these requirements. PI is

carried out through local transportation planning processes based

on agency guidelines (Kramer, 2008). “To ensure that all state and

federal guidelines are adhered to and that all guidelines for public

participation are met” is one of the key roles for the of cials to

implement PI (Shan, Yai, & Sakai, 2007). In Japan, the Road Bureau of

the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport promulgated the

Guideline for Citizen Participatory Road Planning Process at the

Conceptual Stage to implement PI in road planning process (Road

Bureau, 2005). One of the typical planning examples which imple-

ment PI according to the guideline is the project of Yokohama

North-west Corridor. After the conduct of the PI, the route of the

project was changed (Shan et al., 2007).

The general public may have more legal wherewithal to defend

their interests if PI is stipulated in the laws in China. Increasingnumbers of lawsuit will bring the citizens’ interest and needs to the

government’s attention. For example, lawsuit by citizens seeking to

protect their homes or rights in cases involving city construction

projects has been increasing since the Property Law was put into

effect in 2007. In just the rst day the Governmental Information

Openness Regulation took effect in 2008, 5 citizens in Hunan

province took the local government to court for denying them

access to legally-available government information (Dazhong News

Group, 2008). These events indicate that the legal consciousness of

the general public is improving, forcing the government to be more

careful of commitments they enter into. Thus, for PI to be effectively

implemented, legal and administrative support is imperative.

As this study indicates, local PI requirements strongly correlate

with geographic location and economic development level. Thus,localized areas in the advanced cities of eastern and southern China

may be used as models in advancing PI. Successful procedures and

strategies can be replicated to a wider range of regions.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank Christopher Langer for his

suggestions and assistance in English editing.

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