Questions: How is the convergent validity different from concurrent validity? (criterion vs no criterion) Is it possible to say that one form of validity

Questions:Questions:

How is the convergent validity different from How is the convergent validity different from concurrent validity? (criterion vs no criterion)concurrent validity? (criterion vs no criterion)

Is it possible to say that one form of validity is Is it possible to say that one form of validity is better than others or does it depend on the kind better than others or does it depend on the kind of research that you are doing?of research that you are doing?

How is it possible to do observational studies How is it possible to do observational studies completely absent of subjective or completely absent of subjective or experimenter/observer bias? Is it possible to be experimenter/observer bias? Is it possible to be completely objective? Rating scales could be completely objective? Rating scales could be objective?objective?

More Questions:More Questions:

Are constructs with less operational definitions Are constructs with less operational definitions looked at as less reliable?looked at as less reliable?

Is the bell picture supposed to signify something Is the bell picture supposed to signify something on your power points?on your power points?

Does divergent Does divergent variability variability need the same chart need the same chart as convergent as convergent variabilityvariability??

If your test has face validity should you not use it If your test has face validity should you not use it or trust the results because the results could not or trust the results because the results could not be accurate?be accurate?

Is it easier to work with direct or indirect Is it easier to work with direct or indirect variables? Is there one better than the other?variables? Is there one better than the other?

More Questions:More Questions:

How accurate are results when measuring How accurate are results when measuring constructs such as the example you used like constructs such as the example you used like comparing active and aggressive children when comparing active and aggressive children when they might overlap or be defined differently?they might overlap or be defined differently?

Are there constructs that are not measurable in Are there constructs that are not measurable in any operational definitions? If so how would you any operational definitions? If so how would you go about the research in obtaining a solution?go about the research in obtaining a solution?

Do we need to use these terms in our research Do we need to use these terms in our research (e.g. constructs, operational definition) and (e.g. constructs, operational definition) and define our variables as direct or indirect define our variables as direct or indirect measurements?measurements?

Ethics in ResearchEthics in Research

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Dusana RybarovaDusana RybarovaPsyc 290B Psyc 290B

May 18 2006May 18 2006

Outline:Outline:

1.1. Introduction to ethics in researchIntroduction to ethics in research

2.2. Ethical issues and human participants in Ethical issues and human participants in researchresearch

3.3. Ethical issues and nonhuman subjects in Ethical issues and nonhuman subjects in researchresearch

4.4. Ethical issues and scientific integrityEthical issues and scientific integrity

5.5. Step 4 of your research outlineStep 4 of your research outline

1. Introduction to ethics in research1. Introduction to ethics in research

you must accept the responsibility to behave you must accept the responsibility to behave ethically toward those who will be affected ethically toward those who will be affected by your researchby your research

ethics is the study of proper actionethics is the study of proper action research ethics concerns the responsibility research ethics concerns the responsibility

of researchers to be honest and respectful of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who may be affected by to all individuals who may be affected by their research studies or their reports of the their research studies or their reports of the studies’ resultsstudies’ results

ethical issues must be considered at each step in ethical issues must be considered at each step in the research processthe research process– what measurement techniques may be used for certain what measurement techniques may be used for certain

individualsindividuals– how researchers select individuals to participate in how researchers select individuals to participate in

studiesstudies– which research strategies and designs may be used which research strategies and designs may be used

with certain populations and behaviorswith certain populations and behaviors– how studies may be carried out with individualshow studies may be carried out with individuals– how results are reportedhow results are reported

The basic categories of ethical responsibilityThe basic categories of ethical responsibility– responsibility to the human and nonhuman individuals responsibility to the human and nonhuman individuals

who participate in the research studywho participate in the research study– responsibility to the discipline of scienceresponsibility to the discipline of science\\

