Radiation Use Program, Policy, and Procedures

ConnecticutCollege

RadiationUseProgram,Policy,andProcedures

Revised:09/2011

EMERGENCYCONTACTINFORMATION

CampusSafety: Ext.2222or111

RSO: Dr.StevenLoomisOffice: Ext.2135Home: CallCampusSafety

DirectorofEH&S: StevenLanglois

Office: Ext.2252Home: CallCampusSafety

RadiationSafetyConsultant: JimTocci,ValleySafetyServices,Inc.

Office: (413)323‐9571

ThecurrentNRCMaterialsLicenseisonfileintheEH&SOffice.

ContentsINTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................1PURPOSE ......................................................................................................................................................................1SCOPE.............................................................................................................................................................................1POLICY...........................................................................................................................................................................11. RESPONSIBILITIES..........................................................................................................................................21.1. RadiationUseCommittee(RUC)............................................................................................................21.2. RadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)................................................................................................................31.3. AuthorizedUsers ..........................................................................................................................................31.4. LaboratoryAssistants/Students ............................................................................................................42. PROCEDURESFORORDERINGANDRECEIVINGRAM....................................................................42.1. Ordering ...........................................................................................................................................................52.2. Delivery.............................................................................................................................................................52.3. ProceduresForOpeningRAMPackages ............................................................................................63. INVENTORY/ACCOUNTABILITYOFRAM .............................................................................................64. STORAGEANDSECURITYOFRAM...........................................................................................................65. CALIBRATIONOFSURVEYINSTRUMENTS..........................................................................................75.1. Geiger‐Müller(GM)SurveyMeter.........................................................................................................75.2. LiquidScintillationCounter(LSC) ........................................................................................................76. RADIATIONSURVEYS ....................................................................................................................................86.1. InitialSurveys ................................................................................................................................................86.2. Routine(Monthly)Surveys ......................................................................................................................86.3. ResearcherSurveys .....................................................................................................................................86.4. SpecialSurveys..............................................................................................................................................87. PERSONNELDOSIMETRY.............................................................................................................................98. PRENATALRADIATIONEXPOSURE ........................................................................................................99. RADIATIONSAFETYTRAINING..............................................................................................................1010. EMERGENCYPROCEDURES .....................................................................................................................1010.1. EmergencyProcedures–General ...............................................................................................1110.2. FireorExplosion ................................................................................................................................1110.3. RAMSpills/ContaminationofLaboratoryPersonnel.........................................................1110.4. InjuriestoPersonnelInvolvingRAMContamination.........................................................1210.5. LossofaRadioactiveSource(orSources) ..............................................................................1210.6. RadiationOverexposure..................................................................................................................1210.7. MotorVehicleAccidentDuringTransportofRAM..............................................................1311. DECONTAMINATIONPROCEDURES ....................................................................................................1311.1. Non‐PorousSurfaces ........................................................................................................................1311.2. Non‐PorousSurfacesContainingPorousDeposits..............................................................1312. OFF‐CAMPUSTRANSPORTOFRAM.....................................................................................................1413. MANAGEMENTOFRAMWASTE............................................................................................................1413.1. WasteGroupDescriptions..............................................................................................................1413.2. SolidRAMWaste(LabDisposables) ..........................................................................................1513.3. LiquidRAMWaste .............................................................................................................................1613.4. LSCVialsContainingLiquidScintillationCocktail ...............................................................1613.5. MixedWaste .........................................................................................................................................17

AppendixesAppendix(A)–RADIOLOGICALOCCURRENCEREPORT.....................................................................18Appendix(B)–RADIOISOTOPEUSEAUTHORIZATION/RENEWALFORM.................................19Appendix(C)–RAMRECEIPT/SHIPMENTRECORD .............................................................................22Appendix(D)–CEMS–RADIOACTIVEMATERIALINVENTORYSYSTEM...................................23Appendix(E)–RAMINVENTORYLOG.........................................................................................................24Appendix(F)–RADIATIONSURVEYREPORT..........................................................................................25Appendix(G)–PERSONNELEXPOSUREINVESTIGATIONLEVELS................................................26Appendix(H)–REGULATORYGUIDE8.13–INSTRUCTIONCONCERNINGPRENATALRADIATIONEXPOSURE.......................................................................................................................................27Appendix(I)–REGULATORYGUIDE8.29–INSTRUCTIONCONCERNINGRISKSFROMOCCUPATIONALRADIATIONEXPOSURE ...................................................................................................36Appendix(J)–RADIATIONSAFETYPERSONNELTRAININGRECORD.........................................54Appendix(K)–ALLOWABLESANITARYSEWERRELEASELIMITSOFRAM .............................55Appendix(L)–METHODSANDFREQUENCYFORCONDUCTINGSURVEYS...............................56GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................................................62

TableofFiguresFigure1‐CurrentRadiationUseCommitteeMembers...........................................................................3Figure2‐MaximumPermissibleDoses.......................................................................................................12Figure3‐RadiologicalandHazardousWasteLabels ............................................................................17

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INTRODUCTIONInordertoprotectthehealthandsafetyofConnecticutCollegeemployeesandthegeneralpublic,theuseofradioactivematerial(RAM)andradiationproducingequipmentmustadheretostringentsafetyprocedures.ToensurethatConnecticutCollege’sRadiationSafetyProgramcomplieswithStateandFederalregulationsandestablishedsafepractices,theCollegehasestablishedaRadiationUseCommittee(RUC).ThiscommitteeisresponsibleforensuringadherencetopoliciesandproceduresfortheconductingresearchinvolvingtheuseofradiationandRAM.TheCommitteeiscomposedoffacultywhoarequalifiedbytrainingandexperienceintheuseofRAMandradiation.TheAssociateDirectorofPhysicalPlantrepresentstheCollegeadministrationonthisCommittee.Together,thecommitteewillreviewallrequeststouseRAMandradiationproducingequipment,toassurethesafetyofallmembersofthecampuscommunityItisimportantandexpectedthatallresearcherswhowishtouseRAMandradiationproducingequipment,abidebythispolicyanditsspecificprocedures.TheRadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)hasbeenappointedtoassisttheRadiationUseCommitteeandresearchersinimplementingtheradiationsafetyprogram.YourfullcooperationinparticipatinginthisprogramisessentialtosafetyandhealthandtheCollegelicensecommitmentstotheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC).

PURPOSEToestablishpoliciesandproceduresforthesafeuseofradioactivematerial(RAM)andtominimizetheunwarrantedexposurestoprincipleinvestigatorsandstudentsfromradiationduringresearch.

SCOPEThisprogramappliestoallresearchersandstudentsandalsotoanyvisitors,post‐docs,orotherswhomayoccasionallyworkattheCollege.Thisprogramspecifiestherequirementsandproceduresforprocuring,using,transporting,transferring,maintaining,securinganddisposingofRAM.

POLICYTokeepexposuretopersonnelwhoworkwithRAMaslowasreasonablyachievable(ALARA)andwithinthelimitsestablishedbytheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)andtheStateofConnecticut.AllresearchinvolvingtheuseofRAMmustbeapprovedby

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theCollegeRadiationUseCommittee(RUC)whowillensurethatallproposedexperimentsareproperlyplannedsothatthelimitsestablishedbytheNRCandtheStateofConnecticutforpersonnelexposureandRAMeffluentreleasesarenotexceededandareALARA.

1. RESPONSIBILITIESPresidentandBoardofDirectorsareresponsibleforestablishingandmaintainingasafetyprogramthatminimizestherisksassociatedwiththehandlingofradioactivematerial(RAM),andwhichwillensurefullcompliancewithallapplicablegovernmentalregulations.

1.1. RadiationUseCommittee(RUC)TheRUCisresponsibletothePresidentthroughtheAssociateDirectorofPhysicalPlantforinsuringthesafeuseofradioactivematerialoncampus.Allprincipleinvestigatorsengagedinresearchinvolvingtheuseofradioactivematerialsareentitledtomembershiponthecommittee.Currentcommitteemembersarelistedbelow.ResponsibilitiesoftheRUCinclude:

• Establishingpoliciesonthesafeuse,handling,storage,transport,receipt,shipment,anddisposalofradioactivematerials.

• Reviewingtheradiationsafetyaspectsofproposalsfortheprocurementanduseofradioisotopesandforthemodificationofexistingoperatingproceduresinvolvingtheuseofradioactivematerials.

• Reviewingapplicationsrenewals,andamendmentsforNuclearRegulatoryCommissionlicenses.

• ReviewingandapprovingthequalificationsofrequesterstobecomeauthorizedusersofRAM.TheRUCwillonlyapproveprincipleinvestigatorswhomeetthetrainingandexperiencecriteriaof10CFR33.15(b)1

• Reviewingreportsofaccidentsandincidentsinvolving(radiologicaloccurrences)theuseofradioisotopestodeterminethecauseandtakingthenecessarycorrectiveactiontopreventreoccurrence(SeeAppendix(A),RadiologicalOccurrenceReport).

• PerforminganannualauditoftheRadiationSafetyProgramtodeterminethatallactivitiesarebeingconductedsafelyandinaccordancewithallNRCregulationsandlicenseconditions.

1Possessacollegedegreeatthebachelorlevel,orhaveequivalenttrainingandexperienceinthephysicalorbiologicalsciencesorinengineering;andHaveatleast40hoursoftrainingandexperienceinthesafehandlingofradioactivematerials,andinthecharacteristicsofionizingradiation,unitsofradiationdoseandquantities,radiationdetectioninstrumentation,andbiologicalhazardsofexposuretoradiationappropriatetothetypeandformsofbyproductmaterialrequestedtobeused.

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Figure1CurrentRadiationUseCommitteeMembers

Prof.StephenLoomis(Biology)RSO Ext.2135StevenR.Langlois(Dir,EH&S) Ext.2252ThomasHobaica(Assoc.Dir,PhysPlant) Ext.5429Prof.MichaelMonce(Physics) Ext.2348Prof.RuthGrahn(Neuroscience) Ext.2387JimTocci(Consultant,ValleySafetyServices,Inc.) (413)323‐9571

1.2. RadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)TheRSOisresponsibletotheRUCforimplementingtheRadiationSafetyProgramasestablishedbytheCollege.ThespecificresponsibilitiesoftheRSOinclude:

• Provideindividualworkerswithtraining,advice,andassistanceonallmatterspertainingtothesafeuseofRAM.

• Reviewingworkpracticestodeterminecompliancewithregulationsandapprovedprocedures.

• PerformingappropriateradiationsurveysofRAMuseareas.• Ensuringthatradiationsurveyinstrumentsareproperlycalibratedatrequired

frequencies.• Determiningtheneedfor,andissuingOF,personneldosimetry.• InvestigatingaccidentsorincidentsinvolvingtheuseofRAM.• EnsuringproperdisposalofRAM.• MaintainingRAMinventory,survey,personneldosimetry,andcalibrationrecords.• TerminatinganyworkinvolvingtheuseofRAM,whichhe/shedeemsunsafe.• Ensuringthatallrequiredsignsandlabelsareapplied.

1.3. AuthorizedUsersAuthorizedusersareresponsibletotheRUCforassuringthesafeuseofradioactivematerialsinhis/herlaboratory.Theauthorizeduserisalwaystheresponsiblefaculty(PrincipalInvestigator,orP.I.).FacultymembersplanningtoworkwithRAMmustsubmitacompletedcopyofAppendix(B),“ApplicationforAuthorization/RenewaltoUseRadioisotopes”,totheRUCforreviewandapproval.Theresponsibilitiesofanauthorizeduserinclude:

• ComplyingwithandenforcingtheradiationsafetyrequirementsprescribedinthismanualandasauthorizedbytheRUC.

• Wearingappropriatelaboratoryattire,andPersonalProtectiveEquipment(PPE).• ProperlystoringRAM.

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• Assuringthatalllaboratorypersonnelareproperlyinstructedinsafeproceduresforworkingwiththeradioactivematerialinuse.

• Assuringthatpropersupervisionandoversightoflaboratorypersonnelisimplemented.Note:Onlypersons18yearsorolderareallowedtoworkwithRAM.

• Assuringthatrequiredmonitoringdevices,protectiveclothingandequipment,andcontaminationcontrolmethodsareusedasrequired.

• Reviewinginadvance,alllabprocedurestobeusedincarryingoutresearchworkinvolvingradioactivematerial,forthepotentialofspills,explosion,implosion,volatility,orfires.

• Assuringtheintegrityofvacuumsystems,cryogenicsystems,pressurevesselsorequipmenttobeusedinconjunctionwithradioactivematerial.

• Assuringthatanynewand/orcomplexproceduresthatinvolvetheuseofradioactivematerialarethoroughlytestedina“dryrun”beforeattemptinganactualuse.

• Maintaincontrolofvisitorstopreventunwarrantedradiationexposures.• MaintaininganyrecordrequiredbytheRUC.

1.4. LaboratoryAssistants/StudentsLaboratoryAssistants/StudentsareresponsibleforusingonlyP.I./RUCapprovedsafetechniquesandproceduresinoperationsinvolvingtheuseofRAM.Additionalresponsibilitiesare:

• Wearingprescribedpersonneldosimetry.• WearingappropriatelaboratoryattireandPersonalProtectiveEquipment(PPE).• ProperlystoringRAM.• ProperlyopeningandinspectingpackagesofRAM.• ProperlypackagingRAMforshipment.• SurveyingareaswhereRAMisused.• ReportinganyaccidentsorincidentstotheRSOandprincipleinvestigator.• ProperlylabelingRAMcontainers.• ComplyingwithallrequirementsestablishedbytheConnecticutCollegeradiation

safetyprogram.• Again,onlystudents18orolderareauthorizedtoworkwithRAM.

2. PROCEDURESFORORDERINGANDRECEIVINGRAMToensuretheproperhandlingofradioactivematerialthatwillbedeliveredtothecampus,thefollowingprocedurewillbefollowed.

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2.1. Ordering

• Whenradioactivematerial(RAM)isordered,theauthorizedfacultymemberwillspecifythatovernightdeliveryfromFedEx,AirborneExpressorUPSbeused.

• Afirmdeliverydatewillbeconfirmedatthetimetheorderisplaced.Onceadateofdeliveryisestablished,theuserwillnotifytheDirectorofEH&S)atExt.2252.

• AllRAMPackagesshouldbeaddressedanddeliveredto:OfficeofEnvironmentalHealth&SafetyRoom113,WarnshuisStudentHealthCenter

• IftheDirectorofEH&Sisnotavailableonthedeliverydate,theorderingfaculty

memberwillhavethepackageshippeddirectlytohis/herlab.Inthiscase,theorderingfacultymemberwillberesponsibleforbeingavailabletotakereceipt,andforinspectingandcheckingthepackagefordamage.(SeeSection6.2,“Delivery”,below.)

2.2. Delivery

• WhentheFedExorUPSdriverdeliversthepackagecontainingRAM,theDirectorofEH&Swillsignforandtakepossessionofthematerial.

• Uponreceipt,theDirectorofEH&Swillvisuallyinspectthepackageforanysignofdamage(e.g.crushed,stained,wet,etc.).Ifopened,tornordamageditwillberefusedandtheusernotified.

• TheDirectorofEH&Swilltransportthepackagetotheorderingfacultymember’slaboratory.Ifthefacultymemberisnotpresent,theunopenedpackagewillbesecured(locked)inthelabrefrigerator.

• UsingaGMsurveymeter,andrunningwipesamplesthroughtheLiquidScintillationCounter(LSC),theorderingfacultymemberwillsurveythepackageforexternalcontamination:

o Theexposurerateat3feet(or1m)frompackagesurfacewillbemeasuredandrecorded.If>10mR/hr.,theRSOwillbenotified.

o Theexposurerateatthesurfaceofthepackagewillbemeasuredandrecorded.If>200mR/hr.,theRSOwillbenotified.

o Wipetestresultsshouldbenothigherthantwicebackground.Ifgreaterthantwicebackground,theRSOwillbenotified.

• TheorderingfacultymemberwilldocumentthereceiptoftheRAM,andtheradiationsurveyresultsonAppendix(C)“RAMReceipt/ShipmentRecord”.

• Afteropeningthepackage(See6.3below),theorderingfacultywillstaplethepackingsliptothe“RAMReceipt/ShipmentRecord”,andsenditviacampusmailtotheDirectorofEH&Sforfiling.

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2.3. ProceduresForOpeningRAMPackages

• Uponreceipt,theorderingfacultymembershouldagaininspectthepackageforanysignofdamage.Ifdamageisnoted,donotopenthepackage.Stop,andnotifytheRadiationSafetyOfficerand/ortheDirectorofEH&S.

• Wearinggloves,opentheouterpackage(followingmanufacturer’sdirections,ifsupplied)andremovethepackingslip.

• Opentheinnerpackage,andverifythatcontentsagreewiththoseonpackingslip.Comparerequisition,packingslip,andlabelonsourcecontainers.

• Checktheintegrityofthefinalsourcecontainer.Wipetheexternalsurfaceofthefinalsourcecontainershield,andcheckthewipewiththeGMsurveymeterandtakeprecautionagainstthespreadofcontaminationifnecessary.Movetoanareaoflowbackgroundradiationtoperformthissurvey.NotifytheRSOand/orDirectorofEH&Sifanyremovablecontaminationisdetected.

• RunthewipesamplethroughtheLSC.• UsingtheGMsurveymeter,monitorthepackingmaterialandboxforcontamination

beforediscarding.Ifcontaminated,treatasradioactivewaste.Ifnotcontaminated,obliterateradiationlabelsbeforediscardinginregulartrash.

• Staplethepackingsliptothe“RAMReceipt/ShipmentRecord”,andforwardbothdocumentstotheDirectorofEH&SwhowillmaintainthemforNRCrecordkeepingpurposes.

3. INVENTORY/ACCOUNTABILITYOFRAMTheRadiationSafetyOfficer,ortraineddesignee(DirectorofEH&S),willreviewallordersforRAMrequestedbyP.I.’s,toensurethattherequestedRAMisauthorizedbythelicense,andwillnotexceedlicensepossessionlimits.

• TheDirectorofEH&SwilllogallRAMpurchasesintotheCEMSInventorysystem,underthe“RadioactiveMaterials”module.(Appendix(D)isa“ScreenGrab”oftheonlineCEMSChemicalInventorysystem.)CEMSautomaticallyre‐calculatesthequantityofthatspecificradioisotopepossessed,campus‐wide.Toensurethatpossessionlimitsarenotexceeded,theRAMinventorydatawillbereviewedatthetimeofeachnewpurchaserequest.

• Aprintedcopyofthetotalcampusinventorywillbegeneratedforthefileatthetimeofeachpurchaseorwasteshipment

• Thepurchasewillalsoberecordedinthe“RAMInventoryLog(Appendix(E))• TheDirectorofEH&Swillretaintheseinventoryrecordsindefinitely.

4. STORAGEANDSECURITYOFRAMAllRAMwillbeproperlystoredandsecuredagainstunauthorizedaccessorremoval.AuthorizedusersandlaboratorypersonnelmayemployanyorallofthefollowingmethodstosecureRAM:

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• KeepRAMlabslockedwheneverauthorizedusersorstaffisnotpresenttomaintaincontrol.

• Keeprefrigerators,freezers,orothersuitablestoragecabinetswhereRAMisstored,locked,exceptwhenremovingorreturningRAM.

• UtilizeotherlockablecontainersthataresecuredinsidealargercabinetorrefrigeratororfreezerthatisnotlockablemaybeusedtosecureRAMwhenauthorizedusersareabsentandnotundercontrol.

5. CALIBRATIONOFSURVEYINSTRUMENTS

5.1. GeigerMüller(GM)SurveyMeterPortableradiationsurveyinstrumentsmustbeproperlycalibratedatleastonceeachyear.AGMSurveymeterwitha“pancake”probe,isusedtomonitorresearchlabsurfacesforpossiblecontaminationofbetaemittingRAMsuchasP‐32,P‐33,S‐35,etc.Theseunitswillbecalibratedusingatwo‐stepprocedureasfollows:

1.Thesurveymeterwillbecalibratedusinganelectronicpulsertoensureproper/accuratepulsecountingoperation,twopointsoneachscale.

