Quran · Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. [19] 10/9 ... 8 Translations 9 Recitation 9.1 Rules of recitation ... Part of AlAlaq 96th sura of the

10/9/2015 QuranWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quran&printable=yes 1/32

ManuscriptoftheQuran.BrooklynMuseum.

11thcenturyNorthAfricanQuranintheBritishMuseum.

QuranFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheQuran(/krn/[n1]korAHNArabic:alqurn,[n2]literallymeaning"therecitation"alsoromanizedQur'anorKoran)isthecentralreligioustextofIslam,whichMuslimsbelievetobearevelationfromGod(Arabic:,Allah).[1]ItiswidelyregardedasthefinestpieceofliteratureintheArabiclanguage.[2][3]Somehavecriticisedthetext'shistoricalauthenticityandmorality.Quranicchaptersarecalledsurasandverses,ayahs.

MuslimsbelievetheQuranwasverballyrevealedbyGodtoMuhammadthroughtheangelGabriel(Jibril),[4][5]graduallyoveraperiodofapproximately23years,beginningon22December609CE,[6]whenMuhammadwas40,andconcludingin632,theyearofhisdeath.[1][7][8]MuslimsregardtheQuranasthemostimportantmiracleofMuhammad,aproofofhisprophethood,[9]andtheculminationofaseriesofdivinemessagesthatstartedwiththemessagesrevealedtoAdamandendedwithMuhammad.

Accordingtothetraditionalnarrative,severalcompanionsofMuhammadservedasscribesandwereresponsibleforwritingdowntherevelations.[10]ShortlyafterMuhammad'sdeath,theQuranwascompiledbyhiscompanionswhowrotedownandmemorizedpartsofit.[11]ThesecodiceshaddifferencesthatmotivatedtheCaliphUthmantoestablishastandardversionnowknownasUthman'scodex,whichisgenerallyconsideredthearchetypeoftheQuranwehavetoday.However,theexistenceofvariantreadings,withmostlyminorandsomesignificantvariations,andtheearlyunvocalizedArabicscriptmeantherelationshipbetweenUthman'scodextoboththetextoftoday'sQuranandtotherevelationsofMuhammad'stimeisstillunclear.[10]

TheQuranassumesfamiliaritywithmajornarrativesrecountedintheJewishandChristianscriptures.Itsummarizessome,dwellsatlengthonothersand,insomecases,presentsalternativeaccountsandinterpretationsofevents.[12][13][14]TheQurandescribesitselfasabookofguidance.Itsometimesoffersdetailedaccountsofspecifichistoricalevents,anditoftenemphasizesthemoralsignificanceofaneventoveritsnarrativesequence.[15][16]TheQuranisusedalongwiththehadithtointerpretsharialaw.[17]

Duringprayers,theQuranisrecitedonlyinArabic.[18]

SomeonewhohasmemorizedtheentireQuraniscalledahafiz.SomeMuslimsreadQuranicayah(verse)withelocution,whichisoftencalledtajwid.DuringthemonthofRamadan,MuslimstypicallycompletetherecitationofthewholeQuranduringtarawihprayers.InordertoextrapolatethemeaningofaparticularQuranicverse,mostMuslimsrelyonthetafsir.[19]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Manuscript_of_the_Qur%27an.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IslamicGalleryBritishMuseum3.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Pronunciation_respelling_keyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_texthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_literaturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qira%27athttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_the_Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elocutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajwidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarawihhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafsir



QuraninMashhad,IranwrittenbyAli.

Contents

1Etymologyandmeaning2History

2.1Propheticera2.2Compilation

3SignificanceinIslam3.1InWorship3.2InIslamicart3.3Inimitability

4Textandarrangement5Contents

5.1Monotheism5.2Eschatology5.3Prophets5.4Ethicoreligiousconcepts

6Literarystyle7Interpretation

7.1Esotericinterpretation7.1.1HistoryofSuficommentaries

7.2Levelsofmeaning7.3Reappropriation

8Translations9Recitation

9.1Rulesofrecitation9.2Variantreadings

10Writingandprinting10.1Writing10.2Printing

11Relationshipwithotherliterature11.1TheBible11.2Relationships11.3Arabwriting

12Seealso13Notes14References15Furtherreading16Externallinks

Etymologyandmeaning

Thewordqurnappearsabout70timesintheQuranitself,assumingvariousmeanings.Itisaverbalnoun(madar)oftheArabicverbqaraa(),meaning"heread"or"herecited".TheSyriacequivalentis()qeryn,whichrefersto"scripturereading"or"lesson".[20]WhilesomeWesternscholarsconsiderthewordtobederivedfromtheSyriac,themajorityofMuslimauthoritiesholdtheoriginofthewordisqaraa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quran_by_Imam_ali.JPGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashhadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_nounhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_verbs#Verbal_noun_.28ma.E1.B9.A3dar.29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_language



CaveofHira,locationofMuhammad'sfirstrevelation.

itself.[1]Regardless,ithadbecomeanArabictermbyMuhammad'slifetime.[1]Animportantmeaningofthewordisthe"actofreciting",asreflectedinanearlyQuranicpassage:"ItisforUstocollectitandtoreciteit(qurnahu)."[21]

Inotherverses,thewordrefersto"anindividualpassagerecited[byMuhammad]".Itsliturgicalcontextisseeninanumberofpassages,forexample:"Sowhenalqurnisrecited,listentoitandkeepsilent."[22]ThewordmayalsoassumethemeaningofacodifiedscripturewhenmentionedwithotherscripturessuchastheTorahandGospel.[23]

ThetermalsohascloselyrelatedsynonymsthatareemployedthroughouttheQuran.Eachsynonympossessesitsowndistinctmeaning,butitsusemayconvergewiththatofqurnincertaincontexts.Suchtermsincludekitb(book)yah(sign)andsrah(scripture).Thelattertwotermsalsodenoteunitsofrevelation.Inthelargemajorityofcontexts,usuallywithadefinitearticle(al),thewordisreferredtoasthe"revelation"(way),thatwhichhasbeen"sentdown"(tanzl)atintervals.[24][25]Otherrelatedwordsare:dhikr(remembrance),usedtorefertotheQuraninthesenseofareminderandwarning,andikmah(wisdom),sometimesreferringtotherevelationorpartofit.[1][26]

TheQurandescribesitselfas"thediscernment"(alfurqn),"themotherbook"(ummalkitb),"theguide"(huda),"thewisdom"(hikmah),"theremembrance"(dhikr)and"therevelation"(tanzlsomethingsentdown,signifyingthedescentofanobjectfromahigherplacetolowerplace).[27]Anothertermisalkitb(TheBook),thoughitisalsousedintheArabiclanguageforotherscriptures,suchastheTorahandtheGospels.Theadjectiveof"Quran"hasmultipletransliterationsincluding"quranic","koranic",and"qur'anic",orcapitalisedas"Qur'anic","Koranic",and"Quranic".Thetermmus'haf('writtenwork')isoftenusedtorefertoparticularQuranicmanuscriptsbutisalsousedintheQurantoidentifyearlierrevealedbooks.[1]Othertransliterationsof"Quran"include"alCoran","Coran","Kuran",and"alQuran".[28]

History

Propheticera

Seealso:Wahy

IslamictraditionrelatesthatMuhammadreceivedhisfirstrevelationintheCaveofHiraduringoneofhisisolatedretreatstothemountains.Thereafter,hereceivedrevelationsoveraperiodof23years.AccordingtohadithandMuslimhistory,afterMuhammademigratedtoMedinaandformedanindependentMuslimcommunity,heorderedmanyofhiscompanionstorecitetheQuranandtolearnandteachthelaws,whichwererevealeddaily.ItisrelatedthatsomeoftheQurayshwhoweretakenprisonersatthebattleofBadrregainedtheirfreedomaftertheyhadtaughtsomeoftheMuslimsthesimplewritingofthetime.ThusagroupofMuslimsgraduallybecameliterate.Asitwasinitiallyspoken,theQuranwasrecordedontablets,bones,andthewide,flatendsofdatepalmfronds.MostsuraswereinuseamongstearlyMuslimssincetheyarementionedinnumeroussayingsbybothSunniandShiasources,relatingMuhammad'suseoftheQuranasacalltoIslam,themakingofprayerandthe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cave_Hira.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawrathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonymhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_articlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikrhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huda_(name)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikmahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%27hafhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%27s_first_revelationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijra_(Islam)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahabahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quraysh_tribehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia



Quranicversecalligraphy,inscribedontheshoulderbladeofacamelwithinks

PartofAlAlaq96thsuraoftheQuranthefirstrevelationreceivedbyMuhammad.

mannerofrecitation.However,theQurandidnotexistinbookformatthetimeofMuhammad'sdeathin632.[29][30][31]ThereisagreementamongscholarsthatMuhammadhimselfdidnotwritedowntherevelation.[32]

SahihalBukharinarratesMuhammaddescribingtherevelationsas,"Sometimesitis(revealed)liketheringingofabell"andAishareported,"IsawtheProphetbeinginspiredDivinelyonaverycolddayandnoticedthesweatdroppingfromhisforehead(astheInspirationwasover)."[33]Muhammad'sfirstrevelation,accordingtotheQuran,wasaccompaniedwithavision.Theagentofrevelationismentionedasthe"onemightyinpower",[34]theonewho"grewcleartoviewwhenhewasontheuppermosthorizon.Thenhedrewnighandcamedowntillhewas(distant)twobows'lengthorevennearer."[30][35]TheIslamicstudiesscholarWelchstatesintheEncyclopaediaofIslamthathebelievesthegraphicdescriptionsofMuhammad'sconditionatthesemomentsmayberegardedasgenuine,becausehewasseverelydisturbedaftertheserevelations.AccordingtoWelch,theseseizureswouldhavebeenseenbythosearoundhimasconvincingevidenceforthesuperhumanoriginofMuhammad'sinspirations.However,Muhammad'scriticsaccusedhimofbeingapossessedman,asoothsayeroramagiciansincehisexperiencesweresimilartothoseclaimedbysuchfigureswellknowninancientArabia.WelchadditionallystatesthatitremainsuncertainwhethertheseexperiencesoccurredbeforeorafterMuhammad'sinitialclaimofprophethood.[36]