2. Ethical issues and human 2. Ethical issues and human participants in researchparticipants in research

Historical highlights of treatment of human Historical highlights of treatment of human participantsparticipants– World War II – brutal experiments performed on World War II – brutal experiments performed on

prisoners in Nazi concentration campsprisoners in Nazi concentration camps– 1947 Nuremberg trial with experimenters who 1947 Nuremberg trial with experimenters who

conducted those experimentsconducted those experiments– as a result of that trial – Nuremberg Code has been as a result of that trial – Nuremberg Code has been

establishedestablished 10 guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants 10 guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants

in researchin research Nuremberg Code laid the groundwork for the ethical Nuremberg Code laid the groundwork for the ethical

standards that are in place today for both psychological and standards that are in place today for both psychological and medical researchmedical research


Historical highlights of treatment of human Historical highlights of treatment of human participants (cont.)participants (cont.)– additional examples of maltreatment of human additional examples of maltreatment of human

participants participants in 1963 unsuspecting patients have been injected in 1963 unsuspecting patients have been injected

with live cancer cellswith live cancer cells in 1972 400 men had been left to suffer with syphilis in 1972 400 men had been left to suffer with syphilis

long after a cure was availablelong after a cure was available


Historical highlights of treatment of human Historical highlights of treatment of human participants (cont.)participants (cont.)– Milgram obedience study (Milgram, 1963)Milgram obedience study (Milgram, 1963)

subjects instructed to use electric shock to punish subjects instructed to use electric shock to punish other individuals when they made errors in a learning other individuals when they made errors in a learning tasktask

participants were administering what appeared to be participants were administering what appeared to be dangerously strong and painful shocksdangerously strong and painful shocks

no real shocks were used in the studyno real shocks were used in the study although the participants in this study sustained no although the participants in this study sustained no

physical harm, they suffered shame and physical harm, they suffered shame and embarrassment for having behaved inhumanely toward embarrassment for having behaved inhumanely toward their fellow human beingstheir fellow human beings


American psychological association (APA) American psychological association (APA) Guidelines Guidelines – www.apa.org/ethics/code.htmlwww.apa.org/ethics/code.html– APA Ethics Code contains ten ethical APA Ethics Code contains ten ethical

standards, and you should be completely standards, and you should be completely familiar with all of them before beginning any familiar with all of them before beginning any research with human participantsresearch with human participants


American psychological association (APA) American psychological association (APA) Guidelines (major ethical issues)Guidelines (major ethical issues)– No harmNo harm

the researcher is obligated to protect participants the researcher is obligated to protect participants from physical or psychological harmfrom physical or psychological harm

– Psychological harm – participants may feel increased Psychological harm – participants may feel increased anxiety, anger, lower self-esteem especially in situations anxiety, anger, lower self-esteem especially in situations where they feel that they have been cheated or insultedwhere they feel that they have been cheated or insulted

any risk of harm must be justifiedany risk of harm must be justified participants must be informed of any potential risksparticipants must be informed of any potential risks


American psychological association (APA) American psychological association (APA) Guidelines (major ethical issues)Guidelines (major ethical issues)– Informed consentInformed consent

human participants should be given complete information human participants should be given complete information about the research and their role in itabout the research and their role in it

they should understand the information and then voluntarily they should understand the information and then voluntarily decide whether or not to participatedecide whether or not to participate

– information – if not possible to provide the subject with information – if not possible to provide the subject with information about the purpose of the study we can explain to information about the purpose of the study we can explain to him at least exactly what will be donehim at least exactly what will be done

– understanding – some participants may not be competent to understanding – some participants may not be competent to understand the research (e.g. children), therefore, it is understand the research (e.g. children), therefore, it is necessary to provide the information to a parent or a guardiannecessary to provide the information to a parent or a guardian

– voluntary participation – participants decide to participate of voluntary participation – participants decide to participate of their own free will (no obligation because of a teacher or a their own free will (no obligation because of a teacher or a professor asked them to do so)professor asked them to do so)


American psychological association (APA) American psychological association (APA) Guidelines (major ethical issues)Guidelines (major ethical issues)– deception – informed consent can not be obtain before deception – informed consent can not be obtain before

the studythe study to obtain unbiased results researchers must sometimes use to obtain unbiased results researchers must sometimes use

deception because participants may adjust their own levels of deception because participants may adjust their own levels of performance in an attempt to satisfy the experimenterperformance in an attempt to satisfy the experimenter

