Qualitative Approaches

8/6/2019 Qualitative Approaches

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1. What Is Research

Research, a somewhat intimidating term for some, is simply the process of finding the

solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.Managers in organizations constantly engage themselves in studying and analyzing issues

and hence are involved in some form of research activity as they make decisions at theworkplace.

2. Definition of Research

Business research can be defined as an organized, systematic, data based, critical,

objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with

the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.

3. General Characteristics of Research

In his book entitled Fundamentals of Educational Research, Gary Anderson has outlinedten characteristics that can be used to further understand what the field of educational

research entails.

� Educational research attempts to solve a problem.

� Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or usingexisting data for a new purpose.

� Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

� Research demands accurate observation and description.

� Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.

� Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will

help in understanding, prediction and/or control.

� Research requires expertise²familiarity with the field; competence in methodology;technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.

� Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.

� Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.



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4. Steps involved in a research process:

The steps involved in most research endeavors are

Step 1: Problem Definition

Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Research Design Formulation

Step 4: Field Work or Data Collection:

Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis:

Step 6: Report Preparation and Presentation:

5. The scientific research process:

Any research involves several chronological steps, but that does not mean each step must

be completed before the next step is undertaken. Furthermore, the process of research is

dynamic and the process may change as the research progresses.

5.1. Broad problem area:

The broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for

research and problem solving. The specific issues that need to be researched within the

broad problem area pertains to

1. Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved*

2. Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization

3. A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic

researcher to understand certain phenomenon

5.2. Problem Definition:

Problem definition or problem statement is a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the

question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.



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Managers' needs for information are the primary source of problem definition and the

research question. Managers need information to make educated decisions arising from

unanticipated as well as planned changes. As such, managers must select between

different alternatives and thus require information about the organization and its

environment. The question to be answered or the problem to be solved must first be

clearly defined. Questions to be answered could be very specific or extremely broad.

There might be hypotheses that could be tested scientifically. Once the questions to be

answered are clearly defined then the value of the research must be assessed.

5.3. The research proposal:

Research endeavors require a proposal that explains the problem to be address and the

procedure by which the questions will be answered. The researcher's proposal tells the

managers what they should expect from the research. It is a contract between the

managers and the researcher.

The different phases and task steps of the research process, he or she can develop a solid

research proposal. There are nine specific content sections suggested for inclusion: (1)

purpose of the proposed research project, (2) type of study, (3) definition of the target

population and sample size, (4) sample design, technique, and data collection method; (5)

specific research instruments; (6) potential managerial benefits of the proposed study; (7)

proposed cost structure for the total project; (8) profile of the researcher and company;

and (9) optional dummy tables of the projected results.

5.4. Theoretical framework:

A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but notnecessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research,

determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for.

The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the variables that aredeemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. From the

theoretical framework, testable hypothesis can be developed to examine whether thetheory formulated is valid or not.



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5.4.1. Types of variables:

Four main types of variables are

i. Independent variable

ii. Dependent variableiii. Moderating variable

iv. Intervening variable

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected duringthe experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent variable. It is called

dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. In a scientific experiment,you cannot have a dependent variable without an independent variable.

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated

by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured.

For example concerning nutrition, the independent variable of daily vitamin C intake(how much vitamin C one consumes) can influence the dependent variable of life

expectancy (the average age one attains). Over some period of time, scientists willcontrol the vitamin C intake in a substantial group of people. One part of the group will

be given a daily high dose of vitamin C, and the remainder will be given a placebo pill(so that they are unaware of not belonging to the first group) without vitamin C. The

scientists will investigate if there is any statistically significant difference in the life spanof the people who took the high dose and those who took the placebo (no dose). The goal

is to see if the independent variable of high vitamin C dosage has a correlation with thedependent variable of people's life span. The designation independent/dependent is clear

in this case, because if a correlation is found, it cannot be that life span has influencedvitamin C intake, but an influence in the other direction is possible.

5.4.2. Moderating Variables:

Moderating variables are the variables which strongly effect on relationship of

independent-variables and dependent-variables i.e. existence of a moderating variabletransforms the original relationship between dependent and independent variable.

For example, the relationship between quality of a library facilities ³X´ and performance

of the students ³Y´ has been observed a strong one. Generally this relationship is

supposed to be true; it is on the other hand dependent on the interest and tendency of thestudents. This means that improved performance in the studies will be showed by thosestudents who have interest and tendency to use library.

In the above relationship moderating variable is interest and tendency, that is the one who

moderates the strength of the relationship between X and Y.



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5.4.3. Intervening variable

A variable, used in the process of explaining an observed relationship between an

independent and dependent variable(s), such that X T Y ²where T is the interveningvariable.

Example:

The statistical association between income and longevity needs to be explained because just having money does not make one live longer. Other variables intervene between

money and long life. People with high incomes tend to have better medical care thanthose with low incomes. Medical care is an intervening variable. It mediates the relation

between income and longevity.

5.5. Hypothesis Development:

A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately areasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set

of phenomena.

It is a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the

form of a testable statement.

AIM: To test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true

5.5.1. Statements of hypothesis:

Propositions:

Employees who are healthier will take sick leaves less frequently

IF_ THEN STATEMENT

IF employees are more healthy THAN they will take sick leave less frequently.