2.ThepancakeGMprobecoupledwiththesurveymeterwillthenbecalibratedtogetherusingalowenergybetasource,C‐14,andahighenergybetasource,Sr‐90,todeterminefluxmeasurementefficiency.

Wheneveraportablesurveymeterwillbeusedtomonitorlabareasandsurfacesfromgammaemitters,suchasCr‐51,Rb‐86,etc.,theunitwillbecalibratedaccordingtoNRCReg.Guide10.8,Appendix(D),Sec.1,“CalibrationofInstruments”.

5.2. LiquidScintillationCounter(LSC)Theliquidscintillationcounter(LSC)usedforlabwipetestanalysisiscalibratedusingH‐3,C‐14,andCl‐36standardsobtainedfromthemanufacturer.ThesestandardsarerunintheLSCpriortoeachuseoftheinstrument.Resultsareloggedinaninstrumentrecordbookandgraphed.Wheneverbackgroundandstandardcountsareoutside2standarddeviationstheywillbere‐counted.Iftheythenfallwithin2standarddeviations,nofurtheractionwillbetaken.Ifthesecountscontinuetofalloutside2standarddeviations,themanufacturerwillservicetheLSCbeforeresuminguse.TheseproceduresareinagreementwithNRCguidance,ref.NRCINNO.93‐30“NRCRequirementsforEvaluationofWipeTestResults;CalibrationofCountRateSurveyInstruments”.

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6. RADIATIONSURVEYSTheRadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)isresponsibleensuringradiationsurveysareperformedinaccordancewithAPPENDIX(L)METHODSANDFREQUENCYFORCONDUCTINGSURVEYS.

6.1. InitialSurveysAninitialsurveywillbemadeofareaswhereradioactivematerialwillbeusedand/orstoredbeforeoperationsareinitiatedorchangesapproved,toassurethefacilitiesandequipmentareadequateforpersonnelsafety,andcontaminationcontrolandremoval.

6.2. Routine(Monthly)SurveysOnamonthlybasis,theRSO(orDirectorofEH&S)willconductradiationsurveysinallareaswhereradioactivematerialsareusedand/orstored.Thissurveyshouldincludeanyequipment(e.g.,centrifuges,splashshields,fumehoods,sinks,etc.)thathasthepotentialforcontamination.ThissurveywillbeperformedusingaproperlycalibratedGMsurveymeter,and/orwipesamplesthatareanalyzedintheLSC.Thesesurveyswillberecordedonroom/buildingspecificversionsofAppendix(F)–“RadiationSurveyReport”.Adetaileddescriptionofthemonitoringpointswithresults,astatementregardinganyhazardsnoted,andrecommendationsastoshielding,proceduralchanges,etc.willberecorded.Thesesurveyreportswillbefiledandmaintainedindefinitely.

6.3. ResearcherSurveysUtilizingRUCapprovedequipmentandprocedures;authorizedorindividualresearcherswillevaluatetheirworkareasonaregularbasisinconcertwiththeiruseofRAM,toensurethatradiationand/orcontaminationlevelsarekeptaslowasisreasonablyachievable.

6.4. SpecialSurveysTheRSOisresponsibleforperformingorcausingtobeperformedbyotherqualifiedpersonsthefollowingspecialsurveys:

• AnylabwhereRAMwillnolongerbeusedmustreceiveacomprehensive“Close‐Out”survey,beforereleasingtheareaforusebyothers.

• Afollow‐upsurveywillbeperformedinanylabwhereaspillhasoccurredafterremediation,toensurethatallremovableactivityhasbeenthoroughlycleaned,andanyfixedactivityhasbeenlocatedandmeasured.

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7. PERSONNELDOSIMETRYResearchers(facultyorstudents),whointhecourseoftheirworkmightbeexposedto10%ormoreoftheannuallimitof5,000mRem/year,willberequiredtowearapersonneldosimeter.ItisbelievedthatnoindividualatConnecticutCollegewillreceiveasmuchas10%ofanyofthelimitsin10CFR20.(See14.6,Figure1)However,toensureresearcherconfidence,andtomaintainadatabaseofexposures,ConnecticutCollegewillassignappropriatepersonneldosimeterstoallresearchersauthorizedtoworkwithmCiquantitiesofhigh‐energybetaemittersorgammaemitter.WholebodyandfingerbadgeswillbepurchasedfromaqualifiedCompany,(e.g.Siemans,Landauer,ICN,etc.),onamonthlybasisanddistributed/collectedbytheRSOorhisdesignee.Thecollecteddosimeters/filmwillbesentbacktoaqualifiedCompanyforanalysisandrecording.TheRSOwillreviewallrecordsofdosereceivedbyworkerstoensurethatnounwarrantedexposureshavebeenreceived,i.e.,alldosesare"AsLowAsReasonablyAchievable"(ALARA).Section14.6,Figure2,liststhe“MaximumPermissibleDoses”forradiationexposures.AnyreportofdosefromthevendorwillbeinvestigatedbytheRSO,utilizingAppendix(G)“PersonnelExposureInvestigationLevels”.AsrequiredbyNRCregulation,anotificationletterwillbesenttotheaffectedindividual(s),informingthemoftheexposure.Allpersonneldosimetryrecordswillbemaintainedonfileindefinitely,andwillbemadeavailableforinspectionbytheNRCuponrequest.

8. PRENATALRADIATIONEXPOSURETheCollege,asalicenseeoftheNRCisrequiredtoinstructallemployeeswhoworkinarestrictedareaofthehealthprotectionproblemsassociatedwithradiationexposure.Inthecaseofafemaleemployee,thisinstructionincludesinformationofpossibleriskstounbornchildren.Everyattemptisbeingmadetokeepexposurestoradiation,aslowasreasonablyachievable.However,expertshaverecommendedthatbecauseofthepossibleincreasedriskofchildhoodleukemiaandcancer,theradiationdosetoanembryoorfetusasaresultofoccupationalexposureshouldnotexceed0.5rem.Sincethis0.5remislowerthanthedosegenerallypermittedtoadultworkers,womenmaywanttotakespecialprecautionstoavoidreceivinghigherexposures.Occupationallyexposedwomenwhoare,ormaybecomepregnant,areencouragedtoreadAppendix(H)RegulatoryGuide8.13–“InstructionConcerningPrenatalRadiationExposure”,preparedbytheNRC.Additionally,theyshoulddiscussthismatterwiththeirphysicianandtheRadiationSafetyOfficer.

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Pregnantwomenwhobecomepregnantarerequiredtosubmita“DeclarationofPregnancy”lettertotheRSO,withacopytotheManagerofOccupationalHealth&Wellness(IntheHumanResourcesOffice).AsampleletterisfoundinAppendix(H).

9. RADIATIONSAFETYTRAININGLaboratorypersonnelandstudents,whowillbeusingRAMintheirresearch,willreceivetrainingbytheAuthorizedUser,withassistancefromtheRSOand/ortheDirectorofEnvironmentalHealth&Safety.Onlypersons18yearsorolderareallowedtoworkwithRAM.Thistrainingwillinclude:

• InstructiononrisksfromOccupationalRadiationExposure(SeeAppendix(I)–RegulatoryGuide8.29–“InstructionConcerningRisksfromOccupationalRadiationExposure”)

• Instructioninallapplicablelicenseconditions,amendmentsandregulations• InstructionontheConnecticutCollegeRadiationProtectionProgram• GeneralRadiationSafetyPractices• EmergencyProcedures• Specificproceduresforsafeuseofbetaemittersusedinresearch

RadiationSafetyTrainingwillbedocumentedonAppendix(J)“RadiationSafetyTrainingRecord”.FacultyorstaffwhohaveprevioustrainingandexperiencemaybeexemptedfromthistrainingbytheRUC.TheRSOand/ortheDirectorofEH&S,willreviewradiationsafetypracticeswithresearchersduringroutinesurveyactivities.This“onthejob”trainingisthemosteffectivewaytoensurecontinuedsafeworkpractices.Ancillarypersonnel(e.g.,CampusSafety,Custodial,andotherPhysicalPlantpersonnel)willalsoreceivetraininginthetopicslistedabove,aswellasjobspecificproceduresandprecautions.Refreshertrainingwillbegivenannuallytotheseworkers.

10. EMERGENCYPROCEDURESInviewofthecomplicatingfactorsthatmayariseinanemergency,itisimpossibletoestablishsimplerulestocoverallsituationsofaradiationemergency.Keyemergencypersonnel,properlytrainedandequippedtocopewithradiologicalemergencieswillbeestablished,andnamespostedinalluseareas.Howevermostemergencieswillprobablybeofthefollowingtypes:

• ExplosioninornearRAMusearea• FireinornearRAMusearea

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• Overexposureofradiationtopersonnel• InjurytopersonnelinvolvingRAM• Lossofaradioactivematerial• VehicularaccidentduringtransportofRAM

Inalloftheaboveexamples,theprimaryconcernmustalwaysbetheprotectionofpersonnelfromradiationhazards.Confinementofanypossiblecontaminationorresultantradiationtotheimmediateenvironmentoftheaccidentshouldbeasecondaryconcern.

10.1. EmergencyProcedures–General

• Notifyallpersonsinthelaboftheincident.• Instructeveryonenotinvolvedwiththeincidenttovacatethearea,buttoonlygoas

farasthehalloutsidethelab(unlessthesituationpresentsanimmediatethreattosafetyorhealth,e.g.,fireortoxicatmosphere.)Thisistopreventthespreadofanypotentialradiologicalcontamination.

• NotifyCampusSafetyatExt2222.Calmlydescribethesituation.CampusSafetywillrequestassistancefromtheNewLondonFireDepartmentifnecessary.

• NotifytheRadiationSafetyOfficerandtheDirectorofEnvironmentalHealth&Safety.Emergencycontactinformationisfoundonthecoverpageofthisdocument.

• AnyincidentnotificationtotheNRCandStateDepartmentofHealthrequiredbyregulationwillbemadebytheRSOandthePresidentoftheCollegewithintherequiredtimefollowingtheincident.

10.2. FireorExplosion

• Attemptextinguishmentoffireswithreadilyavailabletypeextinguishersifaradiationhazardisnotimmediatelypresent.

• Effortsshouldbemadetopreventwaterorfirefightingchemicalsfromcomingincontactwiththeradiationsource.

• Attempttocontrolrunoff,preventingitfromenteringdrainagesystemsuntilithasbeenmonitored.

10.3. RAMSpills/ContaminationofLaboratoryPersonnel

• RemovecontaminatedclothingorLabCoat.• ScantheaffectedareawithaGMsurveymeter.• Usingsoapandagentlescrubbingmotion,washthecontaminatedskinundertepid

runningwater.DONOTscrubvigorously,asitmayabradetheskin,allowingradioactivitytoenterthebody.

• ScantheaffectedareawithaGMsurveymeter.• Repeatthisprocessuntilnofurtherradiationisdetected.

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10.4. InjuriestoPersonnelInvolvingRAMContamination

• Washminorwoundsimmediatelyunderrunningwaterwhilespreadingtheedgesofthewound.

• Personnelwithminorwoundswillbemonitoredanddecontaminated,ifnecessary,beforeleavingthelaboratory.

• Personsmoreseriouslyinjuredshouldnotbemoveduntilmedicalhelparrivesunlessotheremergenciesexist(e.g.,fire,toxicatmosphere).

10.5. LossofaRadioactiveSource(orSources)

• Notifyallworkersintheareaimmediatelytostopallwork/movement.• Beginasystematic“walltowall”monitoringusingradiationsurveyinstruments.• Reviewpreviouseventswithworkersthatleaduptothediscovery.• Ensurethatan“inventoryerror”hasnotbeenmade.• Ifthesourcestillcannotbefoundoraccountedfor,notifytheRSOimmediatelyso

thatproperreportingtotheConnecticutDepartmentofHealthandNRCcanbemade.

10.6. RadiationOverexposure

• Intheeventofasuspectedorconfirmedoverexposure,seekpromptmedicalassistance.Theappropriatemedicalradiationspecialistswillbeconsulted.

• EnsurethattheRSOisimmediatelynotified,sothatproperreportingtotheConnecticutDepartmentofHealthandNRCcanbemade.

• AnyoverexposurewillbeinvestigatedbytheRSO,utilizingguidelinessetforthinAppendix(G)“PersonnelExposureInvestigationLevels”.

• AsrequiredbyNRCregulation,anotificationletterwillbesenttotheaffectedindividual(s),informingthemoftheexposure.

• Belowisachartlistingthemaximumallowableannualhumanradiationexposurelimits.

Figure2MaximumPermissibleDoses

AllowableOccupationalDose/Year*

TotalEffectiveDoseEquivalent 5Rem(0.05Sv)DeepDoseEquivalent+CommittedDoseEquivalenttoanyIndividualOrgan 50Rem(0.50Sv)

EyeDoseEquivalent 15Rem(0.15Sv)ShallowDoseEquivalenttoSkinoranyExtremities 50Rem(0.50Sv)

DosetoEmbryo/Fetus 0.5RemfromDeclaredPregnancytoTerm

*TheabovedoselimitswereestablishedbytheNRCintitle10ofthecodeofFederalRegulations,part20(10CFR20).

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10.7. MotorVehicleAccidentDuringTransportofRAM

• StaywithvehicleandcheckallRAMpackagesfordamage.• MaintainsurveillanceofallRAMpackagesuntilassistancearrivesifunabletomove

thevehicle.• Ifapackageisdamaged,visuallyinspectinsidethepackagetoensuresourcesare

stillproperlycontained/shielded.• Ifnecessary,waitforpoliceassistance;sendforRSOassoonaspossible;usesurvey

metertocheckforradiationleakage.• IfnecessaryrepackagetheRAM,placeitinanothervehicleandreturntotheCollege.

11. DECONTAMINATIONPROCEDURESAppropriateglovesandprotectiveclothingmustbewornduringalldecontaminationprocedures.ContacttheRSOand/ortheDirectorofEH&Sforanydecontaminationprocessthatisunsuccessful.

11.1. NonPorousSurfaces

• Step1:Usingabsorbenttowels(clothorpaper),absorbtheliquidradioactivematerial.

• Step2:Rubthecontaminatedsurfacefor1minutewithabsorbenttoweling,moistenedwithadetergentsolution,thenwipedrywithtoweling.

• Step3:Monitorthesurfacewiththeappropriateinstrument(GMmeterorLSC).• Step4:Spraythecontaminatedsurfacewithacomplexingagent2,keepingsurface

wetfor20to30minutes.Wipethesurfacewithwettoweling,andthendrytoweling.

• Step5:Repeatmonitoring.• Repeatthisprocessuntilsurfacecontaminationisreducedtobackgroundlevel.

11.2. NonPorousSurfacesContainingPorousDeposits(Examplesofporousdepositsincluderustedmetals,orcalcareousgrowths.)

• Step1:Usingabsorbenttowels(clothorpaper),absorbtheliquidradioactive

material.• Step2:Applyanacidsolution3tothecontaminatedsurfacesfor1hour.Ifitemis

moveableandsmallenough,immersetheiteminthesolution.

2Complexingagent‐asolutionshouldcontain3%,byweight,ofthecomplexingagent,suchassodiumhexamatophosate,sodiumethylene‐diamine‐tetroaceticacid(NaEDTA),oxalates,carbonatesorcitrates(maybeusedonoverheadverticalsurfacesbyaddingfoam‐sodiumcarbonateoraluminumsulfate).Agoodcommerciallyavailableproductthathastheabovecontentsis“DowBathroomCleaner”.

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• Step3:Flushthecontaminatedsurfacewithwater,andscrubwithdetergentsolution.

• Step4:Monitorthecontaminatedareawiththeappropriateinstrument(GMmeterorLSC).

• Repeatthisprocessuntilsurfacecontaminationisreducedtobackgroundlevel.

12. OFFCAMPUSTRANSPORTOFRAMAllRAMtobeshippedfromtheCollege(Forexample,sendingmaterialstoanotherinstitutionwhereacolleaguemaybeengagedincollaborativeresearch)mustbeproperlypackaged,labeled,marked,signed,etc.,accordingtoapplicableU.S.DepartmentofTransportation(DOT)andNRCregulations.AllpackagingandshippingwillbeperformedunderthesupervisionoftheRSOandtheDirectorofEH&S,whoarequalifiedbytrainingandmeettherequirementof49CFR172SubpartH.Thisincludesobtainingacopyofthereceivinginstitution’sNRClicense,toverifytheirauthorizationtopossesstheisotopeandquantitythatwillbetransferred.

13. MANAGEMENTOFRAMWASTEAnywastematerialcontainingorcontaminatedbyradioactivematerialisconsideredaradioactivewaste,andmustbedisposedofappropriately.Proceduresforaccumulatingandpreparingradioactivewastefordisposaldependontheformofthewaste(absorbedliquids,drysolids,etc.),andtheisotopegroupdescribedbelow.

13.1. WasteGroupDescriptionsRadioactivewastesaresegregatedintofourgroupsbasedonisotopehalf‐life.Whenaccumulatingradioactivewastes,avoidcombiningisotopesfromdifferentgroupsinthesamewastecontainer.Shortlivedradioactivewastesincludethefollowingthreegroups:

GroupIradionuclideshaveahalf‐lifelessthanorequalto15days,suchasI‐131,In‐111,P‐32,andY‐90.GroupIIradionuclideshaveahalf‐lifeequaltoorlessthan30daysbutgreaterthan15days,includingCr‐51andP‐33.

3Atypicalacidsolutionconsistsof1/10gallon(378.54ml)ofhydrochloricacid,and2/10lb(90.719g)ofsodiumacetatein1gallonofwater.Corrosiveactioncanbemoderatedbytheadditionofcorrosioninhibitorstothesolution.Goodventilationisamustbecauseoftoxicityandexplosivegases.PPE(Splash‐proofgoggles,labcoatandgloves)mustbewornwhenmixingandusingcorrosivesolutions.

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GroupIIIradionuclideshaveahalf‐lifelessthan90daysbutgreaterthan30days.IsotopesincludeI‐125andS‐35.

LonglivedradioactivewastesareinGroupIV:

GroupIVradionuclideshaveahalf‐lifeequaltoorgreaterthan90days.IsotopesinthisgroupincludeH‐3,C‐14andCa‐45.

ProperdisposalofRAMwasteisessentialtomeetingNRCregulations,andminimizingcosts.FollowingisalistofthetypesofwasteroutinelygeneratedatConnecticutCollege,withproceduresforhandlingthem.ContacttheRSOorDirectorofEH&SforguidancefordisposalofanyotherRAMwasteyourresearchmaygenerate.

13.2. SolidRAMWaste(LabDisposables)

• SolidRAMwasteshouldbeplacedintoalabeledlaboratorywastepailwithopaqueplasticbagliners.Theremustbeaseparatewastepailforeachisotopebeingusedinthelab.Whenthecontainer/bagisfull,labpersonnelmustlabeleachclosedbagwithatagprovidedbyEH&S,containinghefollowinginformation:

‐ Authorizedusername‐ Dateisotopepurchased‐ Isotope(s)‐ Approximatetotalactivityofeachisotopeinthebag

• TheDirectorofEH&Swillpick‐upandtransportyourwasteuponrequest,andbring

ittotheRAMWasteStorageFacility(“TheMorgue”)inNewLondonHall,whereitwillbestoredindoubleopaqueplasticbagsinplastictrashcontainersordrums.Separatedrumswillbeusedforisotopeswithhalf‐livesof≤90days.Asnotedabove,longhalf‐lifeisotopescanbecomingled.

• TheDirectorofEH&Swilllogthewasteinformationfromthebagtagonthe“WasteContainerInventoryCard”,tapedtoeachcontainerordrumlid.

• Wastecontainingisotopeswithhalf‐livesof≤90dayswillbeheldfordecayatleastfor10halflives.Theappropriatefuturedatefollowing10half‐liveswillbecalculatedbytheDirectorofEH&SandenteredontheWasteContainerInventoryCard.

• At10half‐livestheDirectorofEH&SwillmonitorthewastewithaGMsurveymeter.Ifthereadingsatanylocationonthewastebagaregreaterthantwicebackground,thewastewillbeheldformoredecay.Ifreadingsarelessthantwicebackground,thewastewillbedisposedofasordinarytrash.