TheQurandescribesMuhammadas"ummi",[37]whichistraditionallyinterpretedas"illiterate,"butthemeaningisrathermorecomplex.MedievalcommentatorssuchasAlTabarimaintainedthattheterminducedtwomeanings:first,theinabilitytoreadorwriteingeneralsecond,theinexperienceorignoranceofthepreviousbooksorscriptures(buttheygaveprioritytothefirstmeaning).Muhammad'silliteracywastakenasasignofthegenuinenessofhisprophethood.Forexample,accordingtoFakhralDinalRazi,ifMuhammadhadmasteredwritingandreadinghepossiblywouldhavebeensuspectedofhavingstudiedthebooksoftheancestors.SomescholarssuchasWattpreferthesecondmeaningof"ummi"theytakeittoindicateunfamiliaritywithearliersacredtexts.[30][38]

Compilation

Seealso:HistoryoftheQuran,Sana'amanuscriptandBirminghamQuranmanuscript

Basedonearliertransmittedreports,intheyear632,afterMuhammaddiedandanumberofhiscompanionswhoknewtheQuranbyheartwerekilledinabattlebyMusaylimah,thefirstcaliphAbuBakr(d.634)decidedtocollectthebookinonevolumesothatitcouldbepreserved.ZaydibnThabit(d.655)wasthepersontocollecttheQuransince"heusedtowritetheDivineInspirationforAllah'sApostle".Thus,agroupofscribes,mostimportantlyZayd,collectedtheversesandproducedahandwrittenmanuscriptofthecompletebook.ThemanuscriptaccordingtoZaydremainedwithAbuBakruntilhedied.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surat_al-Fatiha_inscribed_upon_the_shoulder_blade_of_a_camel.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iqra.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Alaqhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_al-Bukharihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aishahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clairvoyanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magician_(paranormal)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Jarir_al-Tabarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sana%27a_manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Quran_manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Yamamahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musaylimahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakrhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Thabit



BirminghamQuranmanuscriptdatedamongtheoldestintheworld.

Zayd'sreactiontothetaskandthedifficultiesincollectingtheQuranicmaterialfromparchments,palmleafstalks,thinstonesandfrommenwhoknewitbyheartisrecordedinearliernarratives.AfterAbuBakr,HafsabintUmar,Muhammad'swidow,wasentrustedwiththemanuscript.Inabout650,thethirdCaliphUthmanibnAffan(d.656)begannoticingslightdifferencesinpronunciationoftheQuranasIslamexpandedbeyondtheArabianPeninsulaintoPersia,theLevant,andNorthAfrica.Inordertopreservethesanctityofthetext,heorderedacommitteeheadedbyZaydtouseAbuBakr'scopyandprepareastandardcopyoftheQuran.[29][39]Thus,within20yearsofMuhammad'sdeath,theQuranwascommittedtowrittenform.ThattextbecamethemodelfromwhichcopiesweremadeandpromulgatedthroughouttheurbancentersoftheMuslimworld,andotherversionsarebelievedtohavebeendestroyed.[29][40][41][42]ThepresentformoftheQurantextisacceptedbyMuslimscholarstobetheoriginalversioncompiledbyAbuBakr.[30][31][43]

AccordingtoShiaandsomeSunnischolars,AliibnAbiTalib(d.661)compiledacompleteversionoftheQuranshortlyafterMuhammad'sdeath.TheorderofthistextdifferedfromthatgatheredlaterduringUthman'serainthatthisversionhadbeencollectedinchronologicalorder.Despitethis,hemadenoobjectionagainstthestandardizedQuranandacceptedtheQuranincirculation.OtherpersonalcopiesoftheQuranmighthaveexistedincludingIbnMas'ud'sandUbayibnKa'b'scodex,noneofwhichexisttoday.[1][29][44]

TheQuranmostlikelyexistedinscatteredwrittenformduringMuhammad'slifetime.SeveralsourcesindicatethatduringMuhammad'slifetimealargenumberofhiscompanionshadmemorizedtherevelations.EarlycommentariesandIslamichistoricalsourcessupporttheabovementionedunderstandingoftheQuran'searlydevelopment.[11]TheQuraninitspresentformisgenerallyconsideredbyacademicscholarstorecordthewordsspokenbyMuhammadbecausethesearchforvariantshasnotyieldedanydifferencesofgreatsignificance.[45]AlthoughmostvariantreadingsofthetextoftheQuranhaveceasedtobetransmitted,somestillare.TherehasbeennocriticaltextproducedonwhichascholarlyreconstructionoftheQuranictextcouldbebased.[46]Historically,controversyovertheQuran'scontenthasrarelybecomeanissue,althoughdebatescontinueonthesubject.[47][48]

In1972,inamosqueinthecityofSana'a,Yemen,manuscriptswerediscoveredthatwerelaterprovedtobethemostancientQuranictextknowntoexistatthetime.TheSana'amanuscriptscontainpalimpsests,amanuscriptpagefromwhichthetexthasbeenwashedofftomaketheparchmentreusableagainapracticewhichwascommoninancienttimesduetoscarcityofwritingmaterial.However,thefaintwashedoffunderlyingtext(scriptioinferior)isstillbarelyvisibleandbelievedtobe"preUthmanic"Quraniccontent,whilethetextwrittenontop(scriptiosuperior)isbelievedtobelongtoUthmanictime.[49]Studiesusingradiocarbondatingindicatethattheparchmentsaredatedtotheperiodbefore671ADwitha99percentprobability.[50][51]

In2015,fragmentsofaveryearlyQuran,datingbackto1370yearsago,werediscoveredinthelibraryoftheUniversityofBirmingham,England.AccordingtothetestscarriedoutbyOxfordUniversityRadiocarbonAcceleratorUnit,"withaprobabilityofmorethan95%,theparchmentwasfrombetween568and645".ThemanuscriptiswritteninHijaziscript,anearlyformofwrittenArabic.[52][53]Thisispossibly

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Quran_manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafsa_bint_Umarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uthman_ibn_Affanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Peninsulahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Mas%27udhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubay_ibn_Ka%27bhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_texthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sana%27ahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sana%27a_manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palimpsesthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_datinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Quran_manuscripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Birminghamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijazi_script



theearliestextantexemplaroftheQuran,butasthetestsallowarangeofpossibledates,itcannotbesaidwithcertaintywhichoftheexistingversionsistheoldest.[53]SaudischolarSaudalSarhanhasexpresseddoubtovertheageofthefragmentsastheycontaindotsandchapterseparatorsthatarebelievedtohaveoriginatedlater.[54]

SignificanceinIslam

InWorship

MuslimsbelievetheQurantobethebookofdivineguidancerevealedfromGodtoMuhammadthroughtheangelGabrieloveraperiodof23yearsandviewtheQuranasGod'sfinalrevelationtohumanity.[7][55]

RevelationinIslamicandQuraniccontextsmeanstheactofGodaddressinganindividual,conveyingamessageforagreaternumberofrecipients.TheprocessbywhichthedivinemessagecomestotheheartofamessengerofGodistanzil(tosenddown)ornuzl(tocomedown).AstheQuransays,"Withthetruthwe(God)havesentitdownandwiththetruthithascomedown."[56]

TheQuranfrequentlyassertsinitstextthatitisdivinelyordained.SomeversesintheQuranseemtoimplythateventhosewhodonotspeakArabicwouldunderstandtheQuranifitwererecitedtothem.[57]TheQuranreferstoawrittenpretext,"thepreservedtablet",thatrecordsGod'sspeechevenbeforeitwassentdown.[58][59]

TheissueofwhethertheQuraniseternalorcreatedbecameatheologicaldebate(Quran'screatedness)intheninthcentury.Mu'tazilas,anIslamicschooloftheologybasedonreasonandrationalthought,heldthattheQuranwascreatedwhilethemostwidespreadvarietiesofMuslimtheologiansconsideredtheQurantobecoeternalwithGodandthereforeuncreated.Sufiphilosophersviewthequestionasartificialorwronglyframed.[60]

MuslimsbelievethatthepresentwordingoftheQurancorrespondstothatrevealedtoMuhammad,andaccordingtotheirinterpretationofQuran15:9(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/015qmt.php#015.009),itisprotectedfromcorruption("Indeed,itisWewhosentdowntheQuranandindeed,Wewillbeitsguardian.").[61]MuslimsconsidertheQurantobeaguide,asignoftheprophethoodofMuhammadandthetruthofthereligion.TheyargueitisnotpossibleforahumantoproduceabookliketheQuran,astheQuranitselfmaintains.