5.5.2. Directional & Non directional Hypothesis:

Directional: using ³positive´, ³negative´, ³more than´, etc.

e.g.; the greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of theemployees

Non _Directional: Offer no indication of the direction of the relationship

e.g.; there is a relationship between age and job satisfaction



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5.5.3. Null and alternate hypothesis:

1. A proposition that states a definite, exact relationship between two variables

It is a statement that no difference exists between the parameter (population

characteristics) and the statistics (a limited number representative of the total population) being compared to it.

2. Selected for possible acceptance/ rejection during the testing phase

3. Usually represented by the symbol

Example:

Hypothesis: Motivational level of the men and women is same

Could be represented as H: Mo= M

5.5.4. Alternate Hypothesis:

1. Opposition of the Null hypothesis i.e. indicates a definite difference in the

relationship between variables.2. May take several forms, depending on the objective of the researcher e.g. Non

Directional& Directional

3. Represented by the symbol: HA

4. IF Hypothesis is:

³Women are more motivated than men´

It could be represented by

H: M<MA

5.6. Scientific Research Design:

Once the proposal is approved, the researcher has a foundation for development

of the research design. The plan for conducting the research is the research design.

There are two general forms of research design, namely :



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a.non-experimental (ex-post-facto) and

b.experimental.

5.6.1. a.Non-experimental (ex-post-facto)

In a non-experimental design, the researcher does not control or alter any of the

independent variables. The researcher merely studies existing situations, variables,

and the interrelation among variables and reports the results of his or her findings.

The two major non-experimental designs are

field studies and

surveys.

F

ield studies:F

ield studies combine literature review and possibly analysis of somecase studies.A literature review means that a researcher identifies previous writings

and research on a topic, summarizes the current knowledge on the topic, and

assesses the value of that prior research on the current problem.

Surveys: On the other hand, surveys deal with the formulation of a questionnaire

(survey instrument) by which one can measure the magnitude of the desired

variables as well as the interrelation among the variables. Non-experimental designs

are primarily exploratory in nature and provide descriptive measures and can also

be used for predictive purposes.

5.6.2. b.Experimental

There are two broad categories of experimental designs:

field and

laboratory.

In both field experiments and laboratory experiments, the researcher controls and may

alter and introduce some variables in order to determine the effect of a given variable.

Field experiments are done in a natural setting, whereas laboratory experiments are

undertaken in a simulated setting.



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5.6.3. Research methods:

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes threemain forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may beobscure.):

y Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems

y Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problemy Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical

evidence

Research can also fall into two distinct types:

y Primary research (collection of data that does not yet exist)

y Secondary research (summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research)

In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the

research:

y Qualitative research(understanding of human behavior and the reasons thatgovern such behavior)

y Quantitative research(systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships)

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research. Thehourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required

information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), thenexpands the research in the form of discussion and results.

5.7. Data Collection:

Researchers and decision makers must understand that raw data, data structures, andinformation are different constructs. Raw data consist of the responses obtained by either

questioning or observing people or physical phenomena. Data structures are created bysubmitting the raw data to some type of analysis procedure. In turn, information is

created only when either the researcher or decision maker narratively interprets datastructures.

Data collection is the process of gathering the specific information used to answer theresearch questions. There are a number of issues associated with data collection,

including the use of

a) primary and secondary data b) survey design

c) sampling



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d) survey administratione) Increasing response rates.

5.7.1. a.Primary Data and Secondary Data:

Data can be primary or secondary, and whether one or both are used, and which is used,depends largely on the research question and the availability of these data sources.

5.7.1.1. Primary data is that which is collected by the researcher to address the current

research question. Types of primary data include subject demographics, lifestylecharacteristics, attitudes, knowledge, intentions, motivations, and behavior. Demographic

data includes statistics regarding populations, such as age, sex, income, level of education, and so forth. Primary data can be collected in the field or the laboratory

through communication and observation.

5.7.1.2. Secondary data refer to data gathered by others or from other studies. Secondary

data is generally less costly and less time consuming than gathering primary data,typically is accumulated before primary data is gathered. An example of secondary datais if a company uses data from the U.S. Census or data collected for another

organizational activity. While secondary data can be used for background informationabout specific research, it may also answer some specific research questions.

5.7.2. b.Survey design:

Survey design is of major importance, because if a survey is poorly designed, it will not

provide the researchers with the data that addresses the research question. Surveyquestions, called items, must be properly chosen to in order to elicit appropriate

respondent answers. The steps involved include determining the information that will besought, the type of questionnaire, the method of administration, the content of individual

questions, the form of response to each question, the wording of each question, thesequence of questions, the physical characteristics of the questionnaire, and, finally, pre-

testing the questionnaire.

5.7.3. c.Sample:

When selecting individuals for a sample, either a probability approach or a

nonprobability approach can be used.

Probability samples are those where each element of the population has a known probability of being selected. A random sample, for example, is the case where each

element has the same probability of being selected.

Nonprobability samples: There are some specific types of nonprobability samples:

i. convenience samples

ii. judgment samples



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iii. quota samples

Convenience samples are chosen at the convenience of the researcher. For example, aresearcher might distribute a survey to all customers who enter one retail store in a one-

week period to determine their level of customer satisfaction with the company's

products.T

his sample is rather easy to select, but it may not represent the full range of customers who have used that product.