• Anyneedles,pipettes,etc.,mustbeexcludedfromdrysolidwasteandpackagedinasharpscontainer.

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13.3. LiquidRAMWasteAqueous(nonhazardous)liquidscontainingRAMshouldbedisposedofdownthelabsinkwiththewaterrunningslowly(tokeepthesinkdrainflushedcleanofresidualRAM)foratleast5minutesafteremptyingtheRAMwastesolution.Norecordsofthesedisposalsarerequiredtobekeptbylabpersonnel.CompliancewithNRCreleaselimitsismonitoredonacollege‐widelevel,usingRAMinventoryandsewerreleasevolume.Appendix(K)–“AllowableSanitarySewerReleaseLimitsofRAM”,isaworksheetforcalculatingsewerreleasesNonaqueous(hazardous)chemicalliquidscontainingshorthalflife(≤90days)RAMmustbehelduntiltheRAMhasdecayedfor10half‐lives.Becauseoftheextendedstorageperiod,thewastecontainermustbeofhighintegritytoensurethatleakingdoesnotoccurduringthedecayperiod,whichcouldlastfor900days.TheDirectorofEH&SwillbringasecondarycontainertousefortransporttotheMorgue,andsubsequentstorage.Attheendofthedecayperiod,thewastewillbeproperlymonitoredtoensurenoactivityremainsbeforeofferingittoachemicalwastevendor.

13.4. LSCVialsContainingLiquidScintillationCocktailLSCvialscontaining(hazardous)scintillationcocktail(e.g.,toluene,etc.)Wastesthatcontainhazardousconstituentsandradioactivematerialsareconsidered“mixed”wastesAsdiscussedin13.5,below,mixedwastesaredifficultandexpensivetodispose(unlessitisanisotopethatcanbeheldfordecay).Wheneverpossible,“non‐hazardous”scintillationcocktailsshouldbeused.LSCvialscontaining(nonhazardous)scintillationcocktailshouldbeplacedinplasticbagsinsidealabeledwastepailinthelab,withnomorethan200vialsperbag.Again,allisotopesmustbesegregated‐onlyoneisotopeperbag.Theonlyexceptionislonghalf‐lifeisotopes(e.g.,H‐3,C‐14orCL‐36),whichmaybeplacedinthesamebag.Eachbagmustbelabeledwithasecurelyaffixedtagwiththefollowinginformation:

‐ Printtheword“Vials”onthetag/label‐ Authorizedusername‐ Dateisotopepurchased‐ Isotope(s)‐ Approximatetotalactivityofeachisotopeinthebag‐ LSCcocktailname

TheDirectorofEH&Swillpick‐upproperlylabeledfullLSCvialbagsuponrequest,andtransportthemtothemorgue.

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13.5. MixedWasteNonaqueous/hazardouschemicalliquidwastes,containinglonghalflifeRAMareknownas“mixed”wastes.Itisextremelyexpensiveanddifficulttodisposeofmixedwastes.AnyresearchthatwillgeneratemixedwastemustbediscussedbytheRUCbeforehand.Hazardousliquidwastecontainersbroughttothemorgue,eitherfordecay,orforstoragependingdisposal,mustbelabeledwithbothradiologicalandHazardousWastelabels.(SeeFigure3)

Figure3RadiologicalandHazardousWasteLabels

RAMWasteTag/Label HazardousWasteTag/Label

• Authorizeduser:• Isotope:• Isotopepurchasedate:• Approx.totalactivityofeachisotopeinthewaste

containerorbag:

• Contents:(Nochemicalformulaeorabbreviations)• Hazard(s):• Datecontainerclosed:• GeneratorInfo:

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Appendix(A)–RADIOLOGICALOCCURRENCEREPORT

Observation Deficiency ViolationReport#:

To:(ResponsibleP.I.): Date:From:(Observer): Bldg./Room:PARTI:DescriptionofRadiologicalOccurrence:ImmediateCorrectiveActionTaken:

Signature:_____________________________________________Date:______________________(RSO,Dir,EH&SorConsultant)LongTermCorrectiveAction(Ifrequired):PARTII:P.I.Response:(Completethissectionif“Violation”ischeckedabove,andreturntotheRSOwithin3workingdaysnotification.NoresponsenecessaryforOBSERVATIONorDEFICIENCY.)

Signature:_____________________________________________Date:______________________PrincipalInvestigatorPARTIII:RUCDisposition:

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Appendix(B)–RADIOISOTOPEUSEAUTHORIZATION/RENEWALFORM

PARTAINSTRUCTIONS:Pleasecompleteallpertinentitems,andforwardtotheDirectorofEH&S.1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________NameofApplicant DepartmentTelephone2. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________Building&laboratoryroomnumber(s)whereradioactivematerialswillbeused.3. Areyouapreviouslyauthorizeduser?YES_____NO_____.IfNO,completeItem6andPartB.IfYES,respond

toitemsonlyasappropriate.4. Doyouplantouseadditionalisotopes?YES_____NO_____.IfYES,givedetailsinItem6andcompletePartB.

5. Doyouplantoincreaseyourauthorizedamounts?YES_____NO_____.IfYES,givedetailsinItem6.6. Radioisotopesforwhichauthorizationisrequested.(Attachasupplementarysheetifmorespaceisneeded.)

Element/Symbol MassNumber TotalmCi Half‐life Chemical/Physicalform*

*Ifasealedsource,statenumberofmanufacturer,modelnumberandamount.7. Ifyouareapreviouslyauthorizeduser,arethereanychangesinyourexperimentalprotocolsthatwillaffect

safety(i.e.,largerquantitiesbeingused,volatilizedRAMgeneration,increasedriskofcontaminationofpersonnel,laband/orequipment,etc.)?YES_____NO_____.IfYES,completePartB.

8. Certification:“Allinformationcontainedinthisapplicationiscorrecttothebestofmyknowledge.Ihavereadandunderstood“RadioisotopeUsePolicyandProgram”andNRCregulations10CFR19and20.”

____________________________________________________________________________________________SignatureofApplicantDate9. APPROVALofRadiationUseCommittee,subjecttoanyconditionslistedbelow.____________________________________________________________________________________________SignatureofChairman,RUCDateRUCComments:

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APPLICATIONFORAUTHORIZATIONTOUSERADIOISOTOPES

PARTB10. Describethepurposeforwhicheachradioactivematerialwillbeused,insufficientdetailtopermitevaluation

ofpotentialhazards.Ifnecessary,contacttheRSOforassistanceincompletingthispart.11. Describelaboratoryfacilities,remotehandlingequipment,storagecontainers,shielding,fumehoods,etc.,and

showhowtheywillcontain/controlRAM,toprotectpersonnelfromexposure.Ifnecessary,contacttheRSOforassistanceincompletingthispart.

12. Describeradiationprotectionprocedures,includingcontrolmeasures,andwastedisposalprocedures.

ReferenceallapplicablesafetyproceduresincludedintheCollegeRadiationSafetyManualthroughoutthisresponse.TheCollegepolicyrequiresallauthorizeduserstoread,understand,andadheretothesesafetyprocedures.Useanextrasheetifmorespaceisneeded.

RUCComments:

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APPLICATIONFORAUTHORIZATIONTOUSERADIOISOTOPES

PARTC

Recordyourexperienceandtrainingindetail,listingeachtrainingperiodseparately.Statewheretrainingwasobtained,itsduration,andwhetheritwasformal,oron‐the‐job;giveinclusivedates.IfPartBhasbeencompletedonapreviousapplication,itmaybeomitted,unlesspertinentnewinformationisavailable.13. TypeofTraining

a. Principlesandpracticesofprotection:b. Radioactivitymeasurementsandmonitoringtechniques;instrumentation:

c. Mathematicsandcalculations,basictomeasurementofradioactivity:

d. Biologicaleffectsofradiation:

e. Pertinentothertraining,includecollegeanduniversitycourses,degreesobtained,withdatesandsubjects:

14. TypesofExperience:Listeachtypeofexperienceseparately.Appendasecondsheetofmoreroomisneeded.Listradioactivematerialsseparatelyorinlogicalgroups,showingmaximumamountsused,institutionwhereexperiencewasgained,durationofexperience,andtypeofuse:____________________________________________________________________________________________SignatureofApplicantDateTheRUCwillapproveapplicationsforauthorizeduseofRAMiftheapplicantmeetsqualificationsspecifiedbytheNRCin10CFR33.15(b):

• Possessacollegedegreeatthebachelorlevel,orhaveequivalenttrainingandexperienceinthephysicalorbiologicalsciencesorinengineering;and

• Haveatleast40hoursoftrainingandexperienceinthesafehandlingofradioactivematerials,andinthecharacteristicsof

ionizingradiation,unitsofradiationdoseandquantities,radiationdetectioninstrumentation,andbiologicalhazardsofexposuretoradiationappropriatetothetypeandformsofbyproductmaterialrequestedtobeused.

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Appendix(C)–RAMRECEIPT/SHIPMENTRECORDPARTI–RECEIPT/SHIPMENTINFORMATION Receipt Transfer Other:______________________________________

Date:

Isotope:

Activity: Form: Cat#:

User: Bldg./Room:

P.O.#: P.O.Date: Manufacturer:

ContainerType: DOTIndex:

PARTII–DANGEROUSGOODSIDENTIFICATION

ProperShippingName:ClassorDivision

UN#Quantity&Type

ofPackingPackingInstructions

“Iherebydeclarethatthecontentsofthisconsignmentarefullyandaccuratelydescribedabovebypropershippingname,andareclassified,packed,markedandlabeled,andareinallrespectsintheproperconditionfortransportbygroundorair,accordingtotheapplicableinternationalandNationalGovernmentRegulations.”PARTIII–RADIATIONMEASUREMENTS

At1MeterfromSurface:

AtSurface:

InstrumentUsed:

Background:

SurfaceWipeTest:

Background:

InstrumentUsed: Background:

Comments:

Signed:____________________________________________________Date:_______________________________

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Appendix(D)–CEMS–RADIOACTIVEMATERIALINVENTORYSYSTEM

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Appendix(E)–RAMINVENTORYLOGUser:___________________________________________________

P.O.Date P.P.Number Isotope Activity(mCi) Form Cat.Number R/T/D

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Appendix(F)–RADIATIONSURVEYREPORT

InitialMonthlyFollowUpOther______________________Surveyor: Date:

ResponsibleP.I.: Dept: Building: Room#:

TypeofFacility: IsotopesPresent: IndividualsPresent:

SURVEYDATABuilding/Room:__________________________ SurveyResults

LSCWipesSurvey/WipeLocation

GMMeter 3H C14 P32

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 LSCStandards Blank

InsertRoomDrawing

Comments:

ComplianceChecklistCurrentlyusingRAM? YES_____NO_____ VolatileRAMbeingused? YES_____NO_____SinkdisposalofRAM? YES_____NO_____ Drain(s)leaking? YES_____NO_____Floorsealed? YES_____NO_____ Goodhousekeeping? YES_____NO_____Laboccupiedorlocked? YES_____NO_____ RAMsecured? YES_____NO_____GMmeterpresent? YES_____NO_____ Labcoatsbeingworn? YES_____NO_____10CFR20available? YES_____NO_____ NRCForm3posted? YES_____NO_____“Caution–RAM”sign? YES_____NO_____ RAMworkareastaped? YES_____NO_____Otherpostings? YES_____NO_____ Wastecontainer(s)full? YES_____NO_____Filmbadgesworn? YES_____NO_____ Eating/drinkinginlab? YES_____NO_____

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Appendix(G)–PERSONNELEXPOSUREINVESTIGATIONLEVELS

ConnecticutCollegehasestablishedthefollowinginvestigationallevels,asrecommendedbytheNRC: LevelI LevelII1. DeepDoseEquivalent 125mrem/qtr 375mrem/qtr.

or125mrem/mo.

2. EyeDoseEquivalent 375mrem/qtr.

or125mrem/mo.

1125mrem/qtr.or

375mrem/mo. 3. ShallowDoseEquivalenttoSkinor

Extremities1250mrem/qtr

or417mrem/qtr

3750mrem/qtr.or

1250mrem/mo.TheRSOorDirectorofEH&Swillreviewalldosimetryreportsfromcommercialvendorimmediatelyuponreceipt.Thefollowingactionswillbetakeninthosecaseswhereexposurelevelsatleastmeetorexceedtheinvestigationallevelslistedabove:a. ExceptwhendeemedappropriatebytheRSO,nofurtheractionwillbetakeninthosecases

whereanindividual’sexposureislessthanLevelI.b. TheRSOwillreviewtheexposureofeachindividualwhosemonthlyexposuresequalorexceeds

levelI.TheRSOwillconsidereachsuchexposureincomparisonwiththoseofothersperformingsimilartasks,asanindexofALARAprogramquality.TheRSOwillreporttheresultsofhisreviewsatthefirstRadiationUseCommittee(RUC)meetingfollowingtheexposureperiodwhentheexposurewasrecorded.IftheexposuredoesnotequalorexceedInvestigationalLevelII,noactionspecificallyrelatedtotheexposureisrequiredunlessdeemedappropriatebytheRadiationUseCommittee.ThisreviewwillberecordedintheCommitteeMinutes.

c. TheRSOwillinvestigateinatimelymanner,thecause(s)ofallpersonnelexposuresequalingor

exceedingInvestigationalLevelII,andifwarranted,takeaction.Areportoftheinvestigation,actionstaken(ifany),andacopyoftheindividual’sincidentreportformwillbepresentedtotheRUCuponcompletionoftheinvestigation.TheRUCwill,atthattime,decideontheappropriatecorrectiveaction.ThedetailsoftheincidentreportandanyresponsewillberecordedintheminutesoftheRUCmeeting.

d. Incasewereaworker’soragroupofworkers’exposuresneedtoexceedInvestigationalLevelI,

anewhigherInvestigationLevelIImaybeestablishedonthebasisthatisconsistentwithgoodALARApracticesforthatindividualorgroup.JustificationforanewinvestigationalLevelIIwillbedocumented.

e. TheRUCwillreviewthejustificationfor,andwillapproveallrevisionsofInvestigationalLevel

II.Insuchcases,whentheexposureequalsorexceedsthenewlyestablishedInvestigationalLevelII,thoseactionslistedinparagraphcabovewillbefollowed.ThedetailsoftheinvestigationwillbemadeavailabletoNRCandStateinspectorsforreviewatthetimeofthenextinspection.

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Appendix(H)–REGULATORYGUIDE8.13–INSTRUCTIONCONCERNINGPRENATALRADIATIONEXPOSURE

Home > Electronic Reading Room > Document Collections > Regulatory Guides > OccupationalHealth > Regulatory Guide 8.13

Regulatory Guide 8.13 - Instruction Concerning Prenatal RadiationExposure(Draft was issued as DG-8014)

Revision 3June 1999

Availability Notice

A. INTRODUCTIONThe Code of Federal Regulations in 10 CFR Part 19, "Notices, Instructions and Reports toWorkers: Inspection and Investigations," in Section 19.12, "Instructions to Workers," requiresinstruction in "the health protection problems associated with exposure to radiation and/or radioactivematerial, in precautions or procedures to minimize exposure, and in the purposes and functions ofprotective devices employed." The instructions must be "commensurate with potential radiologicalhealth protection problems present in the work place."

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's (NRC's) regulations on radiation protection are specified in 10CFR Part 20, "Standards for Protection Against Radiation"; and Section 20.1208, "Dose to anEmbryo/Fetus," requires licensees to "ensure that the dose to an embryo/fetus during the entirepregnancy, due to occupational exposure of a declared pregnant woman, does not exceed 0.5 rem (5mSv)." Section 20.1208 also requires licensees to "make efforts to avoid substantial variation above auniform monthly exposure rate to a declared pregnant woman." A declared pregnant woman isdefined in 10 CFR 20.1003 as a woman who has voluntarily informed her employer, in writing, of herpregnancy and the estimated date of conception.

This regulatory guide is intended to provide information to pregnant women, and other personnel, tohelp them make decisions regarding radiation exposure during pregnancy. This Regulatory Guide8.13 supplements Regulatory Guide 8.29 , "Instruction Concerning Risks from OccupationalRadiation Exposure" (Ref. 1), which contains a broad discussion of the risks from exposure to ionizingradiation.

Other sections of the NRC's regulations also specify requirements for monitoring external and internaloccupational dose to a declared pregnant woman. In 10 CFR 20.1502, "Conditions RequiringIndividual Monitoring of External and Internal Occupational Dose," licensees are required to monitorthe occupational dose to a declared pregnant woman, using an individual monitoring device, if it islikely that the declared pregnant woman will receive, from external sources, a deep dose equivalent inexcess of 0.1 rem (1 mSv). According to Paragraph (e) of 10 CFR 20.2106, "Records of IndividualMonitoring Results," the licensee must maintain records of dose to an embryo/fetus if monitoring wasrequired, and the records of dose to the embryo/fetus must be kept with the records of dose to the

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides/occupational-health/rg/8-13/

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declared pregnant woman. The declaration of pregnancy must be kept on file, but may be maintainedseparately from the dose records. The licensee must retain the required form or record until theCommission terminates each pertinent license requiring the record.

The information collections in this regulatory guide are covered by the requirements of 10 CFR Parts19 or 20, which were approved by the Office of Management and Budget, approval numbers3150-0044 and 3150-0014, respectively. The NRC may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is notrequired to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a currently valid OMB controlnumber.

B. DISCUSSIONAs discussed in Regulatory Guide 8.29 (Ref. 1) , exposure to any level of radiation is assumed tocarry with it a certain amount of risk. In the absence of scientific certainty regarding the relationshipbetween low dose exposure and health effects, and as a conservative assumption for radiationprotection purposes, the scientific community generally assumes that any exposure to ionizingradiation may cause undesirable biological effects and that the likelihood of these effects increases asthe dose increases. At the occupational dose limit for the whole body of 5 rem (50 mSv) per year, therisk is believed to be very low.

The magnitude of risk of childhood cancer following in utero exposure is uncertain in that bothnegative and positive studies have been reported. The data from these studies "are consistent with alifetime cancer risk resulting from exposure during gestation which is two to three times that for theadult" (NCRP Report No. 116, Ref. 2). The NRC has reviewed the available scientific literature andhas concluded that the 0.5 rem (5 mSv) limit specified in 10 CFR 20.1208 provides an adequatemargin of protection for the embryo/fetus. This dose limit reflects the desire to limit the total lifetimerisk of leukemia and other cancers associated with radiation exposure during pregnancy.

In order for a pregnant worker to take advantage of the lower exposure limit and dose monitoringprovisions specified in 10 CFR Part 20, the woman must declare her pregnancy in writing to thelicensee. A form letter for declaring pregnancy is provided in this guide or the licensee may use itsown form letter for declaring pregnancy. A separate written declaration should be submitted for eachpregnancy.

C. REGULATORY POSITION1.Who Should Receive Instruction

Female workers who require training under 10 CFR 19.12 should be provided with the informationcontained in this guide. In addition to the information contained in Regulatory Guide 8.29 (Ref. 1),this information may be included as part of the training required under 10 CFR 19.12.

2.Providing InstructionThe occupational worker may be given a copy of this guide with its Appendix, an explanation of thecontents of the guide, and an opportunity to ask questions and request additional information. Theinformation in this guide and Appendix should also be provided to any worker or supervisor whomay be affected by a declaration of pregnancy or who may have to take some action in response tosuch a declaration.Classroom instruction may supplement the written information. If the licensee provides classroominstruction, the instructor should have some knowledge of the biological effects of radiation to beable to answer questions that may go beyond the information provided in this guide. Videotapedpresentations may be used for classroom instruction. Regardless of whether the licensee providesclassroom training, the licensee should give workers the opportunity to ask questions aboutinformation contained in this Regulatory Guide 8.13. The licensee may take credit for instruction


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that the worker has received within the past year at other licensed facilities or in other courses ortraining.

3.Licensee's Policy on Declared Pregnant WomenThe instruction provided should describe the licensee's specific policy on declared pregnantwomen, including how those policies may affect a woman's work situation. In particular, theinstruction should include a description of the licensee's policies, if any, that may affect the declaredpregnant woman's work situation after she has filed a written declaration of pregnancy consistentwith 10 CFR 20.1208.The instruction should also identify who to contact for additional information as well as identify whoshould receive the written declaration of pregnancy. The recipient of the woman's declaration maybe identified by name (e.g., John Smith), position (e.g., immediate supervisor, the radiation safetyofficer), or department (e.g., the personnel department).