ThefirstsuraoftheQuranisrepeatedindailyprayersandinotheroccasions.Thissura,whichconsistsofsevenverses,isthemostoftenrecitedsuraoftheQuran:[1]

PraisedbeGod,LordoftheUniverse,theBeneficent,theMercifulandMasteroftheDayofJudgment,YoualoneWedoworshipandfromYoualonewedoseekassistance,guideustotherightpath,thepathofthosetowhomYouhavegrantedblessings,thosewhoareneithersubjecttoYourangernorhavegoneastray."[62]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirit_(Islam)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Createdness_(Qu%27ran)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%27tazilahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufihttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/015-qmt.php#015.009



RespectforthewrittentextoftheQuranisanimportantelementofreligiousfaithbymanyMuslims,andtheQuranistreatedwithreverence.BasedontraditionandaliteralinterpretationofQuran56:79(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/056qmt.php#056.079)("noneshalltouchbutthosewhoareclean"),someMuslimsbelievethattheymustperformaritualcleansingwithwaterbeforetouchingacopyoftheQuran,althoughthisviewisnotuniversal.[1]WornoutcopiesoftheQuranarewrappedinaclothandstoredindefinitelyinasafeplace,buriedinamosqueoraMuslimcemetery,orburnedandtheashesburiedorscatteredoverwater.[63]

InIslam,mostintellectualdisciplines,includingIslamictheology,philosophy,mysticismandjurisprudence,havebeenconcernedwiththeQuranorhavetheirfoundationinitsteachings.[1]MuslimsbelievethatthepreachingorreadingoftheQuranisrewardedwithdivinerewardsvariouslycalledajr,thawaborhasanat.[64]

InIslamicart

TheQuranalsoinspiredIslamicartsandspecificallythesocalledQuranicartsofcalligraphyandillumination.[1]TheQuranisneverdecoratedwithfigurativeimages,butmanyQuranshavebeenhighlydecoratedwithdecorativepatternsinthemarginsofthepage,orbetweenthelinesoratthestartofsuras.Islamicversesappearinmanyothermedia,onbuildingsandonobjectsofallsizes,suchasmosquelamps,metalwork,potteryandsinglepagesofcalligraphyformuraqqasoralbums.

Calligraphy,18thcentury.BrooklynMuseum.

Quranicinscriptions,BaraGumbadmosque,Delhi,India

http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/056-qmt.php#056.079https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_illuminationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque_lamphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_potteryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muraqqahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Calligraphy_-_3.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quran_inscriptions_on_wall,_Lodhi_Gardens,_Delhi.jpg



TypicalglassandenamelmosquelampwiththeAyatanNuror"VerseofLight"(24:35)

Quranicverses,Shahizindamausoleum,Samarkand,Uzebekistan

Quranpagedecorationart,Ottomanperiod

TheleavesfromthisQuranwritteningoldandcontouredwithbrowninkhaveahorizontalformat.ThisisadmirablysuitedtoclassicalKuficcalligraphy,whichbecamecommonundertheearlyAbbasidcaliphs.

Inimitability

Mainarticle:I'jaz

InimitabilityoftheQuran(or"I'jaz")isthebeliefthatnohumanspeechcanmatchtheQuraninitscontentandform.TheQuranisconsideredaninimitablemiraclebyMuslims,effectiveuntiltheDayofResurrectionand,thereby,thecentralproofgrantedtoMuhammadinauthenticationofhispropheticstatus.TheconceptofinimitabilityoriginatesintheQuranwhereinfivedifferentversesopponentsarechallengedtoproducesomethingliketheQuran:"Ifmenandspritesbandedtogethertoproducethelikeof

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FirstsuraoftheQuran,AlFatiha,consistingofsevenverses.

AtTin(thefig),95thsuraoftheQuran.

thisQurantheywouldneverproduceitslikenotthoughtheybackedoneanother."[65]SothesuggestionisthatiftherearedoubtsconcerningthedivineauthorshipoftheQuran,comeforwardandcreatesomethinglikeit.Fromtheninthcentury,numerousworksappearedwhichstudiedtheQuranandexamineditsstyleandcontent.MedievalMuslimscholarsincludingalJurjani(d.1078)andalBaqillani(d.1013)havewrittentreatisesonthesubject,discusseditsvariousaspects,andusedlinguisticapproachestostudytheQuran.OthersarguethattheQurancontainsnobleideas,hasinnermeanings,maintaineditsfreshnessthroughtheagesandhascausedgreattransformationsinindividuallevelandinthehistory.SomescholarsstatethattheQurancontainsscientificinformationthatagreeswithmodernscience.ThedoctrineofmiraculousnessoftheQuranisfurtheremphasizedbyMuhammad'silliteracysincetheunletteredprophetcouldnothavebeensuspectedofcomposingtheQuran.[44][66]

Textandarrangement

Mainarticles:SuraandAyah

TheQuranconsistsof114chaptersofvaryinglengths,eachknownasasura.SurasareclassifiedasMeccanorMedinan,dependingonwhethertheverseswererevealedbeforeorafterthemigrationofMuhammadtothecityofMedina.However,asuraclassifiedasMedinanmaycontainMeccanversesinitandviceversa.Suratitlesarederivedfromanameorqualitydiscussedinthetext,orfromthefirstlettersorwordsofthesura.Surasarearrangedroughlyinorderofdecreasingsize.Thesuraarrangementisthusnotconnectedtothesequenceofrevelation.EachsuraexcepttheninthstartswiththeBismillah(),anArabicphrasemeaning"InthenameofGod".Thereare,however,still114occurrencesoftheBismillahintheQuran,duetoitspresenceinQuran27:30(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/027qmt.php#027.030)astheopeningofSolomon'slettertotheQueenofSheba.[67]

Eachsuraconsistsofseveralverses,knownasayat,whichoriginallymeansa"sign"or"evidence"sentbyGod.Thenumberofversesdiffersfromsuratosura.Anindividualversemaybejustafewlettersorseverallines.ThetotalnumberofversesintheQuranis6,236,however,thenumbervariesifthebismillahsarecountedseparately.

Inadditiontoandindependentofthedivisionintosuras,therearevariouswaysofdividingtheQuranintopartsofapproximatelyequallengthforconvenienceinreading.The30juz'(pluralajz)canbeusedtoreadthroughtheentireQuraninamonth.Someofthesepartsareknownbynameswhicharethefirstfewwordsbywhichthejuzstarts.Ajuz'issometimesfurtherdividedintotwoizb(pluralazb),andeachhizbsubdividedintofourrubalahzab.TheQuranisalsodividedintosevenapproximatelyequalparts,manzil(pluralmanzil),forittoberecitedinaweek.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FirstSurahKoran_(fragment).jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Fatihahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surah95-Tin.pnghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-Tinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Qahir_al-Jurjanihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Baqillanihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccan_surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medinan_surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijra_(Islam)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basmalahttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/027-qmt.php#027.030https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_of_Shebahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juz%27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizbhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manzil



Writteninthe12thcentury.

Adifferentstructureisprovidedbysemanticalunitsresemblingparagraphsandcomprisingroughlytenayateach.Suchasectioniscalledaruk`.

Muqatta'at,ortheQuranicinitials,are14differentlettercombinationsof14Arabiclettersthatappearinthebeginningof29surasoftheQuran.Themeaningsoftheseinitialsremainunclear.

AccordingtooneestimatetheQuranconsistsof77,430words,18,994uniquewords,12,183stems,3,382lemmasand1,685roots.[68]

Contents

Mainarticles:GodinIslam,Islamiceschatology,ProphetsinIslam,QuranandscienceandLegendsandtheQuran

TheQuraniccontentisconcernedwithbasicIslamicbeliefsincludingtheexistenceofGodandtheresurrection.Narrativesoftheearlyprophets,ethicalandlegalsubjects,historicaleventsofMuhammad'stime,charityandprayeralsoappearintheQuran.TheQuranicversescontaingeneralexhortationsregardingrightandwrongandhistoricaleventsarerelatedtooutlinegeneralmorallessons.VersespertainingtonaturalphenomenahavebeeninterpretedbyMuslimsasanindicationoftheauthenticityoftheQuranicmessage.[69]

Monotheism

ThecentralthemeoftheQuranismonotheism.Godisdepictedasliving,eternal,omniscientandomnipotent(see,e.g.,Quran2:20(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.020),2:29(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.029),2:255(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.255)).God'somnipotenceappearsaboveallinhispowertocreate.Heisthecreatorofeverything,oftheheavensandtheearthandwhatisbetweenthem(see,e.g.,Quran13:16(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/013qmt.php#013.016),50:38(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/050qmt.php#050.038),etc.).AllhumanbeingsareequalintheirutterdependenceuponGod,andtheirwellbeingdependsupontheiracknowledgingthatfactandlivingaccordingly.[30][69]

TheQuranusescosmologicalandcontingencyargumentsinvariousverseswithoutreferringtothetermstoprovetheexistenceofGod.Therefore,theuniverseisoriginatedandneedsanoriginator,andwhateverexistsmusthaveasufficientcauseforitsexistence.Besides,thedesignoftheuniverse,isfrequentlyreferredtoasapointofcontemplation:"ItisHewhohascreatedsevenheavensinharmony.YoucannotseeanyfaultinGod'screationthenlookagain:Canyouseeanyflaw?"[70][44]

Eschatology

Mainarticle:Islamiceschatology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quran_rzabasi4.JPGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muqatta%27athttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_stemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_eschatologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran_and_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legends_and_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_eschatologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheismhttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/002-qmt.php#002.020http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/002-qmt.php#002.029http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/002-qmt.php#002.255http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/013-qmt.php#013.016http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/050-qmt.php#050.038https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_argumenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_of_Godhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_eschatology