In a judgment sample, individuals are selected by the researcher because they are believed to represent the population under study.

Quota samples attempt to make the sample representative of the population under studywhere quotas are set for specific groups of people, which are generally selected on the

basis of demographic characteristics.

5.7.4. d.Survey Administration:

After the survey has been designed and its reliability and validity assessed, the company

must decide the administration method that it will use. Each administration method hasits own advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, information control, sampling

control, and administrative control. Administrative control refers to factors affecting theefficiency of the survey, including timing, quality control, and standardization.

5.7.5. e.Increasing response rates:

One of the main concerns of survey research is the response rate, or the number of people

who are asked to complete a survey who actually do. Nonresponse error is a source of

bias because of the failure to get answers from some of the sample. "Not-at-homes" plague the telephone survey and uncooperative respondents affect telephone, mail,Internet, and personal interview surveys.

5.8. Data Analysis:

Research provides data, and it is the task of the researcher to transform the collected datainto useful information for management. The first step in data analysis is preparing the

data by editing it for several factors, including:

y completeness²checking for any omissions

y legibility²making sure that handwriting is understandable so that answers will becoded correctly

y comprehensibility²making sure the answer is understandabley consistency²checking for consistent answers from the respondent

y uniformity²checking to see that responses are recorded in the same manner



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Data analysis could be as simple as reporting descriptive statistics such as averages,measures of variability, and percentages, or if needed, advance statistical techniques

could be applied.

5.9. Deduction:

Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of the

results of the data analysis. For instance, if it was found from the data analysis thatincreasing the stocks was positively correlated to (increased) customer satisfaction, then

one can deduce that if customer satisfaction is to be increased, the shelves have to be better stocked. Based on these deductions, the researcher would make recommendations

on how the ³customer dissatisfaction: problem could be solved.

5.10.Research report:

The entire project should be documented in a written report which addresses the specific

research questions identified, describes the approach, the research design, data collection,and a data analysis procedure adopted, and presents the results and the major findings.The findings should be presented in a comprehensible format.

The research report can be as simple as a short report of a few pages giving the overall

findings of the research, or it can be a long report with numerous parts. The degree of formality required by management dictates the type of report to prepare.

5.10.1. Parts of a Complete Formal Research Report

A .Prefatory section

In this part of the report, first a title fly needs to be prepared. The title fly only includesthe title of the report. The title should be carefully worded so it tells the reader exactly

what the report is about. Following the title fly is the title page. The title page shouldinclude the title of the report, the name and the title of the recipient of the report, and the

name and the title of the individual who prepared the report and the date. The letter thatauthorized the undertaking of the research project, followed by a letter of transmittal

indicating the completion of the research report are the next items included in the report.Include a table of contents followed by an executive summary. The executive summary,

summarizing the report's major findings, should be brief and to the point. This summaryshould briefly explain the conclusions.

B.Introduction to the research

This section of the report provides a clear background and statement of the research

question and provides information about the objectives of the research. Included in this

section would be a literature review about previous studies with the same or similar



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problem. If there are hypotheses to be tested, population parameters to be estimated,theories to be considered, they will be incorporated into this section of the report

C.Research method

This section will provide a detailed explanation of research design and will provideanswers to many questions. What type of design was used? What instruments were used

for the collection of data? Were there any subjects involved in the study? What did thesubjects do? How was the sample selected? What kind of statistical or non-statistical

techniques were used for data analysis? Finally, in this section of the report thelimitations encountered in the study should be presented.

D.Findings

This section is probably one of the most important parts of the research report. Provided

in this section would be the results of the data analyses and explanation of all the

findings. At this point, all the raw data have been analyzed and converted to meaningfulinformation for management's use. This is the section where the original researchquestion is answered.

E.Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

A concise yet precise summary of major findings will be included in this section,

followed by any recommendations that the researcher considers important and

meaningful.

F.Appendices and Bibliography

Statistical tests, large tables of information, copies of measurement instruments, andsupporting documents should be included in the appendices. Finally, the report should

end by providing a bibliography of all sources of information.



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6.Types of Research

Research-studies can be classified in a number of ways. Two major ways are to classify

by degree of applicability and generalizability to educational settings (basic versus

applied research) and to classify by general and specific approach to inquiry (qualitative

versus quantitative research and related subtypes).

6.1.Basic versus Applied Research

Basic research, either directly or indirectly, involves the development of theory; applied

research is concerned with the application of theory to the solution of problems.

Basic research is conducted solely for the purpose of theory development and refinement.

It is not concerned with practical applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory

conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research.

Applied research, as the name implies, is conducted for the purpose of applying, or

testing, theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving educational problems. Rightly or

wrongly, most educational research studies would be classified at the applied end of the

continuum; they are more concerned with ³what´ works best than with ³why´.

Basic research is concerned with establishing general principles of learning; applied

research is concerned with their utility in educational settings. For example, much basic

research has been conducted with animals to determine principles of reinforcement and

their effect on learning.

Applied research has tested these principles to determine their effectiveness in improving

learning (e.g. programmed microcomputer instruction) and behavior (e.g. behavior

modification)



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6.2.Evaluation Research

Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to make

decisions. In reality, there is a fine line between research and evaluation, and an

evaluation may very easily utilize a research design. Both research and evaluation

involve decision making and both involve steps which parallel those of the scientific

method.