4.Duration of Lower Dose Limits for the Embryo/FetusThe lower dose limit for the embryo/fetus should remain in effect until the woman withdraws thedeclaration in writing or the woman is no longer pregnant. If a declaration of pregnancy iswithdrawn, the dose limit for the embryo/fetus would apply only to the time from the estimated dateof conception until the time the declaration is withdrawn. If the declaration is not withdrawn, thewritten declaration may be considered expired one year after submission.

5.Substantial Variations Above a Uniform Monthly Dose RateAccording to 10 CFR 20.1208(b), "The licensee shall make efforts to avoid substantial variationabove a uniform monthly exposure rate to a declared pregnant woman so as to satisfy the limit inparagraph (a) of this section," that is, 0.5 rem (5 mSv) to the embryo/fetus. The National Council onRadiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) recommends a monthly equivalent dose limit of0.05 rem (0.5 mSv) to the embryo/fetus once the pregnancy is known (Ref. 2). In view of the NCRPrecommendation, any monthly dose of less than 0.1 rem (1 mSv) may be considered as not asubstantial variation above a uniform monthly dose rate and as such will not require licenseejustification. However, a monthly dose greater than 0.1 rem (1 mSv) should be justified by thelicensee.

D. IMPLEMENTATIONThe purpose of this section is to provide information to licensees and applicants regarding the NRCstaff's plans for using this regulatory guide.

Unless a licensee or an applicant proposes an acceptable alternative method for complying with thespecified portions of the NRC's regulations, the methods described in this guide will be used by theNRC staff in the evaluation of instructions to workers on the radiation exposure of pregnant women.

REFERENCES1. USNRC, "Instruction Concerning Risks from Occupational Radiation Exposure," Regulatory Guide8.29, Revision 1 , February 1996.

2. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Limitation of Exposure to IonizingRadiation, NCRP Report No. 116, Bethesda, MD, 1993.

APPENDIX: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS CONCERNING PRENATAL RADIATIONEXPOSURE1. Why am I receiving this information?

The NRC's regulations (in 10 CFR 19.12, "Instructions to Workers") require that licensees instructindividuals working with licensed radioactive materials in radiation protection as appropriate for


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the situation. The instruction below describes information that occupational workers and theirsupervisors should know about the radiation exposure of the embryo/fetus of pregnant women.The regulations allow a pregnant woman to decide whether she wants to formally declare herpregnancy to take advantage of lower dose limits for the embryo/fetus. This instruction providesinformation to help women make an informed decision whether to declare a pregnancy.

2. If I become pregnant, am I required to declare my pregnancy?No. The choice whether to declare your pregnancy is completely voluntary. If you choose todeclare your pregnancy, you must do so in writing and a lower radiation dose limit will apply toyour embryo/fetus. If you choose not to declare your pregnancy, you and your embryo/fetus willcontinue to be subject to the same radiation dose limits that apply to other occupational workers.

3. If I declare my pregnancy in writing, what happens?If you choose to declare your pregnancy in writing, the licensee must take measures to limit thedose to your embryo/fetus to 0.5 rem (5 millisievert) during the entire pregnancy. This is one-tenthof the dose that an occupational worker may receive in a year. If you have already received adose exceeding 0.5 rem (5 mSv) in the period between conception and the declaration of yourpregnancy, an additional dose of 0.05 rem (0.5 mSv) is allowed during the remainder of thepregnancy. In addition, 10 CFR 20.1208, "Dose to an Embryo/Fetus," requires licensees to makeefforts to avoid substantial variation above a uniform monthly dose rate so that all the 0.5 rem (5mSv) allowed dose does not occur in a short period during the pregnancy.This may mean that, if you declare your pregnancy, the licensee may not permit you to do some ofyour normal job functions if those functions would have allowed you to receive more than 0.5 rem,and you may not be able to have some emergency response responsibilities.

4. Why do the regulations have a lower dose limit for the embryo/fetus of a declared pregnantwoman than for a pregnant worker who has not declared?A lower dose limit for the embryo/fetus of a declared pregnant woman is based on a considerationof greater sensitivity to radiation of the embryo/fetus and the involuntary nature of the exposure.Several scientific advisory groups have recommended (References 1 and 2) that the dose to theembryo/fetus be limited to a fraction of the occupational dose limit.

5. What are the potentially harmful effects of radiation exposure to my embryo/fetus?The occurrence and severity of health effects caused by ionizing radiation are dependent uponthe type and total dose of radiation received, as well as the time period over which the exposurewas received. See Regulatory Guide 8.29, "Instruction Concerning Risks from OccupationalExposure" (Ref. 3), for more information. The main concern is embryo/fetal susceptibility to theharmful effects of radiation such as cancer.

6. Are there any risks of genetic defects?Although radiation injury has been induced experimentally in rodents and insects, and in theexperiments was transmitted and became manifest as hereditary disorders in their offspring,radiation has not been identified as a cause of such effect in humans. Therefore, the risk ofgenetic effects attributable to radiation exposure is speculative. For example, no genetic effectshave been documented in any of the Japanese atomic bomb survivors, their children, or theirgrandchildren.

7. What if I decide that I do not want any radiation exposure at all during my pregnancy?You may ask your employer for a job that does not involve any exposure at all to occupationalradiation dose, but your employer is not obligated to provide you with a job involving no radiationexposure. Even if you receive no occupational exposure at all, your embryo/fetus will receivesome radiation dose (on average 75 mrem (0.75 mSv)) during your pregnancy from naturalbackground radiation.


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The NRC has reviewed the available scientific literature and concluded that the 0.5 rem (5 mSv)limit provides an adequate margin of protection for the embryo/fetus. This dose limit reflects thedesire to limit the total lifetime risk of leukemia and other cancers. If this dose limit is exceeded,the total lifetime risk of cancer to the embryo/fetus may increase incrementally. However, thedecision on what level of risk to accept is yours. More detailed information on potential risk to theembryo/fetus from radiation exposure can be found in References 2-10.

8. What effect will formally declaring my pregnancy have on my job status?Only the licensee can tell you what effect a written declaration of pregnancy will have on your jobstatus. As part of your radiation safety training, the licensee should tell you the company's policieswith respect to the job status of declared pregnant women. In addition, before you declare yourpregnancy, you may want to talk to your supervisor or your radiation safety officer and ask what adeclaration of pregnancy would mean specifically for you and your job status.In many cases you can continue in your present job with no change and still meet the dose limitfor the embryo/fetus. For example, most commercial power reactor workers (approximately 93%)receive, in 12 months, occupational radiation doses that are less than 0.5 rem (5 mSv) (Ref. 11).The licensee may also consider the likelihood of increased radiation exposures from accidentsand abnormal events before making a decision to allow you to continue in your present job.If your current work might cause the dose to your embryo/fetus to exceed 0.5 rem (5 mSv), thelicensee has various options. It is possible that the licensee can and will make a reasonableaccommodation that will allow you to continue performing your current job, for example, by havinganother qualified employee do a small part of the job that accounts for some of your radiationexposure.

9. What information must I provide in my written declaration of pregnancy?You should provide, in writing, your name, a declaration that you are pregnant, the estimated dateof conception (only the month and year need be given), and the date that you give the letter to thelicensee. A form letter that you can use is included at the end of these questions and answers.You may use that letter, use a form letter the licensee has provided to you, or write your ownletter.

10.To declare my pregnancy, do I have to have documented medical proof that I am pregnant?NRC regulations do not require that you provide medical proof of your pregnancy. However, NRCregulations do not preclude the licensee from requesting medical documentation of yourpregnancy, especially if a change in your duties is necessary in order to comply with the 0.5 rem(5 mSv) dose limit.

11.Can I tell the licensee orally rather than in writing that I am pregnant?No. The regulations require that the declaration must be in writing.

12.If I have not declared my pregnancy in writing, but the licensee suspects that I am pregnant, dothe lower dose limits apply?No. The lower dose limits for pregnant women apply only if you have declared your pregnancy inwriting. The United States Supreme Court has ruled (in United Automobile Workers InternationalUnion v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 1991) that "Decisions about the welfare of future children must beleft to the parents who conceive, bear, support, and raise them rather than to the employers whohire those parents" (Reference 7). The Supreme Court also ruled that your employer may notrestrict you from a specific job "because of concerns about the next generation." Thus, the lowerlimits apply only if you choose to declare your pregnancy in writing.

13.If I am planning to become pregnant but am not yet pregnant and I inform the licensee of that inwriting, do the lower dose limits apply?No. The requirement for lower limits applies only if you declare in writing that you are alreadypregnant.

14.What if I have a miscarriage or find out that I am not pregnant?


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If you have declared your pregnancy in writing, you should promptly inform the licensee in writingthat you are no longer pregnant. However, if you have not formally declared your pregnancy inwriting, you need not inform the licensee of your nonpregnant status.

15.How long is the lower dose limit in effect?The dose to the embryo/fetus must be limited until you withdraw your declaration in writing or youinform the licensee in writing that you are no longer pregnant. If the declaration is not withdrawn,the written declaration may be considered expired one year after submission.

16.If I have declared my pregnancy in writing, can I revoke my declaration of pregnancy even if I amstill pregnant?Yes, you may. The choice is entirely yours. If you revoke your declaration of pregnancy, the lowerdose limit for the embryo/fetus no longer applies.

17.What if I work under contract at a licensed facility?The regulations state that you should formally declare your pregnancy to the licensee in writing.The licensee has the responsibility to limit the dose to the embryo/fetus.

18.Where can I get additional information?The references to this Appendix contain helpful information, especially Reference 3, NRC'sRegulatory Guide 8.29, "Instruction Concerning Risks from Occupational Radiation Exposure," forgeneral information on radiation risks. The licensee should be able to give this document to you.

For information on legal aspects, see Reference 7, "The Rock and the Hard Place: EmployerLiability to Fertile or Pregnant Employees and Their Unborn Children--What Can the Employer Do?"which is an article in the journal Radiation Protection Management.

You may telephone the NRC Headquarters at (301) 415-7000. Legal questions should be directed tothe Office of the General Counsel, and technical questions should be directed to the Division ofIndustrial and Medical Nuclear Safety.

You may also telephone the NRC Regional Offices at the following numbers: Region I, (610)337-5000; Region II, (404) 562-4400; Region III, (630) 829-9500; and Region IV, (817) 860-8100.Legal questions should be directed to the Regional Counsel, and technical questions should bedirected to the Division of Nuclear Materials Safety.

REFERENCES FOR APPENDIXNational Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Limitation of Exposure to IonizingRadiation, NCRP Report No. 116, Bethesda, MD, 1993.International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1990 Recommendations of the InternationalCommission on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication 60, Ann. ICRP 21: No. 1-3, PergamonPress, Oxford, UK, 1991.USNRC, "Instruction Concerning Risks from Occupational Radiation Exposure," Regulatory Guide8.29, Revision 1, February 1996.(1) (Electronically available at http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides/)Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, National Research Council, Health Effectsof Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR V), National Academy Press, Washington, DC,1990.United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, Sources and Effects ofIonizing Radiation, United Nations, New York, 1993.R. Doll and R. Wakeford, "Risk of Childhood Cancer from Fetal Irradiation," The British Journal ofRadiology, 70, 130-139, 1997.David Wiedis, Donald E. Jose, and Timm O. Phoebe, "The Rock and the Hard Place: Employer


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Liability to Fertile or Pregnant Employees and Their Unborn Children--What Can the Employer Do?"Radiation Protection Management, 11, 41-49, January/February 1994.National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Considerations Regarding theUnintended Radiation Exposure of the Embryo, Fetus, or Nursing Child, NCRP Commentary No. 9,Bethesda, MD, 1994.National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection,NCRP Report No. 115, Bethesda, MD, 1993.National Radiological Protection Board, Advice on Exposure to Ionising Radiation During Pregnancy,National Radiological Protection Board, Chilton, Didcot, UK, 1998.M.L. Thomas and D. Hagemeyer, "Occupational Radiation Exposure at Commercial Nuclear PowerReactors and Other Facilities, 1996," Twenty-Ninth Annual Report, NUREG-0713, Vol. 18, USNRC,1998.(2)

FORM LETTER FOR DECLARING PREGNANCYThis form letter is provided for your convenience. To make your written declaration of pregnancy, youmay fill in the blanks in this form letter, you may use a form letter the licensee has provided to you, oryou may write your own letter.

DECLARATION OF PREGNANCY

To: _________________________

In accordance with the NRC's regulations at 10 CFR 20.1208, "Dose to an Embryo/Fetus," I amdeclaring that I am pregnant. I believe I became pregnant in________________ (only the month andyear need be provided).

I understand the radiation dose to my embryo/fetus during my entire pregnancy will not be allowed toexceed 0.5 rem (5 millisievert) (unless that dose has already been exceeded between the time ofconception and submitting this letter). I also understand that meeting the lower dose limit may requirea change in job or job responsibilities during my pregnancy.

___________________________(Your Signature)

___________________________(Your Name Printed)

___________________________(Date)

REGULATORY ANALYSISA separate regulatory analysis was not prepared for this regulatory guide. A regulatory analysisprepared for 10 CFR Part 20, "Standards for Protection Against Radiation" (56 FR 23360), providesthe regulatory basis for this guide and examines the costs and benefits of the rule as implemented bythe guide. A copy of the "Regulatory Analysis for the Revision of 10 CFR Part 20" (PNL-6712,November 1988) is available for inspection and copying for a fee at the NRC Public Document Room,2120 L Street NW, Washington, DC, as an enclosure to Part 20 (56 FR 23360).

1. Single copies of regulatory guides, both active and draft, and draft NUREG documents may be


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obtained free of charge by writing the Reproduction and Distribution Services Section, OCIO,USNRC, Washington, DC 20555-0001, or by fax to (301)415-2289, or by email to([email protected]). Active guides may also be purchased from the National TechnicalInformation Service on a standing order basis. Details on this service may be obtained by writingNTIS, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. Copies of active and draft guides are availablefor inspection or copying for a fee from the NRC Public Document Room at 2120 L Street NW.,Washington, DC; the PDR's mailing address is Mail Stop LL-6, Washington, DC 20555; telephone(202)634-3273; fax (202)634-3343.

2. Copies are available at current rates from the U.S. Government Printing Office, P.O. Box 37082,Washington, DC 20402-9328 (telephone (202)512-1800); or from the National Technical InformationService by writing NTIS at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. Copies are available forinspection or copying for a fee from the NRC Public Document Room at 2120 L Street NW.,Washington, DC; the PDR's mailing address is Mail Stop LL-6, Washington, DC 20555; telephone(202)634-3273; fax (202)634-3343.

Page Last Reviewed/Updated Tuesday, March 29, 2011

©2000-2011 NRC


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36

Appendix(I)–REGULATORYGUIDE8.29–INSTRUCTIONCONCERNINGRISKSFROMOCCUPATIONALRADIATIONEXPOSURE

U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION Revision 1February 1996

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REGULATORY GUIDENUCLEAR REGULATORY RESEARCH

REGULATORY GUIDE 8.29(Draft was issued as DG-8012)

INSTRUCTION CONCERNING RISKSFROM OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION EXPOSURE

A. INTRODUCTION

Section 19.12 of 10 CFR Part 19, “Notices, In-structions and Reports to Workers: Inspection and In-vestigations, ” requires that all individuals who in thecourse of their employment are likely to receive in ayear an occupational dose in excess of 100 mrem (1mSv) be instructed in the health protection issues asso-ciated with exposure to radioactive materials or radi-ation, Section 20.1206 of 10 CFR Part 20, “Standardsfor Protection Against Radiation, ” requires that beforea planned special exposure occurs the individuals in-volved are, among other things, to be informed of the

.estimated doses and associated risks.

This regulatory guide describes the informationthat should be provided to workers by licensees abouthealth risks from occupational exposure. This revisionconforms to the revision of 10 CFR Part 20 that be-came effective on June 20, 1991, to be implementedby licensees no later than January 1, 1994. The revi-sion of 10 CFR Part 20 establishes new dose limitsbased on the effective dose equivalent (EDE), requiresthe summing of internal and external dose, establishesa requirement that licensees use procedures and engi-neering controls to the extent practicable to achieveoccupational doses and doses to members of the publicthat are as low as is reasonably achievable (ALARA),provides for planned special exposures, establishes a

dose limit for the embryo/fetus of an occupationallyexposed declared pregnant woman, and explicitlystates that Part 20 is not to be construed as limitingaction that may be necessary to protect health andsafety during emergencies.

Any information collection activities mentioned inthis regulatory guide are contained as requirements in10 CFR Part 19 or 10 CFR Part 20. These regulationsprovide the regulatory bases for this guide. The infor-mation collection requirements in 10 CFR Parts 19 and20 have been cleared under OMB Clearance Nos.3150-0044 and 3150-0014, respectively.

B. DISCUSSION

It is important to qualify the material presented inthis guide with the following considerations.

The coefficient used in this guide for occupationalradiation risk estimates, 4 x 10–4 health effects perrem, is based on data obtained at much higher dosesand dose rates than those encountered by workers.The risk coefficient obtained at high doses and doserates was reduced to account for the reduced effective-ness of lower doses and dose rates in producing thestochastic effects observed in studies of exposedhumans.

The assumption of a linear extrapolation from thelowest doses at which effects are observable down to

USNRC REGULATORY GUIDES

Regulatory Guides are issued to describe and make available to the publicsuch information as methcds acceptable to the NRC staff for implement-ing specific parts of the Commission’s regulations, techniques used bythe staff in evaluating specific problems or postulated accidents, anddata needed by the NRC staff in its review of applications for permits andlicenses, Regulatory guides are not substitutes for regulations, and com-pliance with them is not required, Methcds and solutions different fromthose set out in the guides will be acceptable if they provide a basis for thefindings requisite to the issuance or continuance of a permit or license bythe Commission,

,—. This guide was issued after consideration of comments received from thepublic, Comments and suggestions for improvements in these guides areencouraged at all times, and guides wi I I be revised, as appropriate, toaccommodate comments and to reflect new information or experience,

Written comments may be submitted to the Rules Review and Dlr~tivesBranch, DFIPS, ADM, U, S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washing-ton, DC 20555-0001,

The guides are issued in the following ten broad divisions:

1. Power Reactors 6. Prcducts2. Research and Test Reactors 7. Transportation3. Fuels and Materials Facilities 8, Occupational Health4. Environmental and Siting 9. Antitrust and Financial Review5. Materials and Plant Protection 10. General

Single copies of regulatory guides may k obtained frea of charge by writ-ing the Office of Administration, Attention: Distribution and ServicesSection, U, S, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC20555-0001 ; or by fax at (301 )415-2260,

Issued guides may also be purchasad from the National Technical infor-mation Service on a standing order basis, Details on this service may beobtained by writing NTIS, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161,

the occupational range has considerable uncertainty.The report of the Committee on the Biological Effectsof Ionizing Radiation (Ref. 1) states that

6(. .. departure from linearity cannot be ex-cluded at low doses below the range of obser-vation. Such departures could be in the direc-tion of either an increased or decreased risk.Moreover, epidemiologic data cannot rigor-ously exclude the existence of a threshold inthe 100 mrem dose range. Thus, the possibil-ity that there may be no risk from exposurescomparable to external natural backgroundradiation cannot be ruled out. At such lowdoses and dose rates, it must be acknowl-edged that the lower limit of the range of un-certainty in the risk estimates extends tozero. ”

The issue of beneficial effects from low doses, orhormesis, in cellular systems is addressed by theUnited Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects ofAtomic Radiation (Ref. 2). UNSCEAR states that “...it would be premature to conclude that cellular adap-tive responses could convey possible beneficial effectsto the organism that would outweigh the detrimentaleffects of exposures to low doses of low-LETradiation. ”

In the absence of scientific certainty regarding therelationship between low doses and health effects, andas a conservative assumption for radiation protectionpurposes, the scientific community generally assumesthat any exposure to ionizing radiation can cause bio-logical effects that may be harmful to the exposed per-son and that the magnitude or probability of these ef-fects is directly proportional to the dose. These effectsmay be classified into three categories:

Somatic Effects: Physical effects occurring inthe exposed person. These effects may be ob-servable after a large or acute dose (e. g., 100remsl (1 Sv) or more to the whole body in afew hours); or they may be effects such ascancer that may occur years after exposure toradiation.