Thedoctrineofthelastdayandeschatology(thefinalfateoftheuniverse)maybereckonedasthesecondgreatdoctrineoftheQuran.[30]ItisestimatedthatapproximatelyonethirdoftheQuraniseschatological,dealingwiththeafterlifeinthenextworldandwiththedayofjudgmentattheendoftime.[40]ThereisareferencetotheafterlifeonmostpagesoftheQuranandbeliefintheafterlifeisoftenreferredtoinconjunctionwithbeliefinGodasinthecommonexpression:"BelieveinGodandthelastday".[71]Anumberofsurassuchas44,56,75,78,81and101aredirectlyrelatedtotheafterlifeanditspreparations.Somesurasindicatetheclosenessoftheeventandwarnpeopletobepreparedfortheimminentday.Forinstance,thefirstversesofSura22,whichdealwiththemightyearthquakeandthesituationsofpeopleonthatday,representthisstyleofdivineaddress:"OPeople!BerespectfultoyourLord.TheearthquakeoftheHourisamightything."[44]

TheQuranisoftenvividinitsdepictionofwhatwillhappenattheendtime.WattdescribestheQuranicviewofEndTime:[30]

"Theclimaxofhistory,whenthepresentworldcomestoanend,isreferredtoinvariousways.Itis'theDayofJudgment,''theLastDay,''theDayofResurrection,'orsimply'theHour.'Lessfrequentlyitis'theDayofDistinction'(whenthegoodareseparatedfromtheevil),'theDayoftheGathering'(ofmentothepresenceofGod)or'theDayoftheMeeting'(ofmenwithGod).TheHourcomessuddenly.Itisheraldedbyashout,byathunderclap,orbytheblastofatrumpet.Acosmicupheavalthentakesplace.Themountainsdissolveintodust,theseasboilup,thesunisdarkened,thestarsfallandtheskyisrolledup.GodappearsasJudge,buthispresenceishintedatratherthandescribed.[...]Thecentralinterest,ofcourse,isinthegatheringofallmankindbeforetheJudge.Humanbeingsofallages,restoredtolife,jointhethrong.Tothescoffingobjectionoftheunbelieversthatformergenerationshadbeendeadalongtimeandwerenowdustandmoulderingbones,thereplyisthatGodisneverthelessabletorestorethemtolife."

TheQurandoesnotassertanaturalimmortalityofthehumansoul,sinceman'sexistenceisdependentonthewillofGod:whenhewills,hecausesmantodieandwhenhewills,heraiseshimtolifeagaininabodilyresurrection.[72]

Prophets

AccordingtotheQuran,Godcommunicatedwithmanandmadehiswillknownthroughsignsandrevelations.Prophets,or'MessengersofGod',receivedrevelationsanddeliveredthemtohumanity.Themessagehasbeenidenticalandforallhumankind."Nothingissaidtoyouthatwasnotsaidtothemessengersbeforeyou,thatyourlordhasathisCommandforgivenessaswellasamostGrievousPenalty."[73]TherevelationdoesnotcomedirectlyfromGodtotheprophets.AngelsactingasGod'smessengersdeliverthedivinerevelationtothem.ThiscomesoutinQuran42:51(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/042qmt.php#042.051),inwhichitisstated:"ItisnotforanymortalthatGodshouldspeaktothem,exceptbyrevelation,orfrombehindaveil,orbysendingamessengertorevealbyhispermissionwhatsoeverHewill."[40][72]

Ethicoreligiousconcepts

BeliefisafundamentalaspectofmoralityintheQuran,andscholarshavetriedtodeterminethesemanticcontentsof"belief"and"believer"intheQuran.[74]TheethicolegalconceptsandexhortationsdealingwithrighteousconductarelinkedtoaprofoundawarenessofGod,therebyemphasizingtheimportanceoffaith,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschatologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortalityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_in_Islamhttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/042-qmt.php#042.051



BoysstudyingQuran,Touba,Senegal

accountability,andthebeliefineachhuman'sultimateencounterwithGod.Peopleareinvitedtoperformactsofcharity,especiallyfortheneedy.Believerswho"spendoftheirwealthbynightandbyday,insecretandinpublic"arepromisedthatthey"shallhavetheirrewardwiththeirLordonthemshallbenofear,norshalltheygrieve".[75]Italsoaffirmsfamilylifebylegislatingonmattersofmarriage,divorce,andinheritance.Anumberofpractices,suchasusuryandgambling,areprohibited.TheQuranisoneofthefundamentalsourcesofIslamiclaw(sharia).SomeformalreligiouspracticesreceivesignificantattentionintheQuranincludingtheformalprayers(salat)andfastinginthemonthofRamadan.Asforthemannerinwhichtheprayeristobeconducted,theQuranreferstoprostration.[11][72]Thetermforcharity,zakat,literallymeanspurification.Charity,accordingtotheQuran,isameansofselfpurification.[58][76]

Literarystyle

TheQuran'smessageisconveyedwithvariousliterarystructuresanddevices.IntheoriginalArabic,thesurasandversesemployphoneticandthematicstructuresthatassisttheaudience'seffortstorecallthemessageofthetext.Muslimsassert(accordingtotheQuranitself)thattheQuraniccontentandstyleisinimitable.[77]

ThelanguageoftheQuranhasbeendescribedas"rhymedprose"asitpartakesofbothpoetryandprosehowever,thisdescriptionrunstheriskoffailingtoconveytherhythmicqualityofQuraniclanguage,whichismorepoeticinsomepartsandmoreproselikeinothers.Rhyme,whilefoundthroughouttheQuran,isconspicuousinmanyoftheearlierMeccansuras,inwhichrelativelyshortversesthrowtherhymingwordsintoprominence.TheeffectivenessofsuchaformisevidentforinstanceinSura81,andtherecanbenodoubtthatthesepassagesimpressedtheconscienceofthehearers.Frequentlyachangeofrhymefromonesetofversestoanothersignalsachangeinthesubjectofdiscussion.Latersectionsalsopreservethisformbutthestyleismoreexpository.[40][78]

TheQuranictextseemstohavenobeginning,middle,orend,itsnonlinearstructurebeingakintoawebornet.[1]Thetextualarrangementissometimesconsideredtoexhibitlackofcontinuity,absenceofanychronologicalorthematicorderandrepetitiousness.[79][80]MichaelSells,citingtheworkofthecriticNormanO.Brown,acknowledgesBrown'sobservationthattheseemingdisorganizationofQuranicliteraryexpressionitsscatteredorfragmentedmodeofcompositioninSells'sphraseisinfactaliterarydevicecapableofdeliveringprofoundeffectsasiftheintensityofthepropheticmessagewereshatteringthevehicleofhumanlanguageinwhichitwasbeingcommunicated.[81][82]SellsalsoaddressesthemuchdiscussedrepetitivenessoftheQuran,seeingthis,too,asaliterarydevice.

Atextisselfreferentialwhenitspeaksaboutitselfandmakesreferencetoitself.AccordingtoStefanWild,theQurandemonstratesthismetatextualitybyexplaining,classifying,interpretingandjustifyingthewordstobetransmitted.SelfreferentialityisevidentinthosepassageswheretheQuranreferstoitselfasrevelation(tanzil),remembrance(dhikr),news(naba'),criterion(furqan)inaselfdesignatingmanner(explicitlyassertingitsDivinity,"AndthisisablessedRemembrancethatWehavesentdownsoareyounowdenyingit?"),[83]orinthefrequentappearanceofthe"Say"tags,whenMuhammadiscommandedto

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Touba3.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touba,_Senegalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shariahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_(literature)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Sellshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_O._Brownhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-referencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metatextuality



AnearlyinterpretationofSura108oftheQuran

speak(e.g.,"Say:'God'sguidanceisthetrueguidance'","Say:'WouldyouthendisputewithusconcerningGod?'").AccordingtoWildtheQuranishighlyselfreferential.ThefeatureismoreevidentinearlyMeccansuras.[84]

Interpretation

Mainarticle:Tafsir

TheQuranhassparkedahugebodyofcommentaryandexplication(tafsir),aimedatexplainingthe"meaningsoftheQuranicverses,clarifyingtheirimportandfindingouttheirsignificance".[85]

TafsirisoneoftheearliestacademicactivitiesofMuslims.AccordingtotheQuran,MuhammadwasthefirstpersonwhodescribedthemeaningsofversesforearlyMuslims.[86]OtherearlyexegetesincludedafewCompanionsofMuhammad,likeAliibnAbiTalib,AbdullahibnAbbas,AbdullahibnUmarandUbayyibnKab.Exegesisinthosedayswasconfinedtotheexplanationofliteraryaspectsoftheverse,thebackgroundofitsrevelationand,occasionally,interpretationofoneversewiththehelpoftheother.Iftheversewasaboutahistoricalevent,thensometimesafewtraditions(hadith)ofMuhammadwerenarratedtomakeitsmeaningclear.[85]

BecausetheQuranisspokeninclassicalArabic,manyofthelaterconvertstoIslam(mostlynonArabs)didnotalwaysunderstandtheQuranicArabic,theydidnotcatchallusionsthatwerecleartoearlyMuslimsfluentinArabicandtheywereconcernedwithreconcilingapparentconflictofthemesintheQuran.CommentatorseruditeinArabicexplainedtheallusions,andperhapsmostimportantly,explainedwhichQuranicverseshadbeenrevealedearlyinMuhammad'spropheticcareer,asbeingappropriatetotheveryearliestMuslimcommunity,andwhichhadbeenrevealedlater,cancelingoutor"abrogating"(nsikh)theearliertext(manskh).[87][88]Otherscholars,however,maintainthatnoabrogationhastakenplaceintheQuran.[89]TheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunityhaspublishedatenvolumeUrducommentaryontheQuran,withthenameTafseereKabir.[90]

Esotericinterpretation

Mainarticle:EsotericinterpretationoftheQuran

EsotericorSufiinterpretationattemptstounveiltheinnermeaningsoftheQuran.Sufismmovesbeyondtheapparent(zahir)pointoftheversesandinsteadrelatesQuranicversestotheinneroresoteric(batin)andmetaphysicaldimensionsofconsciousnessandexistence.[91]AccordingtoSands,esotericinterpretationsaremoresuggestivethandeclarative,theyareallusions(isharat)ratherthanexplanations(tafsir).Theyindicatepossibilitiesasmuchastheydemonstratetheinsightsofeachwriter.[92]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tapurian_Qur%27an_(Al-Kusar).PNGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafsirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companions_of_Muhammadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talibhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Abbashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_ibn_Umarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubayy_ibn_Kabhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Arabichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naskh_(exegesis)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Communityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoteric_interpretation_of_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism



Sufiinterpretation,accordingtoAnnabelKeeler,alsoexemplifiestheuseofthethemeoflove,asforinstancecanbeseeninQushayri'sinterpretationoftheQuran.Quran7:143(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/007qmt.php#007.143)says:

whenMosescameatthetimeweappointed,andhisLordspoketohim,hesaid,'MyLord,showyourselftome!Letmeseeyou!'Hesaid,'youshallnotseemebutlookatthatmountain,ifitremainsstandingfirmyouwillseeme.'WhenhisLordrevealedHimselftothemountain,Hemadeitcrumble.Mosesfelldownunconscious.Whenherecovered,hesaid,'Glorybetoyou!Irepenttoyou!Iamthefirsttobelieve!'