6.2.1.Research and Development (R&D)

The major purpose of R& D efforts is not to formulate or test theory but to develop

effective products for use in schools. Products produced by R& D efforts include: teacher

±training materials, learning materials, set of behavioral objectives, media materials, and

management systems.

6.3.Action Research

The purpose of action research is to solve practical problems through the application of

the scientific method. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a local

setting. It is not concerned with whether the result are generalizable to any other setting

and is not characterized by the same kind of control evident in other categories of

research. The primary goal of action research is the solution of a given problem, not

contribution to science.

6.4. Qualitative VS Quantitative Approach

Qualitative approach involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain

insights into phenomena of interest. Qualitative research studies many variables intensely

over an extended period of time in order to find out the way things are, how and why theycame to be that way and what it all means. They study only one or few units allow them

to do this.



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Quantitative research on the other hand concentrate on one or small number of variables

in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships, including cause-

effect relationship.

A very real difference between qualitative approach and quantitative approaches is the

degree of intervention and control involved. Qualitative researchers do not want to study

phenomena as they are in natural settings.

Quantitative researchers on the other hand often intervene and attempt to control as many

variables as possible.

An example of qualitative and quantitative research helps to understand the difference.

Accountability as practices in our primary health care system creates an undesirable

atmosphere of anxiety among nurses.

1. Strongly agree

2. Agree

3. Disagree

4. Strongly disagree

The nurse marked "strongly agree". Now compare this response to her response to an

open-ended question:

Question: Please add any personal comments you'd like to make in your own words about

any part of the primary health care system's accountability approach.

Response: 'Fear' is the word for 'accountability' as applied in our system. Accountability

is a political ploy to maintain power and control us. The disappointment in our system is

incredible. You wouldn't believe the new layers of administration that have been created

just to keep this system going. Come down and visit in hell sometime.

These two responses illustrate one kind of difference that can exist between qualitative

data derived from responses to open-ended questions and quantitative measurement.



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Quantitative measures are succinct and easily aggregated for analysis, they are

systematic, standardized and easily presented in a short space. By contrast, qualitative

responses are longer, more detailed and analysis is difficult because responses are neither

systematic nor standardized. The open-ended response permits one to understand the

world as seen by the respondent.

6.4.1. Qualitative approaches

These can be applied to the study of past events or current events. When applied to past

events the process is referred to as historical research when applied to current events, it is

referred to as qualitative research. It is conducted to promote greater understanding of not

just the way things are but also why.

6.4.1.1.Historical research

It is a systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past occurrence in order to

describe causes, effect or trends of those events that may help to explain present events

and anticipate future event.

The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusion concerning causes effects,

trends of past occurrence that may help to explain present events and anticipate future

events.

Historical research studies do not typically gather data by administering instrument to

individuals instead seek out data that is already available. Sources of data referred to as

primary or secondary. Primary sources constitute first hand knowledge such as eye

witness report and original documents. Secondary sources include description of an event

by other than an eyewitness.

The assignation of Governor Salman Taseer is agood example to explain historical

research. If we research this event it is connected with the sequence of Namoos-a-Risalat

issues. So we can say that the cause of murder of Salman Taseer is his views on the

Namoos-a-Risalat act which affected the view of MumtazQadri, agitate him to kill him

and we can say that this event may be the first in the chain of the future events.



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6.4.1.2. Qualitative research

It is defined by describing what it entails and its rationale. Qualitative research involves

intensive data collection that is collection of extensive data on many variables over an

extended period of time in a naturalistic setting refers to the fact that the variables being

investigated are studied where they naturally occur as they naturally occur not in

researcher controlled environment under researcher controlled conditions.

The rationale behind the use of qualitative research is that behavior occurs in a context

and a more complete understanding of the behavior requires understanding of the context

in which it occurs. Thus qualitative researcher are not just concerned with describing the

way things are how people feel about the way the things are what they believe, what

means they attach to various activities and so forth.

In order to achieve the objective of holistic, in-depth understanding, qualitative

researchers utilize a variety of methods and data collection strategies and qualitative

research is often characterized as being multi method strategy used however is participant

observation usually supplemented by the collection of relevant documents and

extensive,informal, interviewing; participant observation basically involves the

researcher immersing herself or himself in the setting of interest, observing as much as

possible and taking extensive, detailed notes. What is observed is typically a single unit.

Qualitative research is clearly inductive. Through intensive and extensive observation,

the qualitative researcher seeks to derive and describe findings that promote greater

understanding of how and why people behave the way they do.

6.4.2. Quantitative research

It is applied in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationshipsincluding cause-effect relationships.



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6.4.2.1.Descriptive research

It involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or to answer questions concerning

the current status of the subject of the study. A descriptive study determines and reports

the way things are.

One common type of descriptive research involves assessing attitudes or opinions

towards individuals, organizations, events, or procedures. Descriptive data are typically

collected through a questionnaire survey, an interview, or observation.

Descriptive research sounds very simple; there is considerably more or it, how ever, then

just asking questions and reporting answers.

Descriptive studies utilizing observational techniques to collect data also complexities

that are not readily apparent. Observers must be trained and recording forms must be

developed so that data will be collected objectively and reliably.

For example: How do adolescents spend their time?

