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Qualitative research methods in information and library science
dr. Alenka ŠauperlDepartment of Library and Information Science and Book Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana
Comparison of quantitative and qualitative methods
QUANTITATIVE Hypothesis testing Variables Measuring instruments
developed before the actual project starts
Numeric data, precise, exact measurement
Standardized procedures, repetitions
Analysis: statistical methods, charts and tables
Results: charts, tables, facts Validity: statistical tests
QUALITATIVE Discovery and understanding of events Themes, motives, categories Measuring instruments develop during
the project, considering setting and researcher
Textual data, documents, observations, descriptive
Individualized procedures, repetitions are difficult and different
Analysis: seeking patterns, generalizations from available data
Results: stories, narratives, descriptions
Validity: triangulation, peer review
Qualitative methods
Researcher collects data in a real environment. Researcher himself/herself is the key research tool. Focus of research is a process or activity itself, not just
results of that process or activity. Data collected is most often verbal (non-numerical). Verbal data analysis (rarely numerical). Results are facts with limited usability and new
research questions. Rarely verification of hypothesized relationships are confirmed.
Why engage in qualitative research?
Different research methods supplement each other.
Qualitative methods focus on social interactions and the individual in that social situation – just like libraries and information centres.
We should use all means to aid our efforts in attracting more users and fulfilling their information needs.
Most frequently used methods
Observation– The researcher observes events and behavior in natural
setting– Diary – “self-observation”
Interview– Opinions and feelings of interviewed people– Formal and informal– Group discussion, focus group
Content analysis– Artefacts, documents – not people– Also part of every other qualitative research
Observation
We are intrigued by a problem in a library We observe
– A certain space (reference desk)– An individual or a group of people (catalogers, OPAC users)– An activity (storytelling)
Observation has to be – Systematic and open– Nonobtrusive but not covert
Observation: An example
Cobus, L., Dent, V.F. & Ondusek, A. 2005. How twenty-eight users helped redesign and academic library Web site: a usability study. Reference & User Services Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 232-46.– Does the organization of the library Web site help
users find the desired information?– Hunter College Library, City University of New York– Result: a user friendly Web site
Research design
Quantitative part:– Exercises for participants: counting moves,
measuring time
Qualitative part:– Observing participants during their work on
exercises: what confuses them, how do they understand terms
Quantitative part
Example questions: – Find a book by [author name]– Find the loan period for books
Research assistants were trained to administer the questionnaire and manage the session
The sessions were audiotaped, the work on the computer was captured
Analysis of results prompted redesign of the Web site and redesign of research project
Qualitative part
Participants were asked to talk more freely about what features they found interesting, what terms were familiar/unfamiliar to them, what spots of the page were obviously links.
Recording of speach and computer moves
Observation with unstructured interview 1/6
Recording equipment– shy participants
Placing of the researcher– personality/attitude, dress, guidance
Interaction with the participant - observation– Ask the person sitting next to you to show you what
do they carry in their purse or pockets.
Observation with unstructured interview 2/6
Interaction with the participant - observation– Ask the person sitting next to you to show you what
do they carry in their purse or pockets.
– How do you as the researcher feel?– How do you as the participant feel?
Observation with unstructured interview 3/6
Interaction with the participant - observation– Ask the person sitting next to you to show you what do they
carry in their purse or pockets.
– How do you as the researcher feel?– How do you as the participant feel?
– What can you as the researcher do to make the participant feel comfortable and willing to give the information you need?
– In what circumstances would you as a participant be willing to comply with the researcher honestly?
Observation with unstructured interview 4/6
Interaction with the participant - interview– Ask the person sitting next to you: What do you
think of dr. Šauperl’s slides?
Observation with unstructured interview 5/6
Interaction with the participant– Ask the person sitting next to you: What do you
think of dr. Šauperl’s slides?
– How did you as a researcher ask the question?– What did you as a participant hear as a question?
Observation with unstructured interview 6/6
Interaction with the participant– Ask the person sitting next to you: What do you
think of dr. Šauperl’s slides?
– How did you as a researcher ask the question?– What did you as a participant hear as a question?
– nonverbal clues, timing, place, social “pressure”
Interview
Usually a series of interviews with individuals Structured or unstructured Usual questions: who, what, where, when, how, why Only ask things that cannot be observed New questions emerge during the interview New issues emerge during and after the interview,
therefore we sometimes need to return to the same interviewee
Content analysis
Analysis of text– Archival documents describe the library’s
development– Notes, that a researcher takes during an
observation session report on events during that session
Content analysis: an example
Wilson, T.D. 2004. Talking about the problem: a content analysis of pre-search interviews. Information Research, vol.10, no.1, paper 206. [Available at http://InformationR.net/ir/10-1/paper206.html]. [Accessed 2005-09-25].