Moses,in7:143,comesthewayofthosewhoareinlove,heasksforavisionbuthisdesireisdenied,heismadetosufferbybeingcommandedtolookatotherthantheBelovedwhilethemountainisabletoseeGod.ThemountaincrumblesandMosesfaintsatthesightofGod'smanifestationuponthemountain.InQushayri'swords,Mosescamelikethousandsofmenwhotraveledgreatdistances,andtherewasnothinglefttoMosesofMoses.Inthatstateofannihilationfromhimself,Moseswasgrantedtheunveilingoftherealities.FromtheSufipointofview,Godisthealwaysthebelovedandthewayfarer'slongingandsufferingleadtorealizationofthetruths.[93]

MuhammadHusaynTabatabaeisaysthataccordingtothepopularexplanationamongthelaterexegetes,ta'wilindicatestheparticularmeaningaverseisdirectedtowards.Themeaningofrevelation(tanzil),asopposedtota'wil,isclearinitsaccordancetotheobviousmeaningofthewordsastheywererevealed.Butthisexplanationhasbecomesowidespreadthat,atpresent,ithasbecometheprimarymeaningofta'wil,whichoriginallymeant"toreturn"or"thereturningplace".InTabatabaei'sview,whathasbeenrightlycalledta'wil,orhermeneuticinterpretationoftheQuran,isnotconcernedsimplywiththedenotationofwords.Rather,itisconcernedwithcertaintruthsandrealitiesthattranscendthecomprehensionofthecommonrunofmenyetitisfromthesetruthsandrealitiesthattheprinciplesofdoctrineandthepracticalinjunctionsoftheQuranissueforth.Interpretationisnotthemeaningoftheverseratherittranspiresthroughthatmeaning,inaspecialsortoftranspiration.Thereisaspiritualrealitywhichisthemainobjectiveofordainingalaw,orthebasicaimindescribingadivineattributeandthenthereisanactualsignificancethataQuranicstoryrefersto.[94][95]

AccordingtoShiabeliefs,thosewhoarefirmlyrootedinknowledgelikeMuhammadandtheimamsknowthesecretsoftheQuran.AccordingtoTabatabaei,thestatement"noneknowsitsinterpretationexceptGod"remainsvalid,withoutanyopposingorqualifyingclause.[96]Therefore,sofarasthisverseisconcerned,theknowledgeoftheQuran'sinterpretationisreservedforGod.ButTabatabaeiusesotherversesandconcludesthatthosewhoarepurifiedbyGodknowtheinterpretationoftheQurantoacertainextent.[95]

AccordingtoTabatabaei,thereareacceptableandunacceptableesotericinterpretations.Acceptableta'wilreferstothemeaningofaversebeyonditsliteralmeaningrathertheimplicitmeaning,whichultimatelyisknownonlytoGodandcan'tbecomprehendeddirectlythroughhumanthoughtalone.Theversesinquestionhererefertothehumanqualitiesofcoming,going,sitting,satisfaction,angerandsorrow,whichareapparentlyattributedtoGod.Unacceptableta'wiliswhereone"transfers"theapparentmeaningofaversetoadifferentmeaningbymeansofaproofthismethodisnotwithoutobviousinconsistencies.Althoughthisunacceptableta'wilhasgainedconsiderableacceptance,itisincorrectandcannotbeappliedtotheQuranicverses.Thecorrectinterpretationisthatrealityaverserefersto.Itisfoundinallverses,thedecisiveandtheambiguousalikeitisnotasortofameaningoftheworditisafactthatistoosublimefor

http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/007-qmt.php#007.143https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabatabaeihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabatabaeihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%27wilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islam



9thcenturyQuraninRezaAbbasiMuseum

words.Godhasdressedthemwithwordstobringthemabitnearertoourmindsinthisrespecttheyarelikeproverbsthatareusedtocreateapictureinthemind,andthushelpthehearertoclearlygrasptheintendedidea.[95][97]

HistoryofSuficommentaries

Oneofthenotableauthorsofesotericinterpretationpriortothe12thcenturyisSulami(d.1021)withoutwhoseworkthemajorityofveryearlySuficommentarieswouldnothavebeenpreserved.Sulami'smajorcommentaryisabooknamedhaqaiqaltafsir("TruthsofExegesis")whichisacompilationofcommentariesofearlierSufis.Fromthe11thcenturyonwardsseveralotherworksappear,includingcommentariesbyQushayri(d.1074),Daylami(d.1193),Shirazi(d.1209)andSuhrawardi(d.1234).TheseworksincludematerialfromSulami'sbooksplustheauthor'scontributions.ManyworksarewritteninPersiansuchastheworksofMaybudi(d.1135)kashalasrar("theunveilingofthesecrets").[91]Rumi(d.1273)wroteavastamountofmysticalpoetryinhisbookMathnawi.RumimakesheavyuseoftheQuraninhispoetry,afeaturethatissometimesomittedintranslationsofRumi'swork.AlargenumberofQuranicpassagescanbefoundinMathnawi,whichsomeconsiderakindofSufiinterpretationoftheQuran.Rumi'sbookisnotexceptionalforcontainingcitationsfromandelaborationontheQuran,however,RumidoesmentionQuranmorefrequently.[98]Simnani(d.1336)wrotetwoinfluentialworksofesotericexegesisontheQuran.HereconcilednotionsofGod'smanifestationthroughandinthephysicalworldwiththesentimentsofSunniIslam.[99]ComprehensiveSuficommentariesappearinthe18thcenturysuchastheworkofIsmailHakkiBursevi(d.1725).HisworkruhalBayan(theSpiritofElucidation)isavoluminousexegesis.WritteninArabic,itcombinestheauthor'sownideaswiththoseofhispredecessors(notablyIbnArabiandGhazali),allwoventogetherinHafiz,aPersianpoetryform.[99]

Levelsofmeaning

UnliketheSalafisandZahiri,ShiasandSufisaswellassomeotherMuslimphilosophersbelievethemeaningoftheQuranisnotrestrictedtotheliteralaspect.[100]Forthem,itisanessentialideathattheQuranalsohasinwardaspects.HenryCorbinnarratesahadiththatgoesbacktoMuhammad:

TheQuranpossessesanexternalappearanceandahiddendepth,anexotericmeaningandanesotericmeaning.Thisesotericmeaninginturnconcealsanesotericmeaning(thisdepthpossessesadepth,aftertheimageofthecelestialSpheres,whichareenclosedwithineachother).Soitgoesonforsevenesotericmeanings(sevendepthsofhiddendepth).[100]

Accordingtothisview,ithasalsobecomeevidentthattheinnermeaningoftheQurandoesnoteradicateorinvalidateitsoutwardmeaning.Rather,itislikethesoul,whichgiveslifetothebody.[101]CorbinconsiderstheQurantoplayapartinIslamicphilosophy,becausegnosiologyitselfgoeshandinhandwithprophetology.[102]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quran_rzabasi1.JPGhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Abbasi_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masnavihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazalihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Corbinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadithhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosiologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet#Islam



Commentariesdealingwiththezahir(outwardaspects)ofthetextarecalledtafsir,andhermeneuticandesotericcommentariesdealingwiththebatinarecalledta'wil("interpretation"or"explanation"),whichinvolvestakingthetextbacktoitsbeginning.CommentatorswithanesotericslantbelievethattheultimatemeaningoftheQuranisknownonlytoGod.[1]Incontrast,Quranicliteralism,followedbySalafisandZahiris,isthebeliefthattheQuranshouldonlybetakenatitsapparentmeaning.