In this example we are researching that how adolescents spend their time

6.4.2.2.Observational research

In an observational study, the current status of a phenomenon is determined not by

askingbut by observing. Observational data can be collected on intimate objects such as

books as well as human beings. In either case an observational study must be planned and

executed just as carefully as any other type of research study.

Types of observational research

The major types of observational research are:

1. Non participant observation: includes both naturalistic observation and simulation

and typically involves observation of human subjects.

2. Meta-analysis: involves observation and numerical analysis of a number of

research reports. It involves document analysis.



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6.4.2.3.Correlation research

Correlation research treated as a type of descriptive research. A correlation study

describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. Correlation

research involves collecting data in order to determine whether, and to what degree, a

relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. Degree of relationship is

expressed as a correlation coefficient.

Correlation research attempts to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship

exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The purpose of a correlation study

may be to establish relationship or to use relationships in making predictions.

For example: Are children¶s friendships related to their relationships with siblings?Example explains research that the relationship between friendship and relationship with

the siblings.

6.4.2.4.Casual ±Comparative and Experimental Research

While casual-comparative and experimental research represent distinctly different

methods, they can best be understood through comparison and contrast. Both attempt to

establish cause effect relationships; both involve group comparisons. The major

difference between them is that in experimental research the alleged ³cause´ is

manipulated, and in casual-comparative research it is not. In experimental research, the

alleged ³cause´, the activity or characteristic believed to make a difference, is referred to

as a treatment; the more general term for ³cause´ is independent variable. The difference,

or ³effect´, which is determined to occur or not occur, is refereed to as the dependent

variable. Thus, a study which investigates a cause-effect relationship investigates the

effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.

Casual ±comparative research is sometimes treated as a type of descriptive research.

Casual ±comparative research attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the current

status of the phenomena under study. Casual-comparative is also known as that research

in which the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for existing

differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals.



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For example: do smoking cause cancer?

1. Dependent variable: cancer.

2. Independent variable: smoking.

6.4.2.5.Experimental Research

Experimental research is the only type of research that can truly test hypotheses

concerning cause-and-effect relationships. It represents the most valid approach to the

solution of educational problems, both practical and theoretical, and to the advancement

of education as a science. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates at least

one independent variable, controls over relevant variables, and observes the effect on one

or more dependent variables. Experimental research is both the most demanding and themost productive type of research.

For example: Does drawing improve children¶s memory for an event?

1. Independent variable: drawing v/s telling alone

2. Dependent variable: memory performance

7. Managers and Research

Managers with knowledge of research have an advantage over those without. As world is

a global village managers should know about research methods. Reasons are as under:

1. A grasp of research methods will enable managers to understand, predict, and

control their environment.

2. Knowledge of research and problem-solvingprocesses helps managers to identify

problem situations before they get out of control.

3. Knowledge about research processes, design, and interpretation of data also helps

managers to become discriminating recipients of the research findings presented,

and to determine whether or not the recommended solutions are appropriate for

implementation.



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4. Another reason why professional managers today need to know about research

methods is that they will become more discriminating while sifting through the

information disseminated in business journals. Some journal articles are more

scientific and objective than others. Even among the scientific articles, some are

more appropriate for application or adaptation to particular organizations and

situation than others. This is a function of the sampling design, the types of

organizations studied, and other factors reported in the journal articles. Unless the

manager is able to grasp fully what the published empirical research really

conveys, she or he is likely to err in incorporating some of the suggestions such

publications offer. By the same token, managers can handle with success their

own problems at considerable cost savings by studying the results of ³good´

published research that has addressed similar issues.

5. Such knowledge sharpens the sensitivity of managers to the myriad variables

operating in a situation and reminds then frequently of the multi causality and

multifinality of phenomena, thus avoiding inappropriate, simplistic notions of one

variable ³causing´ another.

6. When managers understand the research reports about their organizations handed

to them by professionals, they will be equipped to take intelligent, educated,

calculated risks with known probabilities attached to the success or failure of their

decisions. Research then becomes a useful decision-making tool rather than a

mass of incomprehensible statistical information.

7. Managers become knowledgeable about scientific investigations, vested interests

inside or outside the organization will not prevail.

8. Knowledge about research helps the manager to relate to and share pertinent

information with the researcher or consultant hired for problem solving.

Being knowledgeable about research and research methods help professional

managers to:

1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.

2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.

3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects

of factors impinging on a situation.



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4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities

associated with the different possible outcomes.

5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation.

6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.

8. The manager and the consultant-researcher

8.1. How to locate and select a researcher

1. Some research firms are listed in the telephone directories and can be used for

consulting on various types of project. A broad identification about what areas or

issues need to be researched is stated the firm will provide lists of individuals that

have expertise in those particular areas.

2. Many colleges of business also have professor who do organizational consulting

work.

In all cases however it is advisable to check the worth, reputation and credibility of the

firm.

8.2.The manager-researcher relationship

Organization hire outside research agencies to identify and solve problems for them but

in this scenario the manager must not only interact effectively with the research team, but

must also explicitly delineate the roles for the researchers and the management.

Clarification of the issues offer the research team the opportunity to either accept the

assignment and find alternatives ways of dealing with the problem.

When the manager is knowledgeable about the research then the interactions between the

manager and the researcher become more meaningful, purposeful and beneficial both to

the organization and the researcher alike.