Genetic Effects: Abnormalities that may oc-cur in the fiture children of exposed individu-als and in subsequent generations (genetic ef-fects exceeding normal incidence have notbeen observed in any of the studies of humanpopulations).

Teratogenic Effects: Effects such as cancer orcongenital malformation that may be ob-served in children who were exposed duringthe fetal and embryonic stages of develop-ment (these effects have been observed from

1In the International System of Units (S1), the rem is replaced bythe sievert; 100 reins is equal to 1 sievert (Sv).

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high, i.e., above 20 reins (0.2 Sv), acute ex-posures).

The normal incidence of effects from natural and –manmade causes is significant. For example, approxi-mately 20% of people die from various forms of cancerwhether or not they ever receive occupational expo-sure to radiation. To avoid increasing the incidence ofsuch biological effects, regulatory controls are imposedon occupational doses to adults and minors and ondoses to the embryo/fetus from occupational expo-sures of declared pregnant women.

Radiation protection training for workers who areoccupationally exposed to ionizing radiation is an es-sential component of any program designed to ensurecompliance with NRC regulations. A clear understand-ing of what is presently known about the biologicalrisks associated with exposure to radiation will result inmore effective radiation protection training and shouldgenerate more interest on the part of the workers incomplying with radiation protection standards. In ad-dition, pregnant women and other occupationally ex-posed workers should have available to them relevantinformation on radiation risks to enable them to makeinformed decisions regarding the acceptance of theserisks. It is intended that workers who receive this in-struction will develop respect for the risks involved,rather than excessive fear or indifference.

C. REGULATORY POSITION

Instruction to workers performed in compliancewith 10 CFR 19.12 should be given prior to occupa-tional exposure and periodically thereafter. The fre-quency of retraining might range from annually for li-censees with complex operations such as nuclearpower plants, to every three years for licensees whopossess, for example, only low-activity sealed sources.If a worker is to participate in a planned special expo-sure, the worker should be informed of the associatedrisks in compliance with 10 CFR 20.1206.

In providing instruction concerning health protec-tion problems associated with exposure to radiation, alloccupationally exposed workers and their supervisorsshould be given specific instruction on the risk of bio-logical effects resulting from exposure to radiation.The extent of these instructions should be commensu-rate with the radiological risks present in the work-place.

The instruction should be presented orally, inprinted form, or in any other effective communicationmedia to workers and supervisors. The appendix tothis guide provides useful information for demonstrat-ing compliance with the training requirements in 10CFR Parts 19 and 20. Individuals should be given anopportunity to discuss the information and to ask ques- —tions. Testing is recommended, and each traineeshould be asked to acknowledge in writing that the in-struction has been received and understood.

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D. IMPLEMENTATION complying with specified portions of the Commission’s

The purpose of this section is to provide informa- regulations, the guidance and instructional materials intion to applicants and licensees regarding the NRC this guide will be used in the evaluation of applications

-.. staff’s plans for using this regulatory guide. for new licenses, license renewals, and license amend-

Except in those cases in which an applicant or li- ments and for evaluating compliance with 10 CFRcensee proposes acceptable alternative methods for 19.12 and 10 CFR Part 20.

REFERENCES

1. National Research Council, Health Effects of Ex- 2. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Ef-posure to Law Levels of Ionizing Radiation, Re- fects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), Sourcesport of the Committee on the Biological Effects of and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Na-Ionizing Radiation (BEIR V), National Academy tions, New York, 1993.Press, Washington, DC, 1990.

8.29-3

APPENDIX

INSTRUCTION CONCERNING RISKSFROM OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION EXPOSURE

This instructional material is intended to providethe user with the best available information about thehealth risks from occupational exposure to ionizing ra-diation. Ionizing radiation consists of energy or smallparticles, such as gamma rays and beta and alpha par-ticles, emitted from radioactive materials, which cancause chemical or physical damage when they depositenergy in living tissue. A question and answer format isused. Many of the questions or subjects were devel-oped by the NRC staff in consultation with workers,union representatives, and licensee representatives ex-perienced in radiation protection training.

This Revision 1 to Regulatory Guide 8.29 updatesthe material in the original guide on biological effectsand risks and on typical occupational exposure. Addi-tionally, it conforms to the revised 10 CFR Part 20,“Standards for Protection Against Radiation, ” whichwas required to be implemented by licensees no laterthan January 1, 1994. The information in this appen-dix is intended to help develop respect by workers forthe risks associated with radiation, rather than unjusti-fied fear or lack of concern. Additional guidance con-cerning other topics in radiation protection training isprovided in other NRC regulatory guides.

1. What is meant by health risk?

A health risk is generally thought of as somethingthat may endanger health. Scientists consider healthrisk to be the statistical probability or mathematicalchance that personal injury, illness, or death may re-sult from some action. Most people do not think abouthealth risks in terms of mathematics. Instead, most ofus consider the health risk of a particular action interms of whether we believe that particular action will,or will not, cause us some harm. The intent of this ap-pendix is to provide estimates of, and explain the basesfor, the risk of injury, illness, or death from occupa-tional radiation exposure. Risk can be quantified interms of the probability of a health effect per unit ofdose received.

When x-rays, gamma rays, and ionizing particlesinteract with living materials such as our bodies, theymay deposit enough energy to cause biological dam-age. Radiation can cause several different types ofevents such as the very small physical displacement ofmolecules, changing a molecule to a different form, orionization, which is the removal of electrons fromatoms and molecules. When the quantity of radiationenergy deposited in living tissue is high enough, biolog-ical damage can occur as a result of chemical bondsbeing broken and cells being damaged or killed. Theseeffects can result in observable clinical symptoms.

The basic unit for measuring absorbed radiation isthe rad. One rad (O.01 gray in the International Sys-tem of units) equals the absorption of 100 ergs (a smallbut measurable amount of energy) in a gram of materi-al such as tissue exposed to radiation. To reflect bio-logical risk, rads must be converted to reins. The newinternational unit is the sievert (100 reins = 1 Sv). Thisconversion accounts for the differences in the effec-tiveness of different types of radiation in causing dam-age. The rem is used to estimate biological risk. Forbeta and gamma radiation, a rem is considered equalto a rad.

2. What are the possible health effects of expo-sure to radiation?

Health effects from exposure to radiation rangefrom no effect at all to death, including diseases suchas leukemia or bone, breast, and lung cancer. Veryhigh ( 100s of rads), short-term doses of radiation havebeen known to cause prompt (or early) effects, such asvomiting and diarrhea, 1 skin burns, cataract& andeven death. It is suspected that radiation exposure maybe linked to the potential for genetic effects in the chil-dren of exposed parents. Also, children who were ex-posed to high doses (20 or more rads) of radiationprior to birth (as an embryo/fetus) have shown an in-creased risk of mental retardation and other congenitalmalformations. These effects (with the exception ofgenetic effects) have been observed in various studiesof medical radiologists, uranium miners, radium work-ers, radiotherapy patients, and the people exposed toradiation from atomic bombs dropped on Japan. Inaddition, radiation effects studies with laboratory ani-mals, in which the animals were given relatively highdoses, have provided extensive data on radiation-in-duced health effects, including genetic effects.

It is important to note that these kinds of healtheffects result from high doses, compared to occupa-tional levels, delivered over a relatively short period oftime.

Although studies have not shown a consistentcause-and-effect relationship between current levels ofoccupational radiation exposure and biological effects,it is prudent from a worker protection perspective toassume that some effects may occur.

lThese symptoms are early indicators of what is referred to asthe acute radiation syndrome, caused by high doses deliveredover a short time period, whichincludesdamage to the blood-forrningorgans such as bone marrow, damage to the gastrohr-testinal system, and, at veryhighdoses, can includedamagetothe central nervous system.

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3. What is meant by early effects and delayedor late effects?

EARLY EFFECTS

Early effects, which are also called immediate orprompt effects, are those that occur shortly after alarge exposure that is delivered within hours to a fewdays. They are observable after receiving a very largedose in a short period of time, for example, 300 rads(3 Gy) received within a few minutes to a few days.Early effects are not caused at the levels of radiationexposure allowed under the NRC’s occupational limits.

Early effects occur when the radiation dose is largeenough to cause extensive biological damage to cells sothat large numbers of cells are killed. For early effectsto occur, this radiation dose must be received within ashort time period. This type of dose is called an acutedose or acute exposure. The same dose received over along time period would not cause the same effect. Ourbody’s natural biological processes are constantly re-pairing damaged cells and replacing dead cells; if thecell damage is spread over time, our body is capable ofrepairing or replacing some of the damaged cells, re-ducing the observable adverse conditions.

For example, a dose to the whole body of about300-500 rads (3-5 Gy), more than 60 times the annu-al occupational dose limit, if received within a shorttime period (e.g., a few hours) will cause vomiting anddiarrhea within a few hours; loss of hair, fever, andweight loss within a few weeks; and about a 50 percentchance of death if medical treatment is not provided.These effects would not occur if the same dose wereaccumulated gradually over many weeks or months(Refs. 1 and 2). Thus, one of the justifications for es-tablishing annual dose limits is to ensure that occupa-tional dose is spread out in time.

It is important to distinguish between whole bodyand partial body exposure. A localized dose to a smallvolume of the body would not produce the same effectas a whole body dose of the same magnitude. For ex-ample, if only the hand were exposed, the effect wouldmainly be limited to the skin and underlying tissue ofthe hand. An acute dose of 400 to 600 rads (4-6 Gy)to the hand would cause skin reddening; recoverywould occur over the following months and no long-term damage would be expected. An acute dose of thismagnitude to the whole body could cause death withina short time without medical treatment, Medical treat-ment would lessen the magnitude of the effects and thechance of death; however, it would not totally elimin-ate the effects or the chance of death.

DELAYED EFFECTS

Delayed effects may occur years after exposure.These effects are caused indirectly when the radiationchanges parts of the cells in the body, which causes thenormal function of the cell to change, for example,

normal healthy cells turn into cancer cells. The poten-tial for these delayed health effects is one of the mainconcerns addressed when setting limits on occupation-al doses.

A delayed effect of special interest is genetic ef-fects. Genetic effects may occur if there is radiationdamage to the cells of the gonads (sperm or eggs).These effects may show up as genetic defects in thechildren of the exposed individual and succeeding gen-erations. However, if any genetic effects (i.e., effectsin addition to the normal expected number) have beencaused by radiation, the numbers are too small to havebeen observed in human populations exposed to radi-ation. For example, the atomic bomb survivors (fromHiroshima and Nagasaki) have not shown any signifi-cant radiation-related increases in genetic defects(Ref. 3). Effects have been observed in animal studiesconducted at very high levels of exposure and it isknown that radiation can cause changes in the genes incells of the human body. However, it is believed thatby maintaining worker exposures below the NRC limitsand consistent with ALARA, a margin of safety is pro-vided such that the risk of genetic effects is almosteliminated.

4. What is the difference between acute andchronic radiation dose?

Acute radiation dose usually refers to a large doseof radiation received in a short period of time. Chronicdose refers to the sum of small doses received repeat-edly over long time periods, for example, 20 rnrem (ormillirem, which is l-thousandth of a rem) (O.2 mSv)per week every week for several years. It is assumedfor radiation protection purposes that any radiationdose, either acute or chronic, may cause delayed ef-fects. However, only large acute doses cause early ef-fects; chronic doses within the occupational dose limitsdo not cause early effects. Since the NRC limits do notpermit large acute doses, concern with occupationalradiation risk is primarily focused on controllingchronic exposure for which possible delayed effects,such as cancer, are of concern.

The difference between acute and chronic radi-ation exposure can be shown by using exposure to thesun’s rays as an example. An intense exposure to thesun can result in painful burning, peeling, and growingof new skin, However, repeated short exposures pro-vide time for the skin to be repaired between expo-sures. Whether exposure to the sun’s rays is long termor spread over short periods, some of the injury maynot be repaired and may eventually result in skincancer,

Cataracts are an interesting case because they canbe caused by both acute and chronic radiation. A cer-tain threshold level of dose to the lens of the eye isrequired before there is any observable visual impair-ment, and the impairment remains after the exposureis stopped. The threshold for cataract development

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from acute exposure is an acute dose on the order of100 rads (1 Gy). Further, a cumulative dose of 800rads (8 Gy) from protracted exposures over manyyears to the lens of the eye has been linked to somelevel of visual impairment (Refs. 1 and 4). These dosesexceed the amount that may be accumulated by thelens from normal occupational exposure under thecurrent regulations.

5. What is meant by external and internal ex-posure?

A worker’s occupational dose may be caused byexposure to radiation that originates outside the body,called “external exposure,” or by exposure to radi-ation from radioactive material that has been takeninto the body, called “internal exposure. ” Most NRC-licensed activities involve little, if any, internal expo-sure. It is the current scientific consensus that a rem ofradiation dose has the same biological risk regardlessof whether it is from an external or an internal source.The NRC requires that dose from external exposureand dose from internal exposure be added together, ifeach exceeds 1O$%of the annual limit, and that thetotal be within occupational limits. The sum of externaland internal dose is called the total effective doseequivalent (TEDE) and is expressed in units of reins(Sv) .

Although unlikely, radioactive materials may en-ter the body through breathing, eating, drinking, oropen wounds, or they may be absorbed through theskin. The intake of radioactive materials by workers isgenerally due to breathing contaminated air. Radioac-tive materials may be present as fine dust or gases inthe workplace atmosphere. The surfaces of equipmentand workbenches may be contaminated, and thesematerials can be resuspended in air during workactivities.

If any radioactive material enters the body, thematerial goes to various organs or is excreted, depend-ing on the biochemistry of the material. Most radioiso-topes are excreted from the body in a few days. Forexample, a fraction of any uranium taken into thebody will deposit in the bones, where it remains for alonger time. Uranium is slowly eliminated from thebody, mostly by way of the kidneys. Most workers arenot exposed to uranium. Radioactive iodine is prefer-entially deposited in the thyroid gland, which is locatedin the neck.

To limit risk to specific organs and the total body,an annual limit on intake (ALI) has been establishedfor each radionuclide. When more than one radionu-clide is involved, the intake amount of each radionu-clide is reduced proportionally. NRC regulations speci-fy the concentrations of radioactive material in the airto which a worker may be exposed for 2,000 workinghours in a year. These concentrations are termed thederived air concentrations (DACS). These limits are

the total amounts allowed if no external radiation isreceived. The resulting dose from the internal radi-ation sources (from breathing air at 1 DAC) is themaximum allowed to an organ or to the worker’s whole -body.

6. How does radiation cause cancer?

The mechanisms of radiation-induced cancer arenot completely understood. When radiation interactswith the cells of our bodies, a number of events canoccur. The damaged cells can repair themselves andpermanent damage is not caused. The cells can die,much like the large numbers of cells that die every dayin our bodies, and be replaced through the normal bio-logical processes. Or a change can occur in the cell’sreproductive structure, the cells can mutate and subse-quently be repaired without effect, or they can formprecancerous cells, which may become cancerous. Ra-diation is only one of many agents with the potentialfor causing cancer, and cancer caused by radiationcannot be distinguished from cancer attributable toany other cause.

Radiobiologists have studied the relationship be-tween large doses of radiation and cancer (Refs. 5 and6). These studies indicate that damage or change togenes in the cell nucleus is the main cause of radiation-induced cancer. This damage may occur directlythrough the interaction of the ionizing radiation in thecell or indirectly through the actions of chemical prod- -ucts produced by radiation interactions within cells.Cells are able to repair most damage within hours;however, some cells may not be repaired properly.Such misrepaired damage is thought to be the origin ofcancer, but misrepair does not always cause cancer.Some cell changes are benign or the cell may die; thesechanges do not lead to cancer.

Many factors such as age, general health, inher-ited traits, sex, as well as exposure to other cancer-causing agents such as cigarette smoke can affect sus-ceptibility to the cancer-causing effects of radiation.Many diseases are caused by the interaction of severalfactors, and these interactions appear to increase thesusceptibility to cancer.

7. Who developed radiation risk estimates?

Radiation risk estimates were developed by severalnational and international scientific organizations overthe last 40 years. These organizations include the Na-tional Academy of Sciences (which has issued severalreports from the Committee on the Biological Effectsof Ionizing Radiations, BEIR), the National Council onRadiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), theInternational Commission on Radiological Protection(ICRP), and the United Nations Scientific Committeeon the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR).Each of these organizations continues to review newresearch findings on radiation health risks.

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Several reports from these organizations presentnew findings on radiation risks based upon revised esti-mates of radiation dose to survivors of the atomic—.bombing at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. For example,UNSCEAR published risk estimates in 1988 and 1993(Refs. 5 and 6). The NCRP also published a report in1988, “New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasakiand Its Implications for Risk Estimates” (Ref. 7). InJanuary 1990, the National Academy of Sciences re-leased the fifth report of the BEIR Committee,“Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of IonizingRadiation” (Ref. 4). Each of these publications alsoprovides extensive bibliographies on other publishedstudies concerning radiation health effects for thosewho may wish to read further on this subject.

8. What-are the estimates of the risk of fatalcancer from radiation exposure?

We don’t know exactly what the chances are ofgetting cancer from a low-level radiation dose, primaril-y because the few effects that may occur cannot bedistinguished from normally occurring cancers. How-ever, we can make estimates based on extrapolationfrom extensive knowledge from scientific research onhigh dose effects. The estimates of radiation effects athigh doses are better known than are those of mostchemical carcinogens (Ref. 8).

From currently available data, the NRC has—.

adopted a risk value for an occupational dose of 1 rem(0.01 Sv) Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE) of4 in 10,000 of developing a fatal cancer, or approxi-mately 1 chance in 2,500 of fatal cancer per rem ofTEDE received. The uncertainty associated with thisrisk estimate does not rule out the possibility of higherrisk, or the possibility that the risk may even be zero atlow occupational doses and dose rates,

The radiation risk incurred by a worker dependson the amount of dose received. Under the linearmodel explained above, a worker who receives 5 reins(0.05 Sv) in a year incurs 10 times as much risk asanother worker who receives only 0.5 rem (0.005 Sv).Only a very few workers receive doses near 5 reins(0.05 Sv) per year (Ref. 9).

According to the BEIR V report (Ref. 4), approxi-mately one in five adults normally will die from cancerfrom all possible causes such as smoking, food, alco-hol, drugs, air pollutants, natural background radi-ation, and inherited traits. Thus, in any group of10,000 workers, we can estimate that about 2,000(20%) will die from cancer without any occupationalradiation exposure.

To explain the significance of these estimates, we—. will use as an example a group of 10,000 people, each

exposed to 1 rem (O.01 Sv) of ionizing radiation. Usingthe risk factor of 4 effects per 10,000 rem of dose, weestimate that 4 of the 10,000 people might die from

delayed cancer because of that l-rem dose (althoughthe actual number could be more or less than 4) inaddition to the 2,000 normal cancer fatalities expectedto occur in that group from all other causes. Thismeans that a l-rem (0.01 Sv) dose may increase anindividual worker’s chances of dying from cancer from20 percent to 20.04 percent. If one’s lifetime occupa-tional dose is 10 reins, we could raise the estimate to20.4 percent. A lifetime dose of 100 reins may in-crease chances of dying from cancer from 20 to 24percent. The average measurable dose for radiationworkers reported to the NRC was O.31 rem (0.0031Sv) for 1993 (Ref. 9). Today, very few workers everaccumulate 100 reins (1 Sv) in a working lifetime, andthe average career dose of workers at NRC-licensedfacilities is 1.5 reins (0,015 Sv), which represents anestimated increase from 20 to about 20.06 percent inthe risk of dying from cancer.