Reappropriation

ReappropriationisthenameofthehermeneuticalstyleofsomeexMuslimswhohaveconvertedtoChristianity.Theirstyleorreinterpretationisadhocandunsystematizedandgearedtowardsapologetics.Thistraditionofinterpretationdrawsonthefollowingpractices:grammaticalrenegotiation,renegotiationoftextualpreference,retrieval,andconcession.[103]

Translations

Mainarticle:QurantranslationsSeealso:ListoftranslationsoftheQuran

TranslatingtheQuranhasalwaysbeenproblematicanddifficult.ManyarguethattheQuranictextcannotbereproducedinanotherlanguageorform.[104]Furthermore,anArabicwordmayhavearangeofmeaningsdependingonthecontext,makinganaccuratetranslationevenmoredifficult.[44]

Nevertheless,theQuranhasbeentranslatedintomostAfrican,Asian,andEuropeanlanguages.[44]ThefirsttranslatoroftheQuranwasSalmanthePersian,whotranslatedsuratalFatihaintoPersianduringtheseventhcentury.[105]AnothertranslationoftheQuranwascompletedin884inAlwar(Sindh,India,nowPakistan)bytheordersofAbdullahbinUmarbinAbdulAzizontherequestoftheHinduRajaMehruk.[106]

ThefirstfullyattestedcompletetranslationsoftheQuranweredonebetweenthe10thand12thcenturiesinPersian.TheSamanidking,MansurI(961976),orderedagroupofscholarsfromKhorasantotranslatetheTafsiralTabari,originallyinArabic,intoPersian.Laterinthe11thcentury,oneofthestudentsofAbuMansurAbdullahalAnsariwroteacompletetafsiroftheQuraninPersian.Inthe12thcentury,NajmalDinAbuHafsalNasafitranslatedtheQuranintoPersian.Themanuscriptsofallthreebookshavesurvivedandhavebeenpublishedseveraltimes.

IslamictraditionalsoholdsthattranslationsweremadeforEmperorNegusofAbyssiniaandByzantineEmperorHeraclius,asbothreceivedlettersbyMuhammadcontainingversesfromtheQuran.[44]Inearlycenturies,thepermissibilityoftranslationswasnotanissue,butwhetheronecouldusetranslationsinprayer.

In1936,translationsin102languageswereknown.[44]In2010,theHrriyetDailyNewsandEconomicReviewreportedthattheQuranwaspresentedin112languagesatthe18thInternationalQuranExhibitioninTehran.[107]

RobertofKetton's1143translationoftheQuranforPetertheVenerable,LexMahumetpseudoprophete,wasthefirstintoaWesternlanguage(Latin).[108]AlexanderRossofferedthefirstEnglishversionin1649,fromtheFrenchtranslationofL'AlcorandeMahomet(1647)byAndreduRyer.In1734,GeorgeSale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahir_(Islam)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batin_(Islam)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoteric_interpretation_of_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranic_literalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahirihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneuticalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apologeticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran_translationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_translations_of_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysemyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salman_the_Persianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Fatihahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanid_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansur_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafsir_al-Tabarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwaja_Abdullah_Ansarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafsirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Hafs_Omar_al-Nasafihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%27s_letters_to_the_Heads-of-Statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCrriyet_Daily_News_and_Economic_Reviewhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_of_Kettonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Venerablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Mahumet_pseudoprophetehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Ross_(writer)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Alcoran_de_Mahomethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_du_Ryerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Salehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bell_(Arabist)



producedthefirstscholarlytranslationoftheQuranintoEnglishanotherwasproducedbyRichardBellin1937,andyetanotherbyArthurJohnArberryin1955.AllthesetranslatorswerenonMuslims.TherehavebeennumeroustranslationsbyMuslims.TheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunityhaspublishedtranslationsoftheQuranin50differentlanguages[109]besidesafivevolumeEnglishcommentaryandasimpleEnglishtranslationoftheQuran.[110]

AswithtranslationsoftheBible,theEnglishtranslatorshavesometimesfavoredarchaicEnglishwordsandconstructionsovertheirmoremodernorconventionalequivalentsforexample,twowidelyreadtranslators,A.YusufAliandM.MarmadukePickthall,usethepluralandsingular"ye"and"thou"insteadofthemorecommon"you".[111]

ArabicQuranwithinterlinearPersiantranslationfromtheIlkhanidEra.

ThefirstprintedQuraninaEuropeanvernacularlanguage:L'AlcorandeMahomet,AndrduRyer,1647.

TitlepageofthefirstGermantranslation(1772)oftheQuran.

Verses33and34ofsuratYSninthisChinesetranslationoftheQuran.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bell_(Arabist)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_John_Arberryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Communityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_English_Commentary_of_the_Holy_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holy_Quran_-_Arabic_Text_and_English_translationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ilkhanid_Quran.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilkhanatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alcoran_de_Mahomet_1647.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Alcoran_de_Mahomethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_du_Ryerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koran_by_Megerlein_1772.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_quran.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya_Sin



PageoftheQuranwithvocalizationmarks

Recitation

Rulesofrecitation

Seealso:Tajwid

TheproperrecitationoftheQuranisthesubjectofaseparatedisciplinenamedtajwidwhichdeterminesindetailhowtheQuranshouldberecited,howeachindividualsyllableistobepronounced,theneedtopayattentiontotheplaceswherethereshouldbeapause,toelisions,wherethepronunciationshouldbelongorshort,wherelettersshouldbesoundedtogetherandwheretheyshouldbekeptseparate,etc.ItmaybesaidthatthisdisciplinestudiesthelawsandmethodsoftheproperrecitationoftheQuranandcoversthreemainareas:theproperpronunciationofconsonantsandvowels(thearticulationoftheQuranicphonemes),therulesofpauseinrecitationandofresumptionofrecitation,andthemusicalandmelodiousfeaturesofrecitation.[44]

InordertoavoidincorrectarticulationreciterswhoarenotnativespeakersofArabiclanguagetrytofollowaprogramoftrainingincountriessuchasEgyptorSaudiArabia.TherecitationsofafewofEgyptianreciterswerehighlyinfluentialintheartofrecitation.SoutheastAsiaiswellknownforworldclassrecitation,evidencedinthepopularityofthewomanreciterssuchasMariaUlfahofJakarta.[44]

Therearetwotypesofrecitation:murattalisataslowerpace,usedforstudyandpractice.Mujawwadreferstoaslowrecitationthatdeploysheightenedtechnicalartistryandmelodicmodulation,asinpublicperformancesbytrainedexperts.Itisdirectedtoanddependentuponanaudienceforthemujawwadreciterseekstoinvolvethelisteners.[112]

Variantreadings

Seealso:Qira'at

VocalizationmarkersindicatingspecificvowelsoundswereintroducedintotheArabiclanguagebytheendofthe9thcentury.ThefirstQuranicmanuscriptslackedthesemarks,thereforeseveralrecitationsremainacceptable.Thevariationinreadingsofthetextpermittedbythenatureofthedefectivevocalizationledtoanincreaseinthenumberofreadingsduringthe10thcentury.The10thcenturyMuslimscholarfromBaghdad,IbnMujhid,isfamousforestablishingsevenacceptabletextualreadingsoftheQuran.Hestudiedvariousreadingsandtheirtrustworthinessandchoseseven8thcenturyreadersfromthecitiesofMecca,Medina,Kufa,BasraandDamascus.IbnMujahiddidnotexplainwhyhechosesevenreaders,ratherthansixorten,butthismayberelatedtoaprophetictradition(Muhammad'ssaying)reportingthattheQuranhadbeenrevealedinseven"ahruf"(meaningsevenlettersormodes).Today,themostpopularreadingsarethosetransmittedbyaf(d.796)andWarsh(d.812)whichareaccordingtotwoofIbnMujahid'sreciters,Asim(Kufa,d.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qur%27an_folio_11th_century_kufic.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajwidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajwidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Ulfahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakartahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujawwadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qira%27athttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdadhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Ibn_Muj%C4%81hidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kufahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus



745)andNafi(Medina,d.785),respectively.TheinfluentialstandardQuranofCairo(1924)usesanelaboratesystemofmodifiedvowelsignsandasetofadditionalsymbolsforminutedetailsandisbasedonAsim'srecitation,the8thcenturyrecitationofKufa.ThiseditionhasbecomethestandardformodernprintingsoftheQuran.[40][113]

ThevariantreadingsoftheQuranareonetypeoftextualvariant.[40][114]AccordingtoMelchert,themajorityofdisagreementshavetodowithvowelstosupply,mostoftheminturnnotconceivablyreflectingdialectaldifferencesandaboutoneineightdisagreementshastodowithwhethertoplacedotsaboveorbelowtheline.[115]

Nassercategorizesvariantreadingsintovarioussubtypes,includinginternalvowels,longvowels,gemination(shaddah),assimilationandalternation.[116]

Occasionally,anearlyQuranshowscompatibilitywithaparticularreading.ASyrianmanuscriptfromthe8thcenturyisshowntohavebeenwrittenaccordingtothereadingofIbnAmirofDamascus.[117]Anotherstudysuggeststhatthismanuscriptbearsthevocalizationofhimsiregion.[118]

Writingandprinting

Writing

Beforeprintingwaswidelyadoptedinthe19thcentury,theQuranwastransmittedinmanuscriptsmadebycalligraphersandcopyists.Theearliestmanuscriptswerewritteninijztypescript.TheHijazistylemanuscriptsneverthelessconfirmthattransmissionoftheQuraninwritingbeganatanearlystage.Probablyintheninthcentury,scriptsbegantofeaturethickerstrokes,whicharetraditionallyknownasKuficscripts.Towardtheendoftheninthcentury,newscriptsbegantoappearincopiesoftheQuranandreplaceearlierscripts.Thereasonfordiscontinuationintheuseoftheearlierstylewasthatittooktoolongtoproduceandthedemandforcopieswasincreasing.Copyistswouldthereforechosesimplerwritingstyles.Beginninginthe11thcentury,thestylesofwritingemployedwereprimarilythenaskh,muhaqqaq,raynand,onrareroccasions,thethuluthscript.Naskhwasinverywidespreaduse.InNorthAfricaandSpain,theMaghribstylewaspopular.MoredistinctistheBihariscriptwhichwasusedsolelyinthenorthofIndia.NastalqstylewasalsorarelyusedinPersianworld.[40][119]