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8.3. Values

On one hand if specifying and identifying of duties and roles are the duty of the manager

then on the other hand he has to convey the value system of the value system of the

management to the researcher.

Exchange of information and value system in a straight forward and forthright manner

also helps to increase the rapport and trust between the manager and researchers helps to

motivate the two sides to interact effectively.

Guidelines for hiring a researcher or consultant

1. The function and anticipation of both the parties are unambiguous.2. Philosophies and value system must be properly communicated.

3. A trust level is established between all the parties¶ i.e researcher, manager and

employees to promote the air of cooperation in the organization.

9. External versus internal researcher/consultant

External researcher/consultants is an outside firm or individual hired in an organization in

order to carry out a research project whereas internal researcher(s) is an employee of

organization who perform ongoing research work in the organization.

Generally large organizations use external research more as compared to smaller

organizations. However both have inherent advantages and disadvantages described

below:



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9.1. Advantages of external researcher/consultant:

1) Additional skill/experience:

One of the most frequent reasons for instigating a consultancy project, and particularly

calling in an outside consultant, is when an organization requires additional skill or

experience over and above that which they can draw on their existing management team.

2) A fresh perspective:

External consultants/researchers bring with them a fresher perspective. As in so many

areas of life, have sometimes we are so close to problems, or have looked at them in a

particular way for so long, that we find it difficult to see what the real problem is and

how to solve it. An outside consultant often brings a fresh perspective to such problems

or issue thus helping to get the solution more effectively.

3) No vested interests:

External consultants do not have any vested interests and therefore can be more objective

and/or open in their approach to an organizational issue or problem.

4) High degree of influence/status:

Since external researchers are invited in the organization, they have increased leverage

(the degree of influence and status in the organization) and greater freedom of operations

than internal practitioners. Therefore they can perform their work with greater

improvisation.

5) Legal/ regulatory/ethical reasons:

In some circumstances, using consultants and particularly consultants who are required to

come from outside organizations , may be legal/regulatory requirement ( e.g. to examine

allegations of wrong doings) . It may be considered more ethical to use external



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consultants to address an organizational issue or problem. The most obvious advantage is

that it will help to ensure more objective report.

9.2. Disadvantages of external researcher/ consultant:

1) Cost

External consultants and consultancy companies have a reputation for being expensive.

However management should be careful in selecting an external researcher through

careful appraisals.

2) Resentment/fear/antagonism:

Bringing an external researcher(s) into an organization can be a major source of

resentment among existing staff. Sometimes this resentment is due to the fact that

bringing in an outside team is seen as being something of a slur or insult to the existing

internal research team, seemingly imply that the internal team are simply not up to the

mark. Often resentment is based on fear e.g. employees may fear that the team may make

such recommendations which will lead to some form of reprimand(criticism) or even

worse loss of their jobs.

3) Lack of familiarity with organization:

Outside researchers lack familiarity with the client organization. They are unfamiliar with

culture, communication networks and formal or informal power systems.This lack of

familiarity often means that the researcher has to undergo an organizational study.

However this extends the time period of consultancy which is often a source of

frustration for the client firm.

4) Lack of responsibility for results:

Outside consultants often lack real responsibility and accountability for results. Certainly,

in many cases the responsibilities of the consultant end with the making of

recommendations and the implementation and follow up is left on the client organization.



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9.3. Advantages of internal consultants/researcher:

Almost all the disadvantages of external researcher are the advantages of internal

researcher.

They are familiar with the organization¶s culture and norms and probably accept and

behave in accordance with the norms. This means that they do not waste time becoming

familiar with the system and winning acceptance. Internal practitioners know the power

structures, who are the strategic people, how to apply leverage. They are already known

to the employees, and have personal interest in seeing the organization succeed.

9.4. Disadvantages of internal researcher/consultant:

Almost all the advantages of external researcher are the disadvantages of internal

researcher/consultant. They usually lack specialized skills as compared to external

researcher who have most updated knowledge of research. They lack objectivity. Internal

researcher maybe more likely to accept the organizational system as given and

accommodate their change tactics to the needs of management.

Being known to the workforce has advantage, but it can also work against the internal

researcher. Other employees may not understand the researcher¶s role and will certainly

be influenced by his or her previous work and relationships in the organization,

particularly if the work and relationship have in anyway been questionable. Finally the

internal researcher may not have the necessary power and authority; internal researchers

are sometimes in a remote staff position and report to a mid-level manager.



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10. Knowledge about research and managerial

effectiveness

I don¶t know how you are supposed to make right decision without knowledge.

William Dillard SR.(founder and chairman Dillard¶s department stores)

Question the loyalty of a loyal jeep owner and u are likely to hear these words: it¶s a jeep

thing you would not understand. Consider for example the outward appearance of the

jeep Cherokee. The prospect of being smacked by a roving shopping cart in a parking lot

is a sort of thing that leads a lexus SUV(sport utility vehicle) owner to park a half mile

away from the closest car, but for the jeep owner, scratches, dings, gashes and chips are

like medal of owners bestowed to the vehicle. One of the greatest challenges for the

division of Daimlerchrysler, AG, is keeping up with the changing needs, wants desires

and diversity of its customer base. For a long time, jeeps were found mainly on army

bases, running remote trails or venturing out on exotic safaris. But now they are found at

different locations for different purposes..in fact with increasing demand for other cars

jeep management realizes that learning about customers by convening focus groups and

compiling surveys is no longer enough. Rather jeep¶s marketing research efforts are

focusing on individual consumers and creating a relationship between the jeep brand and

the buyer. Marketing research activities now focus on information technology and data

gathering through event sponsorship. Over the years, jeep has invited families to

participate in such activities as off-road driving clinics, fly-fishing contests, hiking and

mountain-biking competitions solely for the purpose of having a face to face interaction

with their customers and learning about the relationship they have with their vehicles.