– How do researchers talk about their problems in the course of pre-search interviews and what are the difficulties they experience in carrying out their own searches?
– Result: search results are better if the librarian (a professional intermediary searcher) helps the researchers with searching for relevant literature
Content analysis
Transcriptions of recorded observations– What to write and how– Illustration: Wilson, Appendix 2
Categorization– What constitutes a category– Development of categories– Illustration: Wilson, Fig. 2
Search for patterns– What is repetitive and what do we want to see repetitive– Illustration: Wilson, Fig. 3, Appendix 3
Ethical considerations
Confidentiality– Misuse – Erroneous interpretation
Successfull researchers establish a very sincere personal relationship with their participants. Sometimes they even become friends. In any case this relationship is based on MUTUAL RESPECT AND TRUST.
Informed consent
Participants and institutions need to agree to be studied
Formal documents:– Letter asking for access– Permission from the institution– Informed consent letter from individuals
Trust and confidentiality
Combination of methods
Rare use of one method only– Methods supplement each other– Triangulation (validation)
What is the best combination depends on the research question– Learn strengths and weaknesses of each method
Reliability
Can study be repeated with the same results? – Did participants tell the truth?– Does the event change with time?– Do we get the same results by gathering data with
different methods? (triangulation)
Validity
Do your results represent true picture of events/processes? – Is the event meaningful considering the observed
patterns? – Do we get the same results by gathering data with
different methods? (triangulation)– Is the emerging theory confirmed with new
observations?
Organization of the project
Researcher’s role Research plan Preparing for the start Pilot study Changes to the original plan Conducting “real” research Analysis Writing report
Researcher’s role
Researcher is the research instrument Obtrusive or covert Outsider or participant “Computer with two processors”
– Merging into the setting– Gathering data
Research plan 1/3
Selection of the topic: – Am I able to conduct such a research project?– May I gain access to people, organisations,
documents?– Is the participant or institution neutral?– Does my research make sense at all?
Research question:– Describe the problem– Formulate the question
Research plan 2/3
Literature review– Extensive reading of published research and
methodology– Selective reading (relevant studies)– Criteria for reading and evaluating published
research
Learn from errors of other researchers, don’t make your own mistakes.
Research plan 3/3
Theoretical framework– Which theories are relevant for my research?– Verification of an existing theory– Symbolic interactionist grounded theory,
postmodernist theory, hermeneutics
Selection of research/data gathering method Many loops in the process
Pilot study
Learning from mistakes Testing
– researcher– research plan– method– setting
Improving results:– re-formulate the research question– improve research plan– change or adjust the data gathering/analysis method
The real thing!
Conducting research– How good am I as a research tool– Data storage or loss– Differences among participants
Data storage
Video and sound recording Notes
– Notes structure
Notes structureObserved data Place, date, time, participant, identification of the particular
observation
Description of participants
What were they like? (sad, dressed in pink)
Description of the researcher
I was not in a good mood and I posed questions that implied answers.
Description of the setting
Very few users in the library.
Topics A detailed description of an interview or observation. (verbal communication)
Events A detailed description of events, gestures, movements during an interview, observation (nonverbal communication)
Types of notes
Field notes – taken during observation, interview
Reflexive notes, journal – taken after leaving the setting
Getting ready for analysis
Transcription– Usually a computer file– Preparing audio and sound recordings for analysis– Textual form
Data analysis
During data collection and after collection is completed– During data collection: preliminary analysis, coding– After data collection: detailed analysis– Several cycles of analysis
Content analysis Processes:
– Data reduction Separating useful from nonuseful
– Data display (charts, flowcharts, maps, etc.) Making sense of huge quantity of data
– Making and verifying findings Going back to original data
A little help from … a computer
Software:– Nud*Ist– The Ethnograph– and others
Garbage in– Garbage out!
Writing a report
Special characteristics of research also imply special characteristics of reports– Rich descriptions, narratives– Important elements:
Methodology: detailed description of research methods, with explanation of triangulation
Weaknesses and limitations of selected methods and research project as a whole:
– Weaknesses of the methods– Researcher’s weaknesses
Sources
Handouts on the Web:– Selected annotated bibliography of resources in
English, available at the Jinonice library– A short list of sources not available at the Jinonice
library– My published work
Thank you.
Grad Otočec(1252)