Passive deception (or omission)Passive deception (or omission) is the withholding or omitting of is the withholding or omitting of information (researcher intentionally does not tell participants information (researcher intentionally does not tell participants some information about the study)some information about the study)

Active deception (or commission)Active deception (or commission) is the presenting of is the presenting of misinformation about the study to participants (misleading misinformation about the study to participants (misleading participants about the specific purpose of the study)participants about the specific purpose of the study)


American psychological association (APA) American psychological association (APA) Guidelines (major ethical issues)Guidelines (major ethical issues)– guidelines for a study involving deception:guidelines for a study involving deception:

the deception must be justified in terms of some benefit that the deception must be justified in terms of some benefit that outweighs the risk to the participantsoutweighs the risk to the participants

the researcher can not conceal from the participants any the researcher can not conceal from the participants any significant aspects of the study that is expected to cause significant aspects of the study that is expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional stressphysical pain or severe emotional stress

the researcher must provide the participant with debriefing that the researcher must provide the participant with debriefing that explains the true nature of the experiment, including the use explains the true nature of the experiment, including the use and purpose of deception after the study is completedand purpose of deception after the study is completed


American psychological association (APA) American psychological association (APA) Guidelines (major ethical issues)Guidelines (major ethical issues)– ConfidentialityConfidentiality

is the practice of keeping strictly secret and private is the practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or measurements obtained from an the information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research studyindividual during a research study

– AnonymityAnonymity is the practice of ensuring that an individual’s name is is the practice of ensuring that an individual’s name is

not directly associated with the information or not directly associated with the information or measurements obtained from that individuals (e.g. measurements obtained from that individuals (e.g. using codes)using codes)

The Institutional Review board (IRB)The Institutional Review board (IRB)– most human-participant research must be reviewed and most human-participant research must be reviewed and

approved by a group of individuals (scientists and non-approved by a group of individuals (scientists and non-scientists) not directly affiliated with the specific scientists) not directly affiliated with the specific research studyresearch study

– the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) requires review of all human-participant research (HHS) requires review of all human-participant research conducted by government agencies and institutions conducted by government agencies and institutions receiving government fundsreceiving government funds

– IRB typically requires that researchers submit a written IRB typically requires that researchers submit a written research proposal that addresses each of the seven research proposal that addresses each of the seven criteria of IRB (minimization of risk to participants, criteria of IRB (minimization of risk to participants, reasonable risk in relation to benefits, equitable reasonable risk in relation to benefits, equitable selection, informed consent, documentation of informed selection, informed consent, documentation of informed consent, data monitoring, privacy and confidentiality)consent, data monitoring, privacy and confidentiality) Category I (exempt review) – anonymous survey on innocuous Category I (exempt review) – anonymous survey on innocuous

topictopic Category II (expedited review) – minimal risk to participantsCategory II (expedited review) – minimal risk to participants Category III (full review) – special populations, deception, Category III (full review) – special populations, deception,

intervention, invasive measurementintervention, invasive measurement

3. Ethical issues and nonhuman 3. Ethical issues and nonhuman subjects in researchsubjects in research

the first ethical question is whether nonhuman subjects the first ethical question is whether nonhuman subjects should be used at all in behavioral researchshould be used at all in behavioral research

APA guidelines for the use and treatment of nonhuman APA guidelines for the use and treatment of nonhuman subjects in researchsubjects in research– www.apa.org/science/anguide.htmlwww.apa.org/science/anguide.html– animals must be treated humanely, qualified individuals must animals must be treated humanely, qualified individuals must

conduct research, the research must be justified and the conduct research, the research must be justified and the researcher has a responsibility to minimize discomfort or harmresearcher has a responsibility to minimize discomfort or harm

institutions that conduct research with animals have an institutions that conduct research with animals have an animal research review board called the Institutional animal research review board called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) – Committee consists of a veterinarian, at least one scientist Committee consists of a veterinarian, at least one scientist

experience in animal research and a one member of public with experience in animal research and a one member of public with no affiliation with the institutionno affiliation with the institution