And thus information collected is used to innovate, redesign or improvise their vehicles.

According to jeeps sales research, owners who participate in sponsored activities are four

times more likely to purchase another jeep than are owners who do not participate.

Knowledge of research goes hand in hand in the whole business career of a manager. In

order to be effective a manager must have a sound knowledge of research process. For a

marketing manager research helps to plan and execute the pricing, promotion and

distribution strategies. It also helps him in target marketing, positioning or new product

development through demand analysis. For a sales manager research helps to forecast

demand in the market, future sales and profitability etc. for an HR manager research

helps to identify relationship of an employee with organization, his problems, needs,

required staff or layoffs etc. Thus research is everywhere and it is the task of manager to

identify when and how research is to be conducted, is internal research team is sufficient



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or company needs to hire and external researcher (s), how much budget is available to the

organization for its R&D and most important what research is exactly for and how to

implement the research findings.. Answer to all these questions lay in the hands of a

manager and without having knowledge of research he would find himself standing in the

midst of hundreds of problem with no solution. So being a business student one must

have a profound understanding of research.

11. Negotiating access

Two important issues that the researchers confront during their conduct of research are

access and ethics. These are aspects that require careful attention at the outset of any

research project. First of all lets have some issues related to access.

11.1. Problems associated with access:

Researcher¶s ability to access data depend on gaining access to their source or

appropriate sources where there is a choice.

The first level of access is Physical access or entry. Gaining physical access can be

difficult for a number of reasons.

a. Refusal to give access by the source:

Time and resources constraints may influence the source to deny access.

b. Disinterest of source:

This may be due to

Lack of perceived value in relation to the work of organization or the

individual

The nature of the topic because of its potential sensitivity, or because of

concerns about the confidentiality of information that may be required.

Perception about Researcher¶s credibility and competence



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c. Impact of external environment:

Organization may find itself in a difficult situation owing to certain external events totalout of their control e.g. a line manager who is willing to impart information but he is

unable to do so due to the restrictions of higher management.

Many writers see access as an iterative process where one has to seek access to

information in an organization in a cyclical manner. Physical access to an organization is

formally granted through its management. However it is also necessary to gain informal

acceptance from relevant intended persons in order to gain access to the data they are

able to provide.

Two important issues relevant to access are:

Selection of appropriate sample

Feasibility of research

11.2. Selection of appropriate sample

Access may also refer to the researcher¶s ability to select a representative sample of

organizational participants in order to attempt to answer his research questions and meet

his objectives in an unbiased way and to produce valid and reliable data. Here this

broader meaning of access maybe referred to as cognitive access.

Two important issues relevant to researcher related to cognitive access are:

1) Whether the Researcher have sufficiently considered and therefore fully realized

the extent and nature of access that he will require in order to be able to answer

his research question and thus meet his objectives.

2) Whether researcher is able to gain access in practice to answer his research

questions and meet his objectives.



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11.3. Feasibility of Research:

Feasibility of any research project is greatly influenced by the level of access researcher

has and he is able to maintain during his course of action. The issue of feasibility

determines the construction or refinement of One¶s research questions and sometimes

objectives.

11.4. Strategies to Gain access:

Following are some of the strategies to gain access to an organization or people to have

one¶s required information:

1. Allowing oneself sufficient time

2. Using existing contacts and developing new ones

3. Providing a clear account of purpose and type of access required

4. Overcoming organizational concern about the granting of access

5. Identifying possible benefits to the organization in granting him access

6. Using suitable language

7. Facilitating ease of reply when requesting access

8. Developing one¶s access on an incremental basis

9. Establishing his credibility with intended participants



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12. Research Ethics

Ethical concerns emerge as a researcher plan his research, seek access to organizations

and individuals, collect, analyze and report his data. In the context of Research ethics

refers to the appropriateness of one¶s behavior in relation to the rights of those who

become the subject of his work or are affected by it. Wells defines ethics in terms of a

code of behavior appropriate to academics and conduct of research.

12.1. Nature and scope of ethical issues in business Research:

Discussion of ethical issues can be divided into four subsections:

1) Ethical issues that affect the research process generally

2) Ethical issues during the design and initial stage

3) Ethical issues during the data collection stage

4) Ethical issues related to analysis and reporting stage

12.1.1. Ethical issues that affect the research process generally:

A number of key ethical issues arise across the stages and duration of a research project.

They relate to ethical issues around the:

Privacy of actual and possible participants ;

Voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw partially or completely

from the process;

Consent and possible deception of participants;



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Maintenance of confidentiality of data provided by the individuals or identifiable

participants and their anonymity;

Reactions of participants to the way in which you seek to collect data;

Effects on participants of the way, in which you use, analyze and report your data;

Behavior and objectivity of the research.

Moreover use of internet during research project undoubtedly continues to generate a

debate and evaluation about the ethical use of this particular means to collect data.

