Race, Place and Repertoire Change in U.S. Lynching, 1830-1930

Race, Place and Repertoire Change in U.S. Lynching, 1830-1930

Richard HoganPaper presented at Social Science History Association Meetings, Vancouver, Canada,

November 2012

Preliminaries

• The Problem: romanticizing Old West to legitimate lynching as vigilantism

• The goal: rewrite Western and Southern histories: interests and actors and epochs; repertoire change and learning to lynch

Guiding Assertions

• Vigilantism is contentious gathering in defense of class interests not adequately defended by local authorities

• Lynching tends to be confounded with vigilantism but tends to differ– Status versus class interests– Public ritual of private justice– Terrorize and torture “other”

• Both are Part of Old Repertoire

Old and New Repertoires of Contention in U.S., 1652-1996

Patronized

Autonomous

OrientationTo

Powerholders

Scope of Action

Local National

anti-proprietor revolts: 1652-1691militia rebellions: 1676-1691festivals: Stamp Act of 1765tax revolts: 1765-1794food riots: 1713-1837tenants’ rebellions: 1745-1766squatters’ rebellions: 1782-1850slave rebellions: 1663-1860vigilantism: 1771-1865LYNCHING 1830-1930

expulsion:1765-1861boycotts: 1765-presentcooperatives: 1870-present

strikeelection rallypublic meeting

demonstrationsocial movement

OLD

NEW

Social Change in the U.S., 1620-1945

Colonial America: 1620-1765

Colonial Revolt: 1765-1815

National Period: 1815-1861

Revolutionary Period: 1861-1945

Consolidation and Increase in Scale: 1945-present

Two Simple Questions

• How and why does lynching emerge in 1830 as an alternative to frontier vigilantism, plantation flogging, and paramilitary runaway slave patrols?

• How and why does lynching change between 1830 and 1930?

Simple Answers• Lynching is innovation at the margin of

vigilantism and terrorism– Defense of class and status interests– Inspired by political opportunities– transformation of U.S. institutions, 1830-1930

• Specific form shaped by– Nature of republican capitalism then and there– Cultural baggage brought along– Experience of institutional transformation

Simple Distinction

• Frontier Vigilantism– White men– Somewhat public meeting: gathering of citizens– Private posse, judge, jury, execution– Leave the body hanging to warn would-be outlaws

• Southern Lynching– white on black– Public spectacle of disguised members of KKK– No attempt to mimic due process– Torture and barbarism

The Messy Details of History

• There seem to be distinct vigilante and lynching behaviors– Vigilantism in West before 1876– Lynching in South after 1890

• But these vary from State to State and seem to converge over time– vigilantism becomes more or less racial and

barbarous in general– Before and after Civil War/Reconstruction

Data

• Michael Pfeifer, The Roots of Rough Justice (U. IL, 2011)

• Stephen J. Leonard, Lynching in Colorado (U. CO, 2002)

• Michael Pfeifer, Lynching Beyond Dixie (U. IL, forthcoming)

• Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, “Reports of Outrages” (Gov. Bullock’s correspondence, GA archives, 1868)

Black Vigilante Lynching Victims Reported for South, 1824-1862, by Date and Method (N=56)

Time Burning Hanging Shooting Unknown N

1824-1849 67% (12) 17% (3) 11% (2) 5% (1) 18

1850-1862 37% (14) 61% (23) - (0) 3% (1) 38

Total 46% 26 46% 26 4% (2) 4% (2) 56

Source: Pfeifer (2011), Appendix

Vigilante Lynching Victims from Colorado, 1859-1919

Years Victims White Anglo (%)

1859-1865 28 25 (89%)

1866-1875 77 65 (84%)

1876-1885 59 48 (81%)

1886-1919 30 15 (50%)*

Total 194 153 (80%)

Source: Leonard (2002), Appendix A

* Other victims included four blacks, one Chinese, five Italians, and five Mexicans.

Lynching Outside South by Race 1837-1889 and 1890-1943 (N=578)

Race 1837-1889 1890-1943 Total

Percent N Percent N Percent N

Black 9% 36 28% 45 14% 81

White 77% 321 61% 97 73% 418

Other 15% 61 11% 18 14% 79

Total 100% 418 100% 160 100% 578

Source: Pfeifer (forthcoming)

Lynching Outside South by Method before 1890 and after 1889 (N=578)

Method* Before 1890 After 1889 Total

Percent N Percent N Percent N

Hanging 84% 351 66% 105 79% 456

Shooting 7% 31 14% 23 9% 54

Unknown 6% 24 8% 13 6% 37

Other 3% 12 12% 19 5% 31

Total 100% 418 100% 160 10% 578


* coded as most barbaric (in descending order: mutilation, burning, strangulation, beating, flogging, hanging, shooting) when more than one method was used)

Lynching by Race in Arizona and Indiana

Race Indiana Arizona

percent N Percent N

Black 27% 18 - 0

Latino - 0 33% 19

Native American - 0 7% 4

White 73% 48 60% 34

Total 66 57


Lynching by Race in Arizona and Indiana before 1877


percent N Percent N

Black 17% 4 - 0

Latino - 0 76% 13


White 83% 20 18% 3

Total 66 17


Lynching by Race in Arizona and Indiana after 1876


percent N Percent N

Black 33% 14 - 0

Latino - 0 15% 6


White 67% 28 78% 31

Total 42 40


Lynching Victims by Region and State (N=578)