Inthebeginning,theQurandidnothavevocalizationmarkings.Thesystemofvocalization,asweknowittoday,seemstohavebeenintroducedtowardstheendoftheninthcentury.SinceitwouldhavebeentoocostlyformostMuslimstopurchaseamanuscript,copiesoftheQuranwereheldinmosquesinordertomakethemaccessibletopeople.Thesecopiesfrequentlytooktheformofaseriesof30partsorjuz.Intermsofproductivity,theOttomancopyistsprovidethebestexample.Thiswasinresponsetowidespreaddemand,unpopularityofprintingmethodsandforaestheticreasons.[120]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geminationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaddahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijazi_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kufichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naskh_(script)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhaqqaqhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maghrebi_scripthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasta%CA%BFl%C4%ABq_script



Foliofromthe"Blue"Qur'an.BrooklynMuseum.

kuficscript,Eighthorninthcentury.

maghribiscript,13th14thcenturies.

muhaqaqscript,14th15thcenturies

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Folio_from_the_%22Blue%22_Qur%27an.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Museumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Folio_from_a_Koran_(8th-9th_century).jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qur%27anic_Manuscript_-_Maghribi_script.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muhaqqaq_script.gif



shikastanastaliqscript,18th19thcenturies

kuficscript,withborderdecorations

Printing

WoodblockprintingofextractsfromtheQuranisonrecordasearlyasthe10thcentury.[121]

ArabicmovabletypeprintingwasorderedbyPopeJuliusII(r.15031512)fordistributionamongMiddleEasternChristians.[122]ThefirstcompleteQuranprintedwithmovabletypewasproducedinVenicein1537/1538fortheOttomanmarketbyPaganinoPaganiniandAlessandroPaganini.[123]TwomoreeditionsincludethosepublishedbythepastorAbrahamHinckelmanninHamburgin1694andbyItalianpriestLudovicoMaracciinPaduain1698.ThelattereditionincludedanaccurateLatintranslation.

PrintedcopiesoftheQuranduringthisperiodmetwithstrongoppositionfromMuslimlegalscholars:printinganythinginArabicwasprohibitedintheOttomanempirebetween1483and1726initially,evenonpenaltyofdeath.[124][125]TheOttomanbanonprintinginArabicscriptwasliftedin1726fornonreligioustextsonlyupontherequestofIbrahimMuteferrika,whoprintedhisfirstbookin1729.Veryfewbooks,andnoreligioustexts,wereprintedintheOttomanEmpireforanothercentury.[126]

In1786,CatherinetheGreatofRussia,sponsoredaprintingpressfor"TatarandTurkishorthography"inSaintPetersburg,withoneMullahOsmanIsmailresponsibleforproducingtheArabictypes.AQuranwasprintedwiththispressin1787,reprintedin1790and1793inSaintPetersburg,andin1803inKazan.[127]ThefirsteditionprintedinIranappearedinTehran(1828)andthefirstOttomaneditionwasfinallyprintedin1877,duringtheFirstConstitutionalEra.

GustavFlgelpublishedaneditionoftheQuranin1834inLeipzig,whichremainedauthoritativeforclosetoacentury,untilCairo'sAlAzharUniversitypublishedaneditionoftheQuranin1924.ThiseditionwastheresultofalongpreparationasitstandardizedQuranicorthographyandremainsthebasisoflatereditions.[40]

Relationshipwithotherliterature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shikastah_script.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quran_Kufic_script.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodcuthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_typehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Julius_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eastern_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganino_Paganinihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Hinckelmannhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Maraccihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paduahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulamahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Muteferrikahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_Governoratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Constitutional_Erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Leberecht_Fl%C3%BCgelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzighttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_University



ItisHeWhosentdowntothee(stepbystep),intruth,theBook,confirmingwhatwentbeforeitandHesentdowntheLaw(ofMoses)andtheGospel(ofJesus)beforethis,asaguidetomankind,andHesentdownthecriterion(ofjudgmentbetweenrightandwrong).[128]

Quran3:3(YusufAli)

TheBible

Seealso:BiblicalnarrativesandtheQuranandTawrat

TheQuranspeakswelloftherelationshipithaswithformerbooks(theTorahandtheGospels)andattributestheirsimilaritiestotheiruniqueoriginandsayingallofthemhavebeenrevealedbytheoneGod.[129]

AccordingtoSahihalBukhari,theQuranwasrecitedamongLevantinesandIraqis,anddiscussedbyChristiansandJews,beforeitwasstandardized.[130]ItslanguagewassimilartotheSyriaclanguage.TheQuranrecountsstoriesofmanyofthepeopleandeventsrecountedinJewishandChristiansacredbooks(Tanakh,Bible)anddevotionalliterature(Apocrypha,Midrash),althoughitdiffersinmanydetails.Adam,Enoch,Noah,Eber,Shelah,Abraham,Lot,Ishmael,Isaac,Jacob,Joseph,Job,Jethro,David,Solomon,Elijah,Elisha,Jonah,Aaron,Moses,Zechariah,JohntheBaptistandJesusarementionedintheQuranasprophetsofGod(seeProphetsofIslam).Infact,MosesismentionedmoreintheQuranthananyotherindividual.[131]JesusismentionedmoreoftenintheQuranthanMuhammad,whileMaryismentionedintheQuranmorethantheNewTestament.[132]MuslimsbelievethecommonelementsorresemblancesbetweentheBibleandotherJewishandChristianwritingsandIslamicdispensationsisduetotheircommondivinesource,andthattheoriginalChristianorJewishtextswereauthenticdivinerevelationsgiventoprophets.

Relationships

SomenonMuslimgroupssuchasBaha'isandDruzeviewtheQuranasholy.UnitarianUniversalistsmayalsoseekinspirationfromtheQuran.TheQuranhasbeennotedtohavecertainnarrativessimilaritiestotheDiatessaron,ProtoevangeliumofJames,InfancyGospelofThomas,GospelofPseudoMatthewandtheArabicInfancyGospel.[133][134][135]OnescholarhassuggestedthattheDiatessaron,asagospelharmony,mayhaveledtotheconceptionthattheChristianGospelisonetext.[136]

Arabwriting

AftertheQuran,andthegeneralriseofIslam,theArabicalphabetdevelopedrapidlyintoanartform.[44]

WadadKadi,ProfessorofNearEasternLanguagesandCivilizationsatUniversityofChicago,andMustansirMir,ProfessorofIslamicstudiesatYoungstownStateUniversity,state:[137]

http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/003-qmt.php#003.003https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_Yusuf_Alihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_narratives_and_the_Quranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawrathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospelshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahih_al-Bukharihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Syro-Aramaic_Reading_of_the_Koranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanakhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocryphahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midrashhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_(ancestor_of_Noah)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hud_(prophet)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelah_(son_of_Judah)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lot_(biblical_figure)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishmaelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaachttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_(patriarch)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jethro_(Bible)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elishahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moseshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zechariah_(priest)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_the_Baptisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_in_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baha%27ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druzehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian_Universalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatessaronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protoevangelium_of_Jameshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infancy_Gospel_of_Thomashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Pseudo-Matthewhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_Infancy_Gospelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_harmonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_alphabethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicagohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngstown_State_University



PagefromaQuran('UmariAqta').Iran,Afghanistan,Timuriddynasty,circa1400.Opaquewatercolor,inkandgoldonpaperMuqaqqaqscript.170109cm(661516421516in).Historicalregion:Uzbekistan.

AlthoughArabic,asalanguageandaliterarytradition,wasquitewelldevelopedbythetimeofMuhammad'spropheticactivity,itwasonlyaftertheemergenceofIslam,withitsfoundingscriptureinArabic,thatthelanguagereacheditsutmostcapacityofexpression,andtheliteratureitshighestpointofcomplexityandsophistication.Indeed,itprobablyisnoexaggerationtosaythattheQuranwasoneofthemostconspicuousforcesinthemakingofclassicalandpostclassicalArabicliterature.

ThemainareasinwhichtheQuranexertednoticeableinfluenceonArabicliteraturearedictionandthemesotherareasarerelatedtotheliteraryaspectsoftheQuranparticularlyoaths(q.v.),metaphors,motifsandsymbols.Asfarasdictionisconcerned,onecouldsaythatQuranicwords,idiomsandexpressions,especially"loaded"andformulaicphrases,appearinpractically

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Large_Koran.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watercolorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan



allgenresofliteratureandinsuchabundancethatitissimplyimpossibletocompileafullrecordofthem.FornotonlydidtheQurancreateanentirelynewlinguisticcorpustoexpressitsmessage,italsoendowedold,preIslamicwordswithnewmeaningsanditisthesemeaningsthattookrootinthelanguageandsubsequentlyintheliterature...

Seealso

QuranandmiraclesQuranandSunnahQuranreadingQuranicliteralismTafsiroftheQuransisterofQuranWomenintheQuranKarbala'iKazemKarimiSaruqiWikipediaarticlesonQuranicstudies

Notes

^[n1]TheEnglishpronunciationvaries:/krn/,/krn/,/krn/,/krn/,/korn/,/korn/[138]especiallywiththespellingquran/krn/,/krn/[139]especiallyinBritishEnglish/krn/.[140][141]^[n2][alquran]TheactualpronunciationinLiteraryArabicvariesregionally.Thefirstvowelvariesfrom[o]to[]to[u],whilethesecondvowelvariesfrom[]to[a]to[].Forexample,thepronunciationinEgyptis[qorn]andinCentralEastArabia[qrn].

References1. Nasr,SeyyedHossein(2007)."Qurn".EncyclopdiaBritannicaOnline.Retrieved20071104.2. AlanJones,TheKoran,London1994,ISBN1842126091,openingpage.3. ArthurArberry,TheKoranInterpreted,London1956,ISBN0684825074,p.x.4. Lambert,Gray(2013).TheLeadersAreComing!.WestBowPress.p.287.ISBN9781449760137.5. RoyH.WilliamsMichaelR.Drew(2012).Pendulum:HowPastGenerationsShapeOurPresentandPredictOurFuture.VanguardPress.p.143.ISBN9781593157067.