It is important to understand the probability fac-tors here. A similar question would be, “If you selectone card from a full deck of cards, will you get the aceof spades?” This question cannot be answered with asimple yes or no. The best answer is that your chance is1 in 52. However, if 1000 people each select one cardfrom full decks, we can predict that about 20 of themwill get an ace of spades, Each person will have 1chance in 52 of drawing the ace of spades, but there isno way we can predict which persons will get that card.The issue is further complicated by the fact that in adrawing by 1000 people, we might get only 15 suc-cesses, and in another, perhaps 25 correct cards in1000 draws. We can say that if you receive a radiationdose, you will have increased your chances of eventu-ally developing cancer. It is assumed that the more ra-diation exposure you get, the more you increase yourchances of cancer.

The normal chance of dying from cancer is aboutone in five for persons who have not received any oc-cupational radiation dose. The additional chance ofdeveloping fatal cancer from an occupational exposureof 1 rem (O.01 Sv) is about the same as the chance ofdrawing any ace from a full deck of cards three times ina row. The additional chance of dying from cancerfrom an occupational exposure of 10 rem (O.1 Sv) isabout equal to your chance of drawing two aces succes-sively on the first two draws from a full deck of cards.

It is important to realize that these risk numbersare only estimates based on data for people and re-search animals exposed to high levels of radiation inshort periods of time. There is still uncertainty with re-gard to estimates of radiation risk from low levels ofexposure, Many difficulties are involved in designingresearch studies that can accurately measure the proj-ected small increases in cancer cases that might becaused by low exposures to radiation as compared tothe normal rate of cancer.

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These estimates are considered by the NRC staffto be the best available for the worker to use to makean informed decision concerning acceptance of therisks associated with exposure to radiation. A workerwho decides to accept this risk should try to keep expo-sure to radiation as low as is reasonably achievable(ALARA) to avoid unnecessary risk.

9. If I receive a radiation dose that is withinoccupational limits, will it cause me to getcancer?

Probably not. Based on the risk estimates pre-viously discussed, the risk of cancer from doses belowthe occupational limits is believed to be small, Assess-ment of the cancer risks that may be associated withlow doses of radiation are projected from data avail-able at doses larger than 10 reins (O.1 Sv) (Ref. 3). Forradiation protection purposes, these estimates aremade using the straight line portion of the linear qua-dratic model (Curve 2 in Figure 1), We have data oncancer probabilities only for high doses, as shown bythe solid line in Figure 1. Only in studies involving radi-ation doses above occupational limits are there de-pendable determinations of the risk of cancer, primari-

ly because below the limits the effect is small comparedto differences in the normal cancer incidence fromyear to year and place to place. The ICRP, NCRP, andother standards-setting organizations assume for radi-ation protection purposes that there is some risk, nomatter how small the dose (Curves 1 and 2). Somescientists believe that the risk drops off to zero at somelow dose (Curve 3), the threshold effect, The ICRPand NCRP endorse the linear quadratic model as aconservative means of assuring safety (Curve 2),

For regulatory purposes, the NRC uses the straightline portion of Curve 2, which shows the number ofeffects decreasing linearly as the dose decreases. Be-cause the scientific evidence does not conclusivelydemonstrate whether there is or is not an effect at lowdoses, the NRC assumes for radiation protection pur-poses, that even small doses have some chance of caus-ing cancer. Thus, a principle of radiation protection isto do more than merely meet the allowed regulatorylimits; doses should be kept as low as is reasonablyachievable (ALARA). This is as true for natural car-cinogens such as sunlight and natural radiation as it isfor those that are manmade, such as cigarette smoke,smog, and x-rays.

.#-,- 9 IIII

DOSE (REMS) 50 REMS

Figure 1. Some Proposed Models for How the Effects of Radiation Vary With Doses at Low Levels

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10. How can we compare the risk of cancer fromradiation to other kinds of health risks?

— One way to make these comparisons is to comparethe average number of days of life expectancy lostbecause of the effects associated with each particularhealth risk. Estimates are calculated by looking at alarge number of persons, recording the age when deathoccurs from specific causes, and estimating the averagenumber of days of life lost as a result of these earlydeaths. The total number of days of life lost is thenaveraged over the total observed group.

Several studies have compared the average days oflife lost from exposure to radiation with the number ofdays lost as a result of being exposed to other healthrisks. The word “average” is important because an in-dividual who gets cancer loses about 15 years of lifeexpectancy, while his or her coworkers do not sufferany loss.

Some representative numbers are presented inTable 1. For categories of NRC-regulated industrieswith larger doses, the average measurable occupationaldose in 1993 was 0.31 rem (0.0031 Sv). A simple cal-culation based on the article by Cohen and Lee (Ref.10) shows that 0.3 rem (O.003 Sv) per year from age18 to 65 results in an average loss of 15 days. Theseestimates indicate that the health risks from occupa-tional radiation exposure are smaller than the risks as-

—. sociated with many other events or activities we en-counter and accept in normal day-to-day activities.

It is also useful to compare the estimated averagenumber of days of life lost from occupational exposureto radiation with the number of days lost as a result of

working in several types of industries. Table 2 showsaverage days of life expectancy lost as a result of fatalwork-related accidents. Table 2 does not include non-accident types of occupational risks such as occupa-tional disease and stress because the data are notavailable.

These comparisons are not ideal because we arecomparing the possible effects of chronic exposure toradiation to different kinds of risk such as accidentaldeath, in which death is inevitable if the event occurs.This is the best we can do because good data are notavailable on chronic exposure to other workplace car-cinogens. Also, the estimates of loss of life expectancyfor workers from radiation-induced cancer do not takeinto consideration the competing effect on the life ex-pectancy of the workers from industrial accidents.

11. What are the health risks from radiationexposure to the embryolfetus?

During certain stages of development, the embryo/fetus is believed to be more sensitive to radiation dam-age than adults. Studies of atomic bomb survivors ex-posed to acute radiation doses exceeding 20 rads (0.2Gy) during pregnancy show that children born afterreceiving these doses have a higher risk of mental re-tardation. Other studies suggest that an association ex-ists between exposure to diagnostic x-rays before birthand carcinogenic effects in childhood and in adult life.Scientists are uncertain about the magnitude of therisk, Some studies show the embryo/fetus to be moresensitive to radiation-induced cancer than adults, butother studies do not. In recognition of the possibility ofincreased radiation sensitivity, and because dose to the

Table 1 Estimated Loss of Life Expectancy from Health Risksa

Estimateof Life Expectancy Lost

Health Risk (average)

Smoking 20 cigarettes a day 6 years

Overweight (by 15%) 2 years

Alcohol consumption (U.S. average) 1 year

All accidents combined 1 year

Motor vehicle accidents 207 days

Home accidents ’74 days

Drowning 24 days

All natural hazards (earthquake, lightning, flood, etc.)Medical radiation

Occupational Exposure

0,3 rem/y from age 18 to 65 15 days

1 rem/y from age 18 to 65 51 days

aAdapted from Reference 10.

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7 days

6 days

Table 2 Estimated Loss of Life Expectancyfrom Industrial Accidentsa

Estimated Days of LifeIndustry Type Expectancy Lost (Average)

All industries 60Agriculture 320

Construction 227

Mining and Quarrying 167

Transportation andPublic Utilities 160

Government 60

Manufacturing 40

Trade 27

Services 27

aAdapted from Reference 10.

embryo/fetus is involuntary on the part of the embryo/fetus, a more restrictive dose limit has been establishedfor the embryo/fetus of a declared pregnant radiationworker. See Regulatory Guide 8.13, “Instruction Con-cerning Prenatal Radiation Exposure. ”

If an occupationally exposed woman declares herpregnancy in writing, she is subject to the more restric-tive dose limits for the embryo/fetus during the remain-der of the pregnancy. The dose limit of 500 rnrems (5mSv) for the total gestation period applies to the em-bryo/fetus and is controlled by restricting the exposureto the declared pregnant woman. Restricting the wom-an’s occupational exposure, if she declares her preg-nancy, raises questions about individual privacy rights,equal employment opportunities, and the possible lossof income. Because of these concerns, the declarationof pregnancy by a female radiation worker is volun-tary. Also, the declaration of pregnancy can be with-drawn for any reason, for example, if the woman be-lieves that her benefits from receiving the occupationalexposure would outweigh the risk to her embryo/fetusfrom the radiation exposure.

12. Can a worker become sterile or impotentfrom normal occupational radiationexposure?

No. Temporary or permanent sterility cannot becaused by radiation at the levels allowed under NRC’soccupational limits. There is a threshold below whichthese effects do not occur. Acute doses on the order of10 reins (O.1 Sv) to the testes can result in a measur-able but temporary reduction in sperm count. Tempo-rary sterility (suppression of ovulation) has been ob-served in women who have received acute doses of 150rads (1.5 Gy). The estimated threshold (acute) radi-ation dose for induction of permanent sterility is about200 rads (2 Gy) for men and about 350 rads (3.5 Gy)

for women (Refs. 1 and 4). These doses are far greaterthan the NRC s occupational dose limits for workers.

Although acute doses can affect fertility by reduc- -ing sperm count or suppressing ovulation, they do nothave any direct effect on one’s ability to function sexu-ally. No evidence exists to suggest that exposures with-in the NRC’s occupational limits have any effect on theability to function sexually.

13. What are the NRC occupational dose limits?

●

●

●

●

For aduhs, an annual limit that does not exceed:

5 reins (0.05 Sv) for the total effective dose equiv-alent (TEDE), which is the sum of the deep doseequivalent (DDE) from external exposure to thewhole body and the committed effective doseequivalent (CEDE) from intakes of radioactivematerial.

50 reins (O.5 Sv) for the total organ dose equiva-lent (TODE), which is the sum of the DDE fromexternal exposure to the whole body and the com-mitted dose equivalent (CDE) from intakes of ra-dioactive material to any individual organ or tis-sue, other than the lens of the eye.

15 reins (O.15 Sv) for the lens dose equivalent(LDE), which is the external dose to the lens ofthe eye.

50 reins (0.5 Sv) for the shallow dose equivalent –(SDE), which is the external dose to the skin or toany extremity.

For minor workers, the annual occupational doselimits are 10 percent of the dose limits for adult work-ers.

For protection of the embryolfetus of a declaredpregnant woman, the dose limit is 0.5 rem (5 mSv)during the entire pregnancy.

The occupational dose limit for adult workers of 5reins (O.05 Sv) TEDE is based on consideration of thepotential for delayed biological effects. The 5-rem(0.05 Sv) limit, together with application of the con-cept of keeping occupational doses ALARA, providesa level of risk of delayed effects considered acceptableby the NRC. The limits for individual organs are belowthe dose levels at which early biological effects are ob-served in the individual organs.

The dose limit for the embryo/fetus of a declaredpregnant woman is based on a consideration of thepossibility of greater sensitivity to radiation of the em-bryo/fetus and the involuntary nature of the exposure,

14. What is meant by ALARA?

ALARA means “as low as is reasonably achiev- -able. ” In addition to providing an upper limit on anindividual’s permissible radiation dose, the NRC re-quires that its licensees establish radiation protection

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programs and use procedures and engineering controlsto achieve occupational doses, and doses to the public,as far below the limits as is reasonably achievable,—“Reasonably achievable” also means “to the extentpracticable. ” What is practicable depends on the pur-pose of the job, the state of technology, the costs foraverting doses, and the benefits. Although implemen-tation of the ALARA principle is a required integralpart of each licensee’s radiation protection program, itdoes not mean that each radiation exposure must bekept to an absolute minimum, but rather that “reason-able” efforts must be made to avert dose, In practice,ALARA includes planning tasks involving radiationexposure so as to reduce dose to individual workersand the work group.

There are several ways to control radiation doses,e .g,, limiting the time in radiation areas, maintainingdistance from sources of radiation, and providingshielding of radiation sources to reduce dose. The useof engineering controls, from the design of facilitiesand equipment to the actual set-up and conduct ofwork activities, is also an important element of theALARA concept.

An ALARA analysis should be used in determin-ing whether the use of respiratory protection is advis-able. In evaluating whether or not to use respirators,the goal should be to achieve the optimal sum of exter-nal and internal doses. For example, the use of respi-rators can lead to increased work time within radiationareas, which increases external dose. The advantage ofusing respirators to reduce internal exposure must beevaluated against the increased external exposure andrelated stresses caused by the use of respirators. Heatstress, reduced visibility, and reduced communicationassociated with the use of respirators could expose aworker to far greater risks than are associated with theinternal dose avoided by use of the respirator. To theextent practical, engineering controls, such as contain-ment and ventilation systems, should be used to re-duce workplace airborne radioactive materials.

15. What are background radiation exposures?

The average person is constantly exposed to ioniz-ing radiation from several sources. Our environmentand even the human body contain naturally occurringradioactive materials (e.g., potassium-40) that contrib-ute to the radiation dose that we receive. The largestsource of natural background radiation exposure is ter-restrial radon, a colorless, odorless, chemically inertgas, which causes about 55 percent of our average,nonoccupational exposure. Cosmic radiation originat-ing in space contributes additional exposure. The useof x-rays and radioactive materials in medicine anddentistry adds to our population exposure. As shownbelow in Table 3, the average person receives an annu-

al radiation dose of about 0.36 rem (3.6 mSv). By age20, the average person will accumulate over 7 reins (70mSv) of dose. By age 50, the total dose is up to 18 reins(180 mSv). After 70 years of exposure this dose is upto 25 reins (250 mSv),

Table 3 Average Annual Effective Dose Equiva-lent to Individuals in the U. S.a

Effective DoseSource Equivalent (mrems)

Natural

Radon 200

Other than Radon 1.f2f,lTotal 300

Nuclear Fuel Cycle 0.05

Consumer Productsb 9

Medical

Diagnostic X-rays 39

Nuclear Medicine MTotal 53

Total about 360mrems/year

aAdapted from Table 8.1, NCRP 93 (Ref. 11).

bIncludes building material, television receivers, lumin-ous watches, smoke detectors, etc. (from Table 5.1,NCRP 93, Ref. 11).

16, What are the typical radiation doses receivedby workers?

For 1993, the NRC received reports on about aquarter of a million people who were monitored foroccupational exposure to radiation. Almost half ofthose monitored had no measurable doses. The otherhalf had an average dose of about 310 mrem (3.1mSv) for the year. Of these, 93 percent received anannual dose of less than 1 rem (10 mSv); 98.7 percentreceived less than 2 reins (20 mSv); and the highestreported dose was for two individuals who each re-ceived between 5 and 6 reins (50 and 60 mSv).

Table 4 lists average occupational doses for work-ers (persons who had measurable doses) in various oc-cupations based on 1993 data. It is important to notethat beginning in 1994, licensees have been required tosum external and internal doses and certain licenseesare required to submit annual reports. Certain types oflicensees such as nuclear fuel fabricators may report asignificant increase in worker doses because of theexposure to long-lived airborne radionuclides and therequirement to add the resultant internal dose to thecalculation of occupational doses.

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Table 4 Reported Occupational Doses for 1993a

Average MeasurableOccupational Dose per WorkerSubgroup (millirems)

Industrial Radiography 540

Commercial Nuclear Power Reactors 310

Manufacturing and Distributionof Radioactive Materials 300

Low-Level Radioactive WasteDisposal 270

Independent Spent Nuclear FuelStorage 260

Nuclear Fuel Fabrication 130

aFrom Table 3.1 in NUREG-0713 (Ref. 9).

17. How do I know how much my occupationaldose (exposure) is?

If you are likely to receive more than 10 percent ofthe annual dose limits, the NRC requires your employ-er, the NRC licensee, to monitor your dose, to main-tain records of your dose, and, at least on an annualbasis for the types of licensees listed in 10 CFR20.2206, “Reports of Individual Monitoring, ” to in-form both you and the NRC of your dose. The purposeof this monitoring and reporting is so that the NRC canbe sure that licensees are complying with the occupa-tional dose limits and the ALARA principle.

External exposures are monitored by using indi-vidual monitoring devices. These devices are requiredto be used if it appears likely that external exposurewill exceed 10 percent of the allowed annual dose, i.e.,0.5 rem (5 mSv). The most commonly used monitor-ing devices are film badges, thermoluminescence do-simeters (TLDs), electronic dosimeters, and directreading pocket dosimeters.

With respect to internal exposure, your employeris required to monitor your occupational intake of ra-dioactive material and assess the resulting dose if it ap-pears likely that you will receive greater than 10 per-cent of the annual limit on intake (ALI) from intakesin 1 year. Internal exposure can be estimated by mea-suring the radiation emitted from the body (for exam-ple, with a “whole body counter”) or by measuring theradioactive materials contained in biological samplessuch as urine or feces. Dose estimates can also bemade if one knows how much radioactive material wasin the air and the length of time during which the airwas breathed.

18. What happens if a worker exceeds theannual dose limit?

If a worker receives a dose in excess of any of the -annual dose limits, the regulations prohibit any occu-pational exposure during the remainder of the year inwhich the limit is exceeded. The licensee is also re-quired to file an overexposure report with the NRC andprovide a copy to the individual who received the dose.The licensee may be subject to NRC enforcement ac-tion such as a fine (civil penalty), just as individuals aresubject to a traffic fine for exceeding a speed limit. Thefines and, in some serious or repetitive cases, suspen-sion of a license are intended to encourage licensees tocomply with the regulations.

Radiation protection limits do not define safe orunsafe levels of radiation exposure. Exceeding a limitdoes not mean that you will get cancer. For radiationprotection purposes, it is assumed that risks are relatedto the size of the radiation dose. Therefore, when yourdose is higher your risk is also considered to be higher.These limits are similar to highway speed limits, If youdrive at 70 mph, your risk is higher than at 55 mph,even though you may not actually have an accident.Those who set speed limits have determined that therisks of driving in excess of the speed limit are not ac-ceptable. In the same way, the revised 10 CFR Part 20establishes a limit for normal occupational exposure of5 reins (0.05 Sv) a year. Although you will not neces-sarily get cancer or some other radiation effect at doses

—

above the limit, it does mean that the licensee’s safetyprogram has failed in some way, Investigation is war-ranted to determine the cause and correct the condi-tions leading to the dose in excess of the limit.

19. What is meant by a “planned specialexposure” ?

A “planned special exposure” (PSE) is an infre-quent exposure to radiation, separate from and in ad-dition to the radiation received under the annual occu-pational limits. The licensee can authorize additionaldose in any one year that is equal to the annual occu-pational dose limit as long as the individual’s total dosefrom PSES does not exceed five times the annual doselimit during the individual’s lifetime. For example, li-censees may authorize PSES for an adult radiationworker to receive doses up to an additional 5 reins(0.05 Sv) in a year above the 5-rem (0.05-SV) annualTEDE occupational dose limit. Each worker is limitedto no more than 25 reins (0.25 Sv) from planned spe-cial exposures in his or her lifetime. Such exposuresare only allowed in exceptional situations when alter-natives for avoiding the additional exposure are notavailable or are impractical.

Before the licensee authorizes a PSE, the licenseemust ensure that the worker is informed of the purposeand circumstances of the planned operation, the esti-mated doses expected, and the procedures to keen the

doses ALARAwhileconsideringother risks that’may

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be present. (See Regulatory Guide 8.35, “PlannedSpecial Exposures.”)

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20, Why do some facilities establish administra-tive control levels that are below the NRClimits?

There are two reasons. First, the NRC regulationsstate that licensees must take steps to keep exposuresto radiation ALARA. Specific approval from the li-censee for workers to receive doses in excess of admin-istrative limits usually results in more critical risk-bene-fit analyses as each additional increment of dose isapproved for a worker. Secondly, an administrativecontrol level that is set lower than the NRC limit pro-vides a safety margin designed to help the licenseeavoid doses to workers in excess of the limit.

21. Why aren’ t medical exposures considered aspart of a worker’s allowed dose?

NRC rules exempt medical exposure, but equaldoses of medical and occupational radiation haveequal risks. Medical exposure to radiation is justifiedfor reasons that are quite different from the reasons foroccupational exposure, A physician prescribing an x-ray, for example, makes a medical judgment that thebenefit to the patient from the resulting medical infor-mation justifies the risk associated with the radiation,This judgment may or may not be accepted by the pa-tient. Similarly, each worker must decide on the bene-fits and acceptability of occupational radiation risk,just as each worker must decide on the acceptability ofany other occupational hazard.