4. Ethical issues and scientific 4. Ethical issues and scientific integrityintegrity

two ethical issues relevant to the written two ethical issues relevant to the written reports of the research studyreports of the research study– fraudfraud

is an explicit effort of a researcher to deceive and is an explicit effort of a researcher to deceive and misrepresent the datamisrepresent the data

fraud needs to be distinguished from an errorfraud needs to be distinguished from an error– error is an honest mistake that occurs in the research error is an honest mistake that occurs in the research

processprocess safeguards against fraudsafeguards against fraud

– replication of studies by different scientistsreplication of studies by different scientists– peer review when a researcher submits a research article for peer review when a researcher submits a research article for

publication (editor of the journal and a few experts in the field publication (editor of the journal and a few experts in the field critically review the paper in extreme detail)critically review the paper in extreme detail)

4. Ethical issues and scientific 4. Ethical issues and scientific integrityintegrity

two ethical issues relevant to the written reports of two ethical issues relevant to the written reports of the research study (cont.)the research study (cont.)– plagiarismplagiarism

is the representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s is the representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own, it is unethical!!!own, it is unethical!!!

reference citations must be included in your paper whenever reference citations must be included in your paper whenever someone else’s ideas or work has influenced your thinking and someone else’s ideas or work has influenced your thinking and writingwriting

whenever you use direct quotations or even paraphrase whenever you use direct quotations or even paraphrase someone else’s work, you need to give them creditsomeone else’s work, you need to give them credit

include a complete list of references at the end of the paperinclude a complete list of references at the end of the paper if in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite the source if in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite the source

anywayanyway

Writing an APA-Style Research Writing an APA-Style Research ReportReport

Chapter 16Chapter 16

Dusana RybarovaDusana RybarovaPsyc 290B Psyc 290B

May 18 2006May 18 2006

Outline:Outline:

1.1. The goal of a research reportThe goal of a research report

2.2. General APA guidelines for writing style General APA guidelines for writing style and formatand format

3.3. The elements of an APA-style research The elements of an APA-style research reportreport

4.4. Submitting a manuscript for publicationSubmitting a manuscript for publication

5.5. Writing a research proposalWriting a research proposal

1. The goal of a research report1. The goal of a research report

basic purpose of a good research report is basic purpose of a good research report is to provide three kinds of information about to provide three kinds of information about the research study:the research study:

– what was done (detailed description of your what was done (detailed description of your research project)research project)

– what was found (objective description of the what was found (objective description of the outcome) outcome)

– how your research study is related to other how your research study is related to other knowledge in the areaknowledge in the area

1. The goal of a research report1. The goal of a research report

a research report is a very structured a research report is a very structured document subdivided into separate, well-document subdivided into separate, well-defined segments, and each segment has defined segments, and each segment has a specified contenta specified content

formal style and structure is determined by formal style and structure is determined by the guidelines presented in the Publication the guidelines presented in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Manual of the American Psychological Association (5Association (5thth edition, 2001) edition, 2001)

2. General APA guidelines for writing 2. General APA guidelines for writing style and formatstyle and format

the goal is to provide simple, straightforward the goal is to provide simple, straightforward description and explanation of your research description and explanation of your research studystudy– impersonal style (don’t say ‘I believe..’, ‘I think’)impersonal style (don’t say ‘I believe..’, ‘I think’)– verb tense (past for the description of the verb tense (past for the description of the

research and results, present tense in research and results, present tense in discussion section)discussion section)

– avoid biased language (age, gender, ethnicity)avoid biased language (age, gender, ethnicity)– citations (e.g. Jones, 1998)citations (e.g. Jones, 1998)

2. General APA guidelines for writing 2. General APA guidelines for writing style and formatstyle and format

guidelines for typing and word-processingguidelines for typing and word-processing– double spaceddouble spaced– no more than 27 lines of text per pageno more than 27 lines of text per page– at least 1’’ margin on all sidesat least 1’’ margin on all sides– typeface – 12-point Times Roman or 12-point typeface – 12-point Times Roman or 12-point