6. ChronologyofPropheticEvents,FazlurRehmanShaikh(2001)p.50TaHaPublishersLtd.Quran17:105(http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.arberry/17:105)

7. LivingReligions:AnEncyclopaediaoftheWorld'sFaiths,MaryPatFisher,1997,page338,I.B.TaurisPublishers.

8. Quran17:106(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/017qmt.php#017.106)9. Peters,F.E.(2003).TheWordsandWillofGod.PrincetonUniversityPress.pp.1213.ISBN0691114617.10. Donner,Fred,"Thehistoricalcontext"inMcAuliffe,J.D.(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontotheQur'n

(CambridgeUniversityPress,2006),p.3133.11. Campo,JuanE.(2009).EncyclopediaofIslam.FactsOnFile.pp.57074.ISBN0816054541.12. Nigosian,S.A.(2004).Islam:itshistory,teachingandpractices([Newed.].ed.).IndianaUniv.Press.pp.65

80.ISBN0253216273.13. Wheeler,BrannonM.(2002).ProphetsintheQuran:anintroductiontotheQuranandMuslimexegesis.

Continuum.p.15.ISBN9780826449566.14. "TanzilQuranNavigator".tanzil.net.

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15. Nasr(2003),p.4216. Quran2:6776(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.067)17. HandbookofIslamicMarketing,Page38,G.Rice201118. LiteracyandDevelopment:EthnographicPerspectivesPage193,BrianVStreet200119. ApocalypseAnd/orMetamorphosisPage81,NormanOliverBrown199120. "qryn".Retrieved31August2013.21. Quran75:17(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/075qmt.php#075.017)22. Quran7:204(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/007qmt.php#007.204)23. See"ur'an,al,"EncyclopediaofIslamOnlineand[Quran9:111(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious

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24. Quran20:2(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/020qmt.php#020.002)cf.25. Quran25:32(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/025qmt.php#025.032)cf.26. AccordingtoWelchintheEncyclopediaofIslam,theversespertainingtotheusageofthewordhikmashould

probablybeinterpretedinthelightofIV,105,whereitissaidthat"Muhammadistojudge(tahkum)mankindonthebasisoftheBooksentdowntohim."

27. AbbasJaffer,MasumaJaffer(2009).QuranicSciences.ICASpress.pp.1115.ISBN1904063306.28. "Quran"(http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=Quran),"Koran".OxfordEnglishDictionary(3rd

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29. Tabatabai,SayyidM.H.(1987).TheQur'aninIslam:itsimpactandinfluenceonthelifeofmuslims.ZahraPubl.ISBN0710302665.

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33. TranslationofSahihBukhari,Book1(http://www.cmje.org/religioustexts/hadith/bukhari/001sbt.php).CenterforMuslimJewishEngagement."God'sApostlereplied,'Sometimesitis(revealed)liketheringingofabell,thisformofInspirationisthehardestofallandthenthisstatepassesoffafterIhavegraspedwhatisinspired.SometimestheAngelcomesintheformofamanandtalkstomeandIgraspwhateverhesays.'Aishaadded:VerilyIsawtheProphetbeinginspiredDivinelyonaverycolddayandnoticedtheSweatdroppingfromhisforehead(astheInspirationwasover)."

34. Quran53:5(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/053qmt.php#053.005)35. Quran53:69(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/053qmt.php#053.006)36. EncyclopediaofIslamonline,Muhammadarticle37. Quran7:157(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/007qmt.php#007.157)38. Gnther,Sebastian(2002)."Muhammad,theIlliterateProphet:AnIslamicCreedintheQuranandQuranic

Exegesis".JournalofQuranicStudies4(1):126.doi:10.3366/jqs.2002.4.1.1.39. alBukhari,Muhammad."SahihBukhari,volume6,book61,narrationsnumber509and510".810870CE.

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ISBN9781405117524.seesectionPoetryandLanguagebyNavidKermani,p.107120.Foreschatology,seeDiscovering(finaldestination)byChristopherBuck,p.30.Forwritingandprinting,seesectionWrittenTransmissionbyFranoisDroche,p.172187.Forliterarystructure,seesectionLanguagebyMustansirMir,p.93.ForthehistoryofcompilationseeIntroductionbyTamaraSonnp.56Forrecitation,seeRecitationbyAnnaM.Gadep.481493

41. MohamadK.Yusuff,ZaydibnThabitandtheGloriousQur'an(http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_251_300/zayd_ibn_thabit_and_the_glorious.htm)

42. TheKoranAVeryShortIntroduction,MichaelCook.OxfordUniversityPress,pp.117124

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43. F.E.Peters(1991),pp.35:"FewhavefailedtobeconvincedthattheQuranisthewordsofMuhammad,perhapsevendictatedbyhimaftertheirrecitation."

44. Leaman,Oliver(2006).TheQur'an:anEncyclopedia.NewYork,NY:Routledge.ISBN0415326397.ForGodintheQuran(Allah),seeAllahbyZekiSaritoprak,p.3340.Foreschatology,seeEschatologybyZekiSaritoprak,p.194199.ForsearchingtheArabictextontheinternetandwriting,seeCyberspaceandtheQur'anbyAndrewRippin,p.159163.Forcalligraphy,seebyCalligraphyandtheQur'anbyOliverLeaman,p130135.Fortranslation,seeTranslationandtheQur'anbyAfnanFatani,p.657669.Forrecitation,seeArtandtheQur'anbyTamaraSonn,p.7181andReadingbyStefanWild,p.532535.

45. "BasicMechanicsofIslamicCapitalism".google.com.46. Forboththeclaimthatvariantreadingsarestilltransmittedandtheclaimthatnosuchcriticaleditionhasbeen

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47. ArthurJefferyandSt.ClairTisdaletal,EditedbyIbnWarraq,SummarisedbySharonMorad,Leeds."TheOriginsoftheKoran:ClassicEssaysonIslam'sHolyBook".Retrieved20110315.

48. F.E.Peters(1991),pp.35:"FewhavefailedtobeconvincedthattheQuranisthewordsofMuhammad,perhapsevendictatedbyhimaftertheirrecitation."

49. " 'TheQur'an:Text,InterpretationandTranslation'ThirdBiannualSOASConference,October1617,2003".JournalofQur'anicStudies6(1):143145.April2004.doi:10.3366/jqs.2004.6.1.143.

50. Bergmann,UweSadeghi,Behnam(September2010)."TheCodexofaCompanionoftheProphetandtheQurnoftheProphet".Arabica57(4):343436.doi:10.1163/157005810X504518.

51. Sadeghi,BehnamGoudarzi,Mohsen(March2012)."an''1andtheOriginsoftheQur'n".DerIslam87(12):1129.doi:10.1515/islam20110025.

52. "World'soldestQuranfoundatBirminghamUniversity".PressTV.22July2015.Retrieved22July2015.53. Coughlan,Sean." 'Oldest'KoranfragmentsfoundinBirminghamUniversity".BBC.Retrieved22July2015.54. DanBilefsky(July22,2015)."AFindinBritain:QuranFragmentsPerhapsasOldasIslam".NewYorkTimes.

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Corbin(1993),p.12Wild(1996),pp.137,138,141and147Quran2:97(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.097)Quran17:105(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/017qmt.php#017.105)

57. Jenssen,H.,"ArabicLanguage"inMcAuliffeetal.(eds.),EncyclopaediaoftheQur'n,vol.1(Brill,2001),pp.127135.

58. Sonn,Tamara(2010).Islam:abriefhistory(Seconded.).WileyBlackwell.ISBN9781405180931.59. Quran85:22(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/085qmt.php#085.022)60. Corbin(1993),p.1061. MirSajjadAli,ZainabRahman(2010).IslamandIndianMuslims.KalpazPublications.p.21.

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Approaches".JournalofQur'anicStudies4(2):2353.doi:10.3366/jqs.2002.4.2.23.67. See:

"Kur`an,al,"EncyclopaediaofIslamOnlineAllen(2000)p.53

68. Dukes,Kais."RE:NumberofUniqueWordsintheQuran".www.mailarchive.com.Retrieved29October2012.69. Saeed,Abdullah(2008).TheQuran:anintroduction.London:Routledge.p.62.ISBN9780415421249.

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70. Quran67:3(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/067qmt.php#067.003)71. Haleem,MuhammadAbdel(2005).UnderstandingtheQur'an:themesandstyle.I.B.Tauris.p.82.

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ReferenceUSA.pp.56862(ByFaridEsack).ISBN0028656032.73. Quran41:43(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/041qmt.php#041.043)74. Izutsu,Toshihiko(2007).EthicoreligiousconceptsintheQur'an(Repr.2007ed.).McGillQueen'sUniversity

Press.p.184.ISBN0773524274.75. Quran2:274(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/002qmt.php#002.274)76. Quran9:103(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religioustexts/quran/verses/009qmt.php#009.103)77. IssaBoullata,"LiteraryStructureofQuran",EncyclopediaoftheQurn,vol.3p.192,20478. Jewishencyclopedia.com(http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=369&letter=K&search=Quran)

Krner,MosesB.Eliezer79. "ThefinalprocessofcollectionandcodificationoftheQurantextwasguidedbyoneoverarchingprinciple:

God'swordsmustnotinanywaybedistortedorsulliedbyhumanintervention.Forthisreason,noseriousattempt,apparently,wasmadetoeditthenumerousrevelations,organize

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