Consider a worker who receives a dose of 3 reins(0.03 Sv) from a series of x-rays in connection with aninjury or illness. This dose and any associated risk mustbe justified on medical grounds. If the worker had alsoreceived 2 reins (O.02 Sv) on the job, the combineddose of 5 reins (O.05 Sv) would in no way incapacitatethe worker. Restricting the worker from additional jobexposure during the remainder of the year would nothave any effect on the risk from the 3 reins (0.03 Sv)already received from the medical exposure. If the in-dividual worker accepts the risks associated with thex-rays on the basis of the medical benefits and acceptsthe risks associated with job-related exposure on thebasis of employment benefits, it would be unreason-able to restrict the worker from employment involvingexposure to radiation for the remainder of the year,

22. How should radiation risks be considered inan emergency?

Emergencies are “unplanned” events in which ac-tions to save lives or property may warrant additionaldoses for which no particular limit applies. The revised10 CFR Part 20 does not set any dose limits for emer-gency or lifesaving activities and states that nothing in

—

Part 20 “shall be construed as limiting actions that maybe necessary to protect health and safety. ”

Rare situations may occur in which a dose in ex-cess of occupational limits would be unavoidable in or-der to carry out a lifesaving operation or to avoid alarge dose to large populations. However, personscalled upon to undertake any emergency operationshould do so only on a voluntary basis and with fullawareness of the risks involved.

For perspective, the Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) has published emergency dose guide-lines (Ref. 2). These guidelines state that doses to allworkers during emergencies should, to the extent prac-ticable, be limited to 5 reins (O.05 Sv). The EPA fur-ther states that there are some emergency situations forwhich higher limits may be justified. The dose resultingfrom such emergency exposures should be limited to10 reins (O.1 Sv) for protecting valuable property, andto 25 reins (O.25 Sv) for lifesaving activities and theprotection of large populations. In the context of thisguidance, the dose to workers that is incurred for theprotection of large populations might be consideredjustified for situations in which the collective dose toothers that is avoided as a result of the emergency op-eration is significantly larger than that incurred by theworkers involved,

Table 5 presents the estimates of the fatal cancerrisk for a group of 1,000 workers of various ages, as-suming that each worker received an acute dose of 25reins (0.25 Sv) in the course of assisting in an emer-gency. The estimates show that a 25-rem emergencydose might increase an individual’s chances of devel-oping fatal cancer from about 20% to about 2170.

Table 5Risk of Premature Death from Exposure

to 25-Reins (O.25-SV) Acute Dose

Estimated RiskAge at of Premature DeathExposure (Deaths per 1,000(years) Persons Exposed)

20-30 9.130-40 7.240-50 5.350-60 3.5

Source: EPA-400 -R-92-O01 (Ref. 2).

23. How were radiation dose limits established?

The NRC radiation dose limits in 10 CFR Part 20were established by the NRC based on the recommen-dations of the ICRP and NCRP as endorsed in Federalradiation protection guidance developed by the EPA

8.29-13

(Ref. 12). The limits were recommended by the ICRPand NCRP with the objective of ensuring that workingin a radiation-related industry was as safe as working inother comparable industries. The dose limits and theprinciple of ALARA should epsure that risks to work-ers are maintained indistinguishable from risks frombackground radiation,

24. Several scientific reports have recommendedthat the NRC establish lower dose limits.Does the NRC plan to reduce the regulatorylimits?

Since publication of the NRC’s proposed rule in1986, the ICRP in 1990 revised its recommendationsfor radiation protection based on newer studies of radi-ation risks (Ref. 13), and the NCRP followed with arevision to its recommendations in 1993. The ICRPrecommended a limit of 10 reins (O.1 Sv) effectivedose equivalent (from internal and external sources),over a 5-year period with no more than 5 reins (0.05Sv) in 1 year (Ref. 13). The NCRP recommended acumulative limit in reins, not to exceed the individual’sage in years, with no more than 5 reins (O.05 Sv) in anyyear (Ref. 14).

The NRC does not believe that additional reduc-tions in the dose limits are required at this time. Be-cause of the practice of maintaining radiation expo-sures ALARA (as low as is reasonably achievable), theaverage radiation dose to occupationally exposed per-sons is well below the limits in the current Part 20 thatbecame mandatory January 1, 1994, and the averagedoses to radiation workers are below the new limitsrecommended by the ICRP and the NCRP.

25, What are the options if a worker decides thatthe risks associated with occupational radi-ation exposure are too high?

If the risks from exposure to occupational radi-ation are unacceptable to a worker, he or she can re-quest a transfer to a job that does not involve exposureto radiation. However, the risks associated with the ex-posure to radiation that workers, on the average, ac-tually receive are comparable to risks in other indus-

tries and are considered acceptable by the scientificgroups that have studied them. An employer is not ob-ligated to guarantee a transfer if a worker decides notto accept an assignment that requires exposure to radi-ation.

Any worker has the option of seeking other em-ployment in a nonradiation occupation. However, thestudies that have compared occupational risks in thenuclear industry to those in other job areas indicatethat nuclear work is relatively safe. Thus, a worker mayfind different kinds of risk but will not necessarily findsignificantly lower risks in another job,

26. Where can one get additional information onradiation risk?

The following list suggests sources of useful infor-mation on radiation risk:

The employer–the radiation protection or healthphysics office where a worker is employed.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regional Offices:

King of Prussia, Pennsylvania (610) 337-5000Atlanta, Georgia (404) 331-4503Lisle, Illinois (708) 829-9500Arlington, Texas (817) 860-8100

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionHeadquarters

Radiation Protection & Health Effects BranchOffice of Nuclear Regulatory ResearchWashington, DC 20555Telephone: (301) 415-6187

Department of Health and Human ServicesCenter for Devices and Radiological Health1390 Piccard Drive, MS HFZ-1Rockville, MD 20850Telephone: (30 1) 443-4690

U. S, Environmental Protection AgencyOffice of Radiation and Indoor AirCriteria and Standards Division401 M Street NW.Washington, DC 20460Telephone: (202) 233-9290

8.29-14

REFERENCES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

B.R. Scott et al., “Health Effects Model for Nu-clear Power Plant Accident Consequence Analy-sis, ” Part I: Introduction, Integration, and Sum-mary, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,NUREG/CR-42 14, Revision 2, Part I, October1993. ”

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Manualof Protective Action Guides and Protective Ac-tions for Nuclear Incidents, EPA-400-R-92-001, May 1992.

International Commission on Radiological Pro-tection, Annals of the ICRP, Risks Associatedwith Zonising Radiation, Volume 22, No. 1, Per-gamon Press, Oxford, UK, 1991.

National Research Council, HeaMz Effects of Ex-posure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, Re-port of the Committee on the Biological Effects ofIonizing Radiation (BEIR V), National AcademyPress, Washington, DC, 1990.

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Ef-fects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR); Sources,Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation, ReportE.88.IX.7, United Nations, New York, 1988.

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Ef-fects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), Sourcesand Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Na-tions, New York, 1993.

National Council on Radiation Protection andMeasurements, New Dosimetry at Hiroshimaand Nagasaki and Zts Implications for Risk Esti-mates, Proceedings of the Twenty-third AnnualMeeting of the National Council on Radiation

8.

9.

10.

11,

12.

13.

14.

Protection and Measurements Held on April 8-9, 1987 (1988).

National Council on Radiation Protection* andMeasurements, Comparative Carcinogenicity of ,Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals, NCRP ReponNo. 96, March 1989.

C.T. Raddatz and D. Hagemeyer, “OccupationalRadiation Exposure at Commercial Nuclear Pow-er Reactors and Other Facilities, 1993, ” U.S.Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG-0713,Volume 15, January 1995. *

B.L. Cohen and 1.S. Lee, “Catalog of Risks Ex-tended and Updated, ” Health Physics, Vol. 61,September 1991.

National Council on Radiation Protection andMeasurements, Ionizing Radiation Exposure ofthe Population of the United States, NCRP Re-pon No. 93, September 1987.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Radi-ation Protection Guidance to Federal Agenciesfor Occupational Exposure,” Federal Register,Vol. 52, No. 17, January 27, 1987.

International Commission on Radiological Pro-tection, 1990 Recommendations of the Interna-tional Commission on Radiological Protection,ICRP Publication 60, Pergamon Press, Oxford,UK, 1991.

National Council on Radiation Protection andMeasurements, Limitation of Exposure to Zoniz-ing Radiation, NCRP Report No. 116, March1993.

*Copies are available for inspection or copying for a fee from the NRC Public Document Room at 2120 L Street NW., Washington,DC; the PDR’s mailing address is Maif Stop LL-6, Washington, DC 20555; telephone (202) 634-3273; fax (202) 634-3343. Copiesmay be purchased at current rates from the U.S. Government PrintingOffice, P.O. Box 37082, Washington, DC 20402-9328 (tele-phone (202) 512-2249); or from the National Technical Information Service by writing NTIS at 5285 Port Royal Road, Sprin@leld,VA 22161.

8.29-15

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrahamson, S,, et al., “Health Effects Models forNuclear Power Plant Accident Consequence Analy-sis, ” Part II: Scientific Bases for Health Effects A40d-els, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG/CR-4214, Rev. 1, Part II, May 1989.1

Abrahamson, S., et al., “Health Effects Models forNuclear Power Plant Accident Consequence Analysis,Modifications of Models Resulting From Recent Re-ports on Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation, LowLET Radiation, ” Part II: Scient~ic Basis for HealthEffects Models, U.S, Nuclear Regulatory Commission,NUREG/CR-42 14, Rev. 1, Part II, Addendum 1, Au-gust 1991,1

Abrahamson, S., et al., “Health Effects Models forNuclear Power Plant Accident Consequence Analysis,Modifications of Models Resulting From Addition ofEffects of Exposure to Alpha-Emitting Radionu-elides, ” Part II: Scientific Bases for Health EffectsModels, U. S, Nuclear Regulatory Commission,NUREG/CR-42 14, Rev. 1, Part II, Addendum 2, May1993.1

International Commission on Radiological Protection,Radiation Protection, Recommendations of the Inter-national Commission on Radiological Protection, ICRPPublication 26, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, January1977.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-surements, Public Radiation Exposure From NuclearPower Generation in the United States, NCRP ReportNo. 92, December 1987.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-surements, Exposure of the Population in the United

ICopies are available for inspection or copying for a fee fromthe NRC Public Document Room at 2120 L Street NW.,Washington, DC; the PDR’s mailing address is Mail StoLL-6, Washin ton,

t7DC 20555-0001; telephone (202

634-3273; fax 202) 634-3343. Copies may be purchased atcurrent rates from the U.S. Government Printing Office, P. O.Box 37082, Washington, DC 20402-9328 telephone (202)

\512-2249); or from the National Technical nformation Ser-vice by writing NTIS at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,VA 22161.

States and Canada from Natural Background Radi-ation, NCRP Report No. 94, December 1987.

.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-surements, Exposure of the U.S. Population From Oc-cupational Radiation, NCRP Report No. 101, June1989,

National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-surements, Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection,NCRP Report No. 115, December 1993.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Mea-surements, Limitation of Exposure to Ionizing Radi-ation, NCRP Report No. 116, March 1993.

National Safety Council, Accident Facts, 1993 Edi-tion, Itasca, Illinois, 1993.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “RadiationProtection Guidance to Federal Agencies for Occupa-tional Exposure, ” Federal Register, Vol. 52, No. 17,January 27, 1987.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “InstructionConcerning Prenatal Radiation Exposure, ” RegulatoryGuide 8,13, Revision 2, December 1987,2

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “MonitoringCriteria and Methods To Calculate Occupational Radi-ation Doses, ” Regulatory Guide 8.34, July 1992.2

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “Planned Spe-cial Exposures, ” Regulatory Guide 8.35, June 1992.2

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, “RadiationDose to the Embryo/Fetus, ” Regulatory Guide 8.36,July 1992.2

Zsin@e copies of regulatory guides may be obtained free ofcharge by writing the Office of Administration, Attn: Distri-bution and Services Section, USNRC, Washington, DC20555, or by fax at (301) 415-2260. Copies are available forinspection or copying for a fee from the NRC Public DocumentRoom at 2120 L Street NW., Washington, DC; the PDR’smailing address is Mail Stop LL–6, Washington, DC20555-0001; telephone (202) 634-3273; fax (202)634-3343.

8.29-16

REGULATORY ANALYSIS

A separate regulatory analysis was not preparedforthis Revision lto Regulatory Guide 8.29. A value/impact statement, which evaluated essentially the samesubjects as are discussed in a regulatory analysis, ac-companied Regulatory Guide 8.29 when it was issuedin July 1981.

This Revision 1 to Regulatory Guide 8.29 is need-ed to conform with the Revised 10 CFR Part 20, “Stan-dards for Protection Against Radiation, ” as published

May 21, 1991 (56 FR 23360). The regulatory analysisprepared for 10 CFR Part 20 provides the regulatorybasis for this Revision 1 of Regulatory Guide 8.29, andit examines the costs and benefits of the rule as im~plemented by the guide, A copy of the “RegulatoryAnalysis for the Revision of 10 CFR Part 20”(PNL-67 12, November 1988), is available for inspec-tion and copying for a fee in the NRC’s Public Docu-ment Room at 2120 L Street NW., Washington, DC20555-0001.

8.29-17

54

Appendix(J)–RADIATIONSAFETYPERSONNELTRAININGRECORDResearcher/StudentName:____________________________________________DOB:______________________ (Mustbe18yearsorolder)“Ihavereceivedtrainingintheuseof:____________________________________(IsotopeorRadiationEmittingDevice)Thistrainingincludedthefollowingtopics:

• RisksfromOccupationalRadiationExposure• Proceduresnecessarytominimizeexposure• Purposeandfunctionofprotectiveequipment,monitoringequipment,and

personneldosimeters• TheConnecticutCollegeRadiationProtectionProgram• LicenseconditionsandStateregulationsgoverningtheuseofRAM• Generalradiationsafetypractices• Emergencyresponseprocedures

“Iunderstandthehealthrisksassociatedwithradiationexposureandtheprecautionsnecessarytominimizemyexposureand/oruptake.IaccepttheresponsibilityofperformingmyassignmentsinaccordancewiththeproceduresoftheConnecticutCollegeRadiationProtectionProgramandthosetaughttomebyauthorizedfacultymembers.”

SignatureofStudent:______________________________________________Date:______________________

SignatureofInstructor:______________________________________________Date:______________________

55

Appendix(K)–ALLOWABLESANITARYSEWERRELEASELIMITSOFRAM(Solubleformonly)

Date:__________________________________

Isotope AnnualLimit

Max.MonthlyAvg.ReleaseConcentration(uCi/ml)

CalculatedMax.

MonthlyRelease*(uCi/mo.)

RAMPurchasedthisMonth(uCi/mo.)

ReleaseConcentrationthisMonth(uCi/ml)

P‐32 9x10‐5 6.89x105

S‐35 1x10‐3 7.66x106

Ca‐45 2x10‐4 1.53x106

I‐125

1Citotal

2x10‐5 1.53x105

H‐3 5Ci 1x10‐2 7.66x107

C‐14 1Ci 3x10‐4 2.29x106

*Ifonlyoneisotopeisreleased.Ifmorethanoneisotopeisreleased,theformulaforcalculatingtheallowedmonthlyreleaseis:

Actualconc.

Actualconc.

Actualconc.

Actualconc.

Actualconc.

Actualconc.

Actualconc.R=

9x105+

8x104+

1x103+

2x104+

2x105+

1x102+

3x104≤1

TheabovecalculationsarebasedontheaveragemonthlyreleaseofwatertothesanitarysewerbytheCollegeof2.02x106gal./mo.,or7.66x109ml/mo.

OurRAMinventory(whichisrevieweduponeverypurchase)showsthatourallowedmonthlysewer

dischargeisfarlessthantheallowablelimit,andisincompliancewith10CFR20.2003.

Basis:ConnecticutCollegepurchased4.05x106ft3(30,365,867gallons)ofwaterinFY2010.Itisassumedthat80%(2.42x107gallons/year)wasdischargedtothesanitarysewer.

56

Appendix(L)–METHODSANDFREQUENCYFORCONDUCTINGSURVEYS

METHODS AND FREQUENCY FOR CONDUCTING SURVEYS

A. Classification of Laboratory Areas

Since the premises of licensees vary widely with regard to

maximum activity, physical and chemical form of radionuclides,

and the various procedures involving byproduct material, it is

proper to attempt some classification. The purpose of

classification is to determine how frequently the laboratory

should be surveyed. The method recommended, which is taken

from Report of Committee V, ICRP, 1965, designates three

levels (LOW, MEDIUM, HIGH) of survey frequency based on

radionuclide, activity and use. On the attached Survey

Frequency Table, multiply the activity range under LOW, MEDIUM

and HIGH survey frequency by the appropriate modifying factor.

Examples:

1. Laboratories or areas using in vitro kits only(1-125,1-131, H-3, C-14, etc.) would probably be classifiedas LOW level areas.

Open labelling techniques (modifying factor of 0.1) using more than100 uCi of 1-131 would change the classification toMEDIUM level.

2. Nuclear Medicine imaging areas where Tc-99m is injectedand patients imaged would be classified as LOW or MEDIUMlevel depending on radionuclides and amounts used.

3. The room of an iodine therapy patient would be classifiedas MEDIUM or HIGH depending on radionuclide and amountused.

4. Areas used for storage of active solutions, preparationof radiopharmaceuticals from reagent kits, elution of Mo99/Tc-99m generators, preparation of individual dosesshould generally be considered as MEDIUM level areas onthe basis of both activity and handling.

78

B. Frequency of Survey

Low Level Areas Not less than once per month

Medium Level Areas Not less than once per week

High Level Areas Not less than once per normalworking day

C. Method of Survey

Routine surveys should be carried out in two parts to

determine both Radiation Levels and Removable Contamination

Levels.

1. Radiation Levels

Monitoring area with a radiation survey metersufficiently sensitive to detect 0.1 mR/h. Theresults of this survey should be recorded on astandard form which should show:

a. Location, date and type of equipment usedb. Identification of person conducting the surveyc. Drawing of area surveyed, identifying relevant

features such as active storage areas, active wasteareas, etc.

d. Measured exposure rates, keyed to location ondrawing (point out rates that require corrective action) .

e. Corrective action taken in the case of excessiveexposure rates, reduced exposure rates aftercorrective action, and any appropriate comments.

2. Contamination Levels

A series of wipe tests should be taken in all areas whereactivity is handled in unsealed form. The location ofwipe tests should be indicated on the above mentionedsurvey form and should be chosen for maximum probabilityof contamination, e.g. areas where individual doses aredrawn up, incoming packages received, frequent pipettingcarried out.

Floors, particularly adjacent to doorways, lead syringeshields, and door and drawer handles should also be wipetested frequently. Care should be taken that crosscontamination does not occur.

An end window GM or gas flow proportional counter

79

normally may be used for assaying beta emitters at orabove C-14 energies; low energy beta emitters willrequire liquid scintillation counting.

A gamma scintillation counter (example: Nar well counter), shouldbe used for pure gamma emitters. Make sure that theanalyzer threshold is set below the lowest gamma energyused in the lab (usually r-125).

Record a background count of 5 to 10 minutes using thesame counting conditions used with the wipes.

In the case of wipes contaminated with gamma emitters,the radionuclide can be identified from successive countswith different analyzer settings if the settings havebeen calibrated with known energy standards.

D. Acceptable Limits

1. Radiation Limits (Whole Body Only)

a. RAM Use Area:

Personnel must not receive> 2mR in anyone hour,or > 100mR in seven consecutive days, or > 500mR inanyone year. Radiation levels in areas accessibleto patients or visitors should be restricted so thattotal patient or visitor exposure during thepatient's hospital stay is < 100 mR.

b. Radiation Controlled Area:

If an area is controlled for purposes of radiationprotection, then exposure rate limits do not apply,but total exposure of patients and associatedvisitors should not exceed 100mRem per admission andmust not exceed 200mRem per admission even underunusual circumstances.

An employee's total exposure must be < 1.25Rem/13weeks (there are certain conditions where up to 3Rem/13 weeks IS allowed, butthis exposure level cannot be continued routinely). On a basis of 40hour/week of exposure, the maximum exposure ratewould have to be < 2.5mR/h. In practice, theradiation levels should be kept as low as ispracticable and always below applicable limits.