CourierCourier– each page of the manuscript, except for the each page of the manuscript, except for the

figures, is numbered and identified with a page figures, is numbered and identified with a page headerheader

3. The elements of an APA-style 3. The elements of an APA-style research reportresearch report

title pagetitle page– title page is the first page of a research report title page is the first page of a research report

manuscript and contains the title of the paper, the manuscript and contains the title of the paper, the author names and affiliations, and the running headauthor names and affiliations, and the running head

– a running head is an abbreviated title for a research a running head is an abbreviated title for a research report, containing a maximum of 50 characters, it report, containing a maximum of 50 characters, it appears on the title page of the manuscript and at the appears on the title page of the manuscript and at the top of the pages in a published articletop of the pages in a published article

abstractabstract– abstract is a brief summary of the research study, abstract is a brief summary of the research study,

totaling no more than 120 words, the abstract focuses totaling no more than 120 words, the abstract focuses on what was done and what was found in the studyon what was done and what was found in the study


IntroductionIntroduction– is the first major section of text in a research report, it is the first major section of text in a research report, it

presents a logical development of the research presents a logical development of the research question, including a review of the relevant background question, including a review of the relevant background literature, a statement of the research question and literature, a statement of the research question and hypothesis, and a brief description of the methods used hypothesis, and a brief description of the methods used to answer the question or test the hypothesisto answer the question or test the hypothesis

methodmethod– the method section of a research report describes how the method section of a research report describes how

the study was conducted, including the subjects or the study was conducted, including the subjects or participants, the apparatus or materials, and the participants, the apparatus or materials, and the procedures usedprocedures used


results results – results section of a research report presents a summary results section of a research report presents a summary

of the data and the statistical analysisof the data and the statistical analysis discussiondiscussion

– restates the hypothesis, summarizes the results, and restates the hypothesis, summarizes the results, and then presents a discussion of the interpretations, then presents a discussion of the interpretations, implications, and possible applications of the resultsimplications, and possible applications of the results

referencesreferences– the reference section is a listing of complete references the reference section is a listing of complete references

for all sources of information cited in the report, for all sources of information cited in the report, organized alphabetically by the last name of the first organized alphabetically by the last name of the first authorauthor


appendixappendix– an appendix may be included as a means of presenting an appendix may be included as a means of presenting

detailed information about the research (e.g. the detailed information about the research (e.g. the questionnaire that you developed and used in the questionnaire that you developed and used in the research or list of items used in the research)research or list of items used in the research)

author noteauthor note– details about the author (university, grant support, details about the author (university, grant support,

acknowledgment, contact person)acknowledgment, contact person) tables and figurestables and figures

– tables and figures supplement the text, they should not tables and figures supplement the text, they should not duplicate information in the textduplicate information in the text

4. Submitting a manuscript for 4. Submitting a manuscript for publicationpublication

three steps to follow:three steps to follow:– select a journal that is appropriate for the topic select a journal that is appropriate for the topic

of your research reportof your research report– consult the journal’s instructions to authors for consult the journal’s instructions to authors for

specific submission requirementsspecific submission requirements– enclose a cover letter along with the manuscript enclose a cover letter along with the manuscript

to the journal editorto the journal editor

5. Writing a research proposal5. Writing a research proposal

a research proposal is a written report presenting a research proposal is a written report presenting the plan and underlying rationale of a future the plan and underlying rationale of a future research studyresearch study

a proposal includes a review of the relevant a proposal includes a review of the relevant background literature, an explanation of how the background literature, an explanation of how the proposed study is related to other knowledge in proposed study is related to other knowledge in the area, a description of how the planned the area, a description of how the planned research will be conducted, and a description of research will be conducted, and a description of the possible resultsthe possible results

writing a research proposal is very much like writing a research proposal is very much like writing a research report (you have to follow the writing a research report (you have to follow the general APA style guidelines discussed earlier)general APA style guidelines discussed earlier)

Documents

Questions: How is the convergent validity different from concurrent validity? (criterion vs no criterion) Is it possible to say that one form of validity