Expression netiquette has been developed to provide a heading for a number of µrules¶ or

guidelines about how to act ethically when using internet. Internet may allow the

researcher to contact possible participants more easily and even to do this repeatedly-a

possibility that maybe an invasion of their privacy in a number of ways.

12.1.2. Ethical issues during the design and initial access stages:

One of the key stages at which you need to consider the potential for ethical problems to

arise is when you seek initial access.

Being a part of internal research team, a researcher should not attempt to applyany pressure on his colleagues or subordinates to cooperate.

Privacy may also be affected by the nature and timings of any approach that you

make to intended participants (e.g. telephoning at unsociable times).

Access to secondary data may also raise ethical problems in relation to privacy

(obtaining access to personal data about individuals who have not consented to let

you have this- through personnel or client records)

Consent to participate in a research project is not a straightforward matter. In general

terms, an approach to a potential participant is an attempt to gain consent. However, this

raises a question about the scope of any consent given. Where someone agrees to



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participate in a particular data collection method, this does not necessarily imply consent

about the way in which the data provided are subsequently used.

Clearly any assurance that a researcher provides about anonymity and confidentiality will

help to develop an understanding of the nature of the consent being entered into, but even

this maybe inadequate in terms of clarifying the nature of that consent. This suggest a

continuum that ranges across a lack of consent, involving some form of deception, a lack

of clarity about the nature of consent so that the researcher implies consent from taking

part, and consent that is fully informed as well as fully given.

Researcher usesdeception to collect data

Participant does not fully

understand his/her rights

Researcher impliesconsent about use of data from fact of accessor return of questionnaire

participant consent givenfreely and based on full

information aboutparticipation rights and

use of data

Lack of consent Implied consent



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12.1.3. Ethical issues during the Data collection stage:

Data collection stage is associated with a range of ethical issues. Some of them are

general issues that apply to all methods of data collection while others are issues specific

to particular methods of data collection.

A researcher should not intrude in an intended participant¶s privacy by forcing

him to take part in research project. Moreover participants are free to withdraw or

not to take part in any aspect of research.

Once access has been granted researcher should remain within the aims of his

research project that he shared and agreed with his intended participant(s). To do

otherwise, without raising this with his participants and renegotiating access,

would come into the sphere of deceit.

Researcher should maintain objectivity during the data collection stage- means

collect your data accurately and fully and avoid exercising subjective selectivity

in what he records.

Confidentiality and anonymity of participants once promised should be

maintained in whole of the research project.

Great care should be exercised while using internet in data collection stage

Relatively greater level of control should be exercised while using qualitative

methods of data collection so that one¶s behavior should remain within

appropriate and acceptable parameters.

Use of observation techniques raises its own ethical concern. The boundaries of

what is permissible to observe need to be drawn clearly. A solution to this

problem of reactivity of the participants being observed can be solved by using a

covert study.

12.1.4. Ethical issues related to the analysis and reporting stages:



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The maintenance of your objectivity will be vital during the analysis stage to make sure

that you do not misrepresent the data collected. This will include not being selective

about which data to report, or where appropriate misrepresenting its statistical accuracy.

Special care should be exercised at this level also to maintain the confidentiality and

anonymity of individuals and organization(s).

A further ethical concern stems from the use made by conclusions of the research project

and any course of action that is explicitly referred to or implicitly suggested. Here the

original assurances provided to those who participated in the research maybe set aside,

with the result that the collective interest of participants maybe disadvantaged through

this use of data. The use of data for secondary purposes therefore also lead to ethical

concerns of potentially significant proportions, and researcher will need to consider these

in the way in which he make use of this type of data.

Summary



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This chapter ³Introduction to research´ attempts to provide an insight on the overall crux

of research. Research is an organized, systematic, data based, critical, objective, scientific

inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding

answers or solutions to it.

The best way through the ado perform research is the adoption of a scientific research

design. It has ten steps; identifying broad problem area, problem definition, preparing a

research proposal, plotting a theoretical framework, development of hypothesis, making

a scientific research design, collecting relevant data through primary and secondary

means, analyzing the data collected, deducing from the results and finally preparing a

research report.

There are many different types of research. Basic research, either directly or indirectly,

involves the development of theory; applied research is concerned with the application of

theory to the solution of problems. Another type is action research which is concerned

with a local problem and is conducted in a local setting. It is not concerned with whether

the result is generalizable to any other setting or not.

Qualitative approach involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain

insights into phenomena of interest. Qualitative research studies many variables intensely

over an extended period of time in order to find out the way things are, how and why they

came to be that way and what it all means.

Organizations hire both types of researchers: external and internal. Both have inherent

advantages and disadvantages.

Two very important issues in the research process is negotiating access and research

ethics. Ethics is a code of behavior appropriate to academics and conduct of research.

Bibliography:



1. Gay, L.R. (1996). Educational research:competencies for analysis and

application. USA: Merril publishing.

2. Hair, J.F, Bush, R.P, &Ortinau, D.J. (2003). M arketing research. New

York: John E.Biernat.

3. . Lancaster, G. (2005). Research methods in mangement . U.K.: Elsevier

Butterworth-heinemann.

4. Saunders, M, Lewis, P, &Thornhill, A. (2004). Research methods for

business students. Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

Documents

Qualitative Approaches