Region State N Region State NMidwest Total 298 North East Total 10

IA 61 ME 1 IL 45 NJ 1 IN 66 NY 4 MI 7 PA 4 MN 22 West Total 264 NB 30 AZ 57 ND 10 ID 22 OH 28 MT 45 SD 12 NV 24 WI 17 OR 5

Border South Total 5 UT 15 AK 3 WA 40

DE 2 WY 56 Other HI 1


Taking Stock

• Antebellum Southern lynching moves toward vigilantism (hanging)

• Non-South vigilantism moves toward lynching(becomes racial and barbarous)

• Each State is different– Indiana horse-thief protection towards KKK– Arizona terrorist colonialism toward vigilantism - Midwest and Western States vary

Lessons to Learn

• Variation across time and place makes validity and reliability of estimates problematic

• Further we move from data the more problematic this becomes

• So let’s get close to Georgia outrages– Reported by Freedmen’s Bureau to Governor– Covering January to November election of 1868– Indicates mix of crimes, vigilantism, lynching

Crimes Imputed from Outrages Reported in Georgia, January-November 15, 1868 (N=355)

Crime Percent NMurder 28% 101Beating 26% 91Shooting 24% 85Stabbing 7% 26Whipping 5% 19Shooting At 5% 17Other* 5% 16Total 100% 355

Source: Bureau of Refugees, Freedman (1868)

* “Other” includes threatening with weapon (5), kidnapping (4), unknown (wounded: 3), hanging (not killed: 2), attempted murder (2)

Race of Perpetrator (N=425)

Race percent NBlack 6% 26White 66% 280Unknown 28% 119Total 100% 425


Percent Arrested by Race of Perpetrator (N=425)

Arrested Not Arrested Total

Race Percent N Percent N

Black 58% 15 42% 11 26

White 15% 41 85% 239 280

Unknown 7% 8 93% 111 119

Total 15% 64 85% 361 425


Percent Arrested by Race for Murders (N=119)

arrested not arrested Total

race Percent N Percent N

Black 71% 12 29% 5 17

White 7% 4 93% 53 57

Unknown 11% 5 89% 40 45

Total 18% 21 82% 98 119


Rationale for Outrages (N=355)Rationale percent N

Political 29% 103

Blank/missing 25% 87

Unknown 19% 67

Unprovoked 11% 39

Social 10% 35

Economic 7% 24

Total 100% 355


Deconstructing Outrages

• Outrages: 355 victimizations (and 425 perpetrators, including groups)

• Vigilantism: no arrest or other effort by authorities to sanction the perpetrators (N=302 victimizations)

• Lynching: murder by three or more perpetrators, including groups (N=45 victimizations)

Predicting Contention and Elections

• ZINBE model predicts outrages, vigilantism, and lynching– Petit-Bourgeois artisans and farmers, black schools,

enduring Republican partisanship mitigate against outrages

– slack resources and April vote for Republican governor inspire outrages

• Outrages, vigilantism, and lynching should tend to discourage November vote for U. S. Grant

ZINBE Models Predicting Outrages, Vigilantism, and Lynching (N=120)

Predict Outrages Predict Vigilantism Predict Lynching

Predictor Coeff. s. e. Coeff. s. e. Ceoff. s.e.

Mfg/pop -127.39* 65.121 -194.14** 80.62 -285.58** 130.66

Farms /pop -19.39*** 7.227 -19.91** 8.35 -7.52 13.17

Wealth/pop 4.86** 1.889 4.41** 2.11 5.76 4.66

Rep. Gov. 2.05* 1.065 2.12* 1.19 7.26*** 2.72

U.S. Grant -1.56* .854 -2.08** .960 -5.06*** 1.88

BlkSchlKds -.003** .001 -.002* .001 -.003 .004

Constant 1.494* .851 1.59 .986 -2.11 1.89

Inflation Factor

Black Pop -.000** .000 -.001 .001 -.000* .000

Constant .825 .531 1.75* 1.02 -2.11 1.89

ϰ2=26.56*** ϰ2=24.90*** ϰ2=15.53**

* p<.1 ** p<.05 *** p<.01 (two tails)

OLS Models Predicting U. S. Grant Vote in November 1868 in GA Counties, using Outrages, Vigilantism, or Lynching (N=129)

Outrages Vigilantism Lynching

Predictor Coeff. s. e. Coeff. s. e. Coeff. s.e.

farms/pop -1.05** .448 -1.06** .444 -1.01** .433

black/pop -.932*** .282 -,914** .281 -.870*** .280

blkpop2 1.17*** .358 1.15*** .357 1.07*** .357

cottonbelt -.127*** .038 -.128*** .038 -.125*** .038

RepGovVt .685*** .090 .689*** .090 .700*** .089

Ot/Vg/Lyn -.003 .003 -.004 .003 -.020** .010

Constant .209** .081 .205** .081 .191** .080

Adj. R2 .43*** .44*** .44***

* p<.1 ** p<.05 *** p<.01 (two tails)

So What?

• Validity: What is lynching (as opposed to outrage or vigilantism)?

• Reliability: Racial violence by any other name?• Significance– Outrage and vigilantism as popular (racist and

patriarchal) justice– Lynching as terrorism: the Radical Republicans

were right; the KKK did steal the election

Savannah Editor on KKK (7/1/1871)

deprecate living

Savannah Editor (12/10/1870)

Questions?

• Thanks for your patience

• Y’all come back now, y’hear

Documents

Race, Place and Repertoire Change in U.S. Lynching, 1830-1930