2. Contamination Limits

An individual wipe test should routinely coverapproximately 100 - 150 cm2 . Ideally, any contaminationmore than a few DPM above background should be cleaned

80

up; however, a more usual level for B-y at which cleanup 81is initiated is about 200 DPM. At approximately 1000 DPMa Contamination Zone should be established until thecontamination is removed.

Contamination levels may also be estimated with a surveymeter. As a rough rule of thumb, establish aContamination Zone if readings are > 1000 CPM for GroupsIII and IV radionuclides when measured with a thin windowGM meter. Of course, this particular instrument will notdetect low energy beta emitters such as tritium.

Note: a.

b.

Patients administered radioactive material for diagnostic or therapeutic procedures

are excluded from these limits.Refer to 10 CFR 20 for additional details on acceptable limits.

INFORMATION FOR CLASSIFYING LABORATORIES*Classification of Laboratories

Survey Frequency CategoryRadionuclide Low Medium High

Group** (monthly) (weekly) (daily)

1 < 10 uCi 10 uCi to 1 mCi > 1 mCi2 < 1 mCi 1 mCi to 100 mCi > 100 mCi3 < 100 mCi 100 mCi to 10 Ci > 10 Ci4 < 10 Ci 10 Ci to 1000 Ci > 1000 Ci

Proportional fractions are to be used for more than one isotope.

82

Modifying Factors Factors

Simple storage............................................. x "'100

Very simple wet operations (e.g. preparation of all liquids of stock solutions). .. x 10

Normal chemical operations (e.g. analysis, simple chemical preparations) •••.. x 1

Complex wet operations (e.g. mUltiple operations, or operations with complex ...• x 0.1glass apparatus)

Simple dry operations (e.g. manipulation of powders) and work with ..... x 0.1volatile radioactive compounds

Exposure of non-occupational persons x 0.1

Dry and dusty operation (e.g. grinding) ••..•....•.•............... x 0.01

The object is to determine how often to survey the laboratory. To dothis, multiply the activity range under. LOW, MEDIUM, and HIGH surveyfrequency by the appropriate Modifying Factor to construct a new set ofmCi ranges for LOW, MEDIUM, and HIGH survey frequency.

EXAMPLE: A lab in which 10 mCi of Group II radionuclide is used ~n

normal chemical operations should be surveyed on a MEDIUMfrequency. However, if only simple storage is done, thena LOW frequency is adequate (<1 mCi x 100 = < 100 mCi new LOW

range). But if a dry grinding operation is done, a HIGHfrequency is required (>100 mCi x O. 01 = > 1 mCi new HIGH

range) .

* Patterned after the Recommendation of thelnternational Commission on Radiological Protection-Report

of Committee V; Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y. (1965).

** See Table 1

TABLE 1

CLASSIFICATION OF ISOTOPES ACCORDING TO RELATIVE RADIOTOXICITYPER UNIT ACTIVITY

Group 1++

Pb-210 Po-21 0 Ra-223 Ra-226 Ra-228 Ac-227 Th-227 Th-228 Th-230Pa-231 U-230 U-232 U-233 U-234 Np-237 Pu-238 Pu-239 Pu-240Pu-241 Pu-242 Am-241 Am-243 Cm-242 Cm-234 Cm-244 Cm-245 Cm-246Cf-249 Cf-250 Cf-252

Group 2++

Na-22 CI-36 Ca-45 Sc-46 Mn-54 Co-56 Co-60 Sr-89 Sr-gOY-91 Zr-95 Ru-105 Ag-110m Cd-115m In-114m Sb-124 Sb-125 Te-1201mTc-129m 1-124 1-126 1-131 1-133 Cs-134 Cs-137 Ba-140 Ce-144Eu-152(13y) Eu-154 Tb-160 Tm-170 Hf-181 Ta-182 Ir-192 TI-204Bi-207 Bi-210 At-211 Pb-212 Ra-224 Ac-228 Pa-230 Th-234 U-236Bk-249

Group 3++

Be-7 C-14 F-18 Na-24 CI-38 Si-31 P-32 S-35 A-41K-42 K-43 Ca-47 Sc-47 Sc-48 V-48 Cr-51 Mn-52 Mn-56Fe-52 Fe-55 Fe-59 Co-57 Co-58 Ni-63 Ni-65 Cu-64 Zn-65Zn-69m Ga-72 As-73 As-74 As-76 As-77 Sc-75 Br-82 Kr-85mKr-87 Rb-86 Sr-85 Sr-91 Y-90 Y-92 Y-93 Zr-97 Nb-93mNb-95 Mo-99 Tc-96 Tc-97m Tc-97 Tc-99 Ru-97 Ru-103 Ru-105Rh-105 Pd-103 Pd-109 Ag-105 Ag-111 Cd-109 Cd-115 In-115m Sn-113Sn-125 Sb-122 Te-125m Te-127 Te-129 Te-131m Te-132 1-130 1-1321-134 1-135 Xe-135 Cs-131 C5-136 Ba-131 La-140 Ce-141 Ce-143Pr-142 Pr-143 Nd-147 Nd-149 Pm-147 Pm-149 Sm-151 Sm-153 Eu-152Eu-155 Gd-153 Gd-159 Dy-165 Dy-166 Ho-166 Er-169 Er-171 (9.2 hr)

Tm-171 Yb-175 La-177 W-181 W-185 W-187 Re-183 Re-186 Re-18805-185 05-191 Os-193 Ir-190 Ir-194 Pt-191 Pu-193 Pt-197 Au-196Au-198 Au-199 Hg-197 Hg-197m Hg-203 TI-200 TI-201 TI-202 Pb-203Bi-206 Bi-212 Rn-220 Rn-222 Th-231 Pa-233 Np-239

Group 4++

H-3 0-15 A-37 Co-58m Ni-59 Zn-69 Gc-71 Kr-85 Sr-85mRb-87 Y-91m Zr-93 Nb-97 Tc-96m Tc-99m Rh-103m In-113 1-129Xe-131m Xe-133 Cs-134m Cs-135 Sm-147 Re-187 05-191 m Pt-193m Pt-197m'Th-232 Th-Nat U-235 U-238 U-Nat

83

62

GLOSSARYAbsorbedDose:

Theenergyimpartedbyionizingradiationperunitmassofirradiatedmaterial.Theunitsofabsorbeddoseare,theradandthegray(Gy).

Absorption:Thephenomenonbywhichradiationimpartssomeorallofitsenergytoanymaterialthroughwhichitpasses.

ActivityTherateofdisintegration(transformation)ordecayofradioactivematerialperunittime.Theunitsofactivity(alsoknownasradioactivity)arethecurie(Ci)andthebecquerel(Bq).Forrelatedinformation,seeMeasuringRadiation.

ALARAAsdefinedinTitle10,Section20.1003,oftheCodeofFederalRegulations(http://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003),ALARAisanacronymfor"aslowas(is)reasonablyachievable,"whichmeansmakingeveryreasonableefforttomaintainexposurestoionizingradiationasfarbelowthedoselimitsaspractical,consistentwiththepurposeforwhichthelicensedactivityisundertaken,takingintoaccountthestateoftechnology,theeconomicsofimprovementsinrelationtostateoftechnology,theeconomicsofimprovementsinrelationtobenefitstothepublichealthandsafety,andothersocietalandsocioeconomicconsiderations,andinrelationtoutilizationofnuclearenergyandlicensedmaterialsinthepublicinterest.Foradditionaldetail,seeDoseLimitsforRadiationWorkersandDoseLimitsforRadiationWorkers.

AlphaparticleApositivelychargedparticleejectedspontaneouslyfromthenucleiofsomeradioactiveelements.Itisidenticaltoaheliumnucleusthathasamassnumberof4andanelectrostaticchargeof+2.Ithaslowpenetratingpowerandashortrange(afewcentimetersinair).Themostenergeticalphaparticlewillgenerallyfailtopenetratethedeadlayersofcellscoveringtheskin,andcanbeeasilystoppedbyasheetofpaper.Alphaparticlesarehazardouswhenanalpha‐emittingisotopeisinsidethebody.Foradditionaldetail,seeRadiationBasics.

Annuallimitonintake(ALI)AsdefinedinTitle10,Section20.1003,oftheCodeofFederalRegulations(http://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003),ALIisthederivedlimitfortheamountofradioactivematerialtakenintothebodyofanadultworkerbyinhalationoringestioninayear.ALIisthesmallervalueofintakeofagivenradionuclideinayearbythe"referenceman"thatwouldresultinacommittedeffectivedoseequivalent(CEDE)of5rems(0.05sievert)oracommitteddoseequivalent(CDE)of50rems(0.5sievert)toanyindividualorganortissue.ALIvaluesforintakebyingestionandinhalationofselectedradionuclidesaregiveninTable1,Columns1and2,ofAppendixBto10CFRPart20,"StandardsforProtectionAgainstRadiation."Foradditionaldetail,seeInformationforRadiationWorkers.

Backgroundradiation

Thenaturalradiationthatisalwayspresentintheenvironment.Itincludescosmicradiationwhichcomesfromthesunandstars,terrestrialradiationwhichcomesfromtheEarth,andinternalradiationwhichexistsinalllivingthings.ThetypicalaverageindividualexposureintheUnitedStatesfromnaturalbackgroundsourcesisabout300milliremsperyear.Foradditionalinformation,seeNaturalBackgroundSourcesandDosesinOurDailyLives.

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Becquerel(Bq)

Oneofthreeunitsusedtomeasureradioactivity,whichreferstotheamountofionizingradiationreleasedwhenanelement(suchasuranium)spontaneouslyemitsenergyasaresultoftheradioactivedecay(ordisintegration)ofanunstableatom.Radioactivityisalsothetermusedtodescribetherateatwhichradioactivematerialemitsradiation,orhowmanyatomsinthematerialdecay(ordisintegrate)inagiventimeperiod.Assuch,1Bqrepresentsarateofradioactivedecayequalto1disintegrationpersecond,and37billion(3.7x1010)Bqequals1curie(Ci).

BetaparticleAchargedparticle(withamassequalto1/1837thatofaproton)thatisemittedfromthenucleusofaradioactiveelementduringradioactivedecay(ordisintegration)ofanunstableatom.Anegativelychargedbetaparticleisidenticaltoanelectron,whileapositivelychargedbetaparticleiscalledapositron.Largeamountsofbetaradiationmaycauseskinburns,andbetaemittersareharmfuliftheyenterthebody.Betaparticlesmaybestoppedbythinsheetsofmetalorplastic.Foradditionaldetail,seeRadiationBasics.

BioassayThedeterminationofkinds,quantities,orconcentrationsand,insomecases,locationsofradioactivematerialinthehumanbody,whetherbydirectmeasurement(invivocounting)orbyanalysisandevaluationofmaterialsexcretedorremoved(invitro)fromthehumanbody.

BiologicalhalflifeThetimerequiredforabiologicalsystem,suchasthatofahuman,toeliminate,bynaturalprocesses,halfoftheamountofasubstance(suchasaradioactivematerial)thathasenteredit.prostate,ovaries,oruterus).Theradioactiveimplantmaybetemporaryorpermanent,andtheradiationattacksthetumoraslongasthedeviceremainsinplace.Brachytherapyusesradioisotopes,suchasiridium‐192oriodine‐125,whichareregulatedbytheNRCanditsAgreementStates.Foradditionalinformation,seeBrachytherapy.

Bremsstrahlung:Electromatic(x‐ray)radiationassociatedwiththedecelerationofchargedparticlespassingthroughmatter.Usuallyassociatedwithenergeticbetaemitters,suchasphosphorus‐32.

CalibrationTheadjustment,asnecessary,ofameasuringdevicesuchthatitrespondswithintherequiredrangeandaccuracytoknownvaluesofinput.

Carrierfree:Anadjectiveappliedtooneormoreradioactiveisotopesofanelementinminutequantity,essentiallyundilutedwithastableisotopecarrier.

Committeddoseequivalent(CDE)AsdefinedinTitle10,Section20.1003,oftheCodeofFederalRegulations(http://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003),theCDE(HT,50)isthedosetosomespecificorganortissueofreference(T)thatwillbereceivedfromanintakeofradioactivematerialbyanindividualduringthe50‐yearperiodfollowingtheintake.

Committedeffectivedoseequivalent(CEDE)AsdefinedinTitle10,Section20.1003,oftheCodeofFederalRegulations(http://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003),theCEDE(HE,50)isthesumoftheproductsofthecommitteddoseequivalentsforeachofthebodyorgansortissuesthatareirradiatedmultipliedbytheweightingfactors(WT)applicabletoeachofthoseorgansortissues(HE,50=ΣWTHT.50).

ContaminationUndesirableradiological,chemical,orbiologicalmaterial(withapotentiallyharmfuleffect)thatiseitherairborne,ordepositedin(oronthesurfaceof)structures,objects,soil,water,

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orlivingorganismsinaconcentrationthatmakesthemediumunfitforitsnextintendeduse.

Count(RadiationMeasurements):Theexternalindicationofadevicedesignedtonumerateionizingevents.Itmayrefertoasingledetectedeventortothetotalregisteredinagivenperiodoftime.Thetermisoftenerroneouslyusedtodesignateadisintegration,ionizingevent,orvoltagepulse.

CumulativedoseThetotaldosethatanoccupationallyexposedworkerreceivesasaresultofrepeatedexposurestoionizingradiationtotothesameportionofthebody,ortothewholebody,overtime.Foradditionaldetail,seeInformationforRadiationWorkers.

Curie(Ci)Oneofthreeunitsusedtomeasuretheintensityofradioactivityinasampleofmaterial.Thisvaluereferstotheamountofionizingradiationreleasedwhenanelement(suchasuranium)spontaneouslyemitsenergyasaresultoftheradioactivedecay(ordisintegration)ofanunstableatom.Radioactivityisalsothetermusedtodescribetherateatwhichradioactivematerialemitsradiation,orhowmanyatomsinthematerialdecay(ordisintegrate)inagiventimeperiod.Assuch,1Ciisequalto37billion(3.7x1010)disintegrationspersecond,so1Cialsoequals37billion(3.7x1010)Bequerels(Bq).Acurieisalsoaquantityofanyradionuclidethatdecaysatarateof37billiondisintegrationspersecond(1gramofradium,forexample).ThecurieisnamedforMarieandPierreCurie,whodiscoveredradiumin1898.

DaughterproductsIsotopesthatareformedbytheradioactivedecayofsomeotherisotope.Inthecaseofradium‐226,forexample,thereare10successivedaughterproducts,endinginthestableisotopelead‐206.

Decay,radioactiveThespontaneoustransformationofoneradioisotopeintooneormoredifferentisotopes(knownas“decayproducts”or“daughterproducts”),accompaniedbyadecreaseinradioactivity(comparedtotheparentmaterial).Thistransformationtakesplaceoveradefinedperiodoftime(knownasa“half‐life”),asaresultofelectroncapture;fission;ortheemissionofalphaparticles,betaparticles,orphotons(gammaradiationorx‐rays)fromthenucleusofanunstableatom.Eachisotopeinthesequence(knownasa“decaychain”)decaystothenextuntilitformsastable,lessenergeticendproduct.Inaddition,radioactivedecaymayrefertogamma‐rayandconversionelectronemission,whichonlyreducestheexcitationenergyofthenucleus.DeclaredpregnantwomanAwomanwhoisanoccupationalradiationworkerandhasvoluntarilyinformedheremployer,inwriting,ofherpregnancyandtheestimateddateofconception(see10CFR20.1003and20.1208).

DecontaminationAprocessusedtoreduce,remove,orneutralizeradiological,chemical,orbiologicalcontaminationtoreducetheriskofexposure.Decontaminationmaybeaccomplishedbycleaningortreatingsurfacestoreduceorremovethecontamination;filteringcontaminatedairorwater;subjectingcontaminationtoevaporationandprecipitation;orcoveringthecontaminationtoshieldorabsorbtheradiation.Theprocesscanalsosimplyallowadequatetimefornaturalradioactivedecaytodecreasetheradioactivity.

DoseAgeneralterm,whichmaybeusedtorefertotheamountofenergyabsorbedbyanobjectorpersonperunitmass.Knownasthe“absorbeddose,”thisreflectstheamountofenergythationizingradiationsourcesdepositinmaterialsthroughwhichtheypass,andismeasuredinunitsofradiation‐absorbeddose(rad).Therelatedinternationalsystemunitisthegray(Gy),where1Gyisequivalentto100rad.Bycontrast,thebiologicaldoseordoseequivalent,giveninremsorsieverts(Sv),isameasureofthebiologicaldamagetoliving

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tissueasaresultofradiationexposure.Foradditionalinformation,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.

DoseequivalentAmeasureofthebiologicaldamagetolivingtissueasaresultofradiationexposure.Alsoknownasthe"biologicaldose,"thedoseequivalentiscalculatedastheproductofabsorbeddoseintissuemultipliedbyaqualityfactorandthensometimesmultipliedbyothernecessarymodifyingfactorsatthelocationofinterest.Thedoseequivalentisexpressednumericallyinremsorsieverts(Sv)(seehttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003).Foradditionalinformation,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.

DoserateThedoseofionizingradiationdeliveredperunittime.Forexample,remsorsieverts(Sv)perhour.

Dose,absorbedTheamountofenergyabsorbedbyanobjectorpersonperunitmass.Knownasthe“absorbeddose,”thisreflectstheamountofenergythationizingradiationsourcesdepositinmaterialsthroughwhichtheypass,andismeasuredinunitsofradiation‐absorbeddose(rad).Therelatedinternationalsystemunitisthegray(Gy),where1Gyisequivalentto100rad.Foradditionalinformation,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.

DosimeterAsmallportableinstrument(suchasafilmbadge,thermoluminescentdosimeter,orpocketdosimeter)usedtomeasureandrecordthetotalaccumulatedpersonaldoseofionizingradiation.Foradditionalinformation,seeDetectingRadiation.

DosimetryThetheoryandapplicationoftheprinciplesandtechniquesinvolvedinmeasuringandrecordingdosesofionizingradiation.

EffectiveDoseEquivalentThesumoftheproductsofthedoseequivalenttotheorganortissue(HT)andtheweightingfactors(WT)applicabletoeachofthebodyorgansortissuesthatareirradiated(HE=ΣWTHT).

EffectivehalflifeThetimerequiredfortheactivityofaparticularradioisotopedepositedinalivingorganism,suchasahumanorananimal,tobereducedby50percentasaresultofthecombinedactionofradioactivedecayandbiologicalelimination.Effectivehalf‐lifeisrelatedto,butdifferentfrom,theradiologicalhalf‐lifeandthebiologicalhalf‐life.

ElectronAnelementaryparticlewithanegativechargeandamass1/1837thatofaproton.Electronssurroundthepositivelychargednucleusofanatom,anddetermineitschemicalproperties.

ElementOneofthe103knownchemicalsubstancesthatcannotbebrokendownfurtherwithoutchangingitschemicalproperties.Someexamplesincludehydrogen,nitrogen,gold,lead,anduranium.Seetheperiodictableofelements.Theareasurroundingthereactorwherethereactorlicenseehastheauthoritytodetermineallactivities,includingexclusionorremovalofpersonnelandproperty.

ExposureAbsorptionofionizingradiationoringestionofaradioisotope.Acuteexposureisalargeexposurereceivedoverashortperiodoftime.Chronicexposureisexposurereceivedoveralongperiodoftime,suchasduringalifetime.TheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements(NCRP)estimatesthatanaveragepersonintheUnitedStatesreceivesatotalannualdoseofabout0.62rem(620millirem)fromallradiationssources,alevelthathasnotbeenshowntocausehumansanyharm.Ofthistotal,naturalbackgroundsourcesofradiation—includingradonandthorongas,naturalradiationfromsoilandrocks,radiationfromspaceandradiationsourcesthatarefoundnaturallywithinthehumanbody—account

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forapproximately50percent.Medicalproceduressuchascomputedtomography(CTscans)andnuclearmedicineaccountapproximatelyforanother48percent.OthersmallcontributorsofexposuretotheU.S.populationincludesconsumerproductsandactivities,industrialandresearchuses,andoccupationaltasks.Themaximumpermissibleyearlydoseforapersonworkingwithoraroundnuclearmaterialis5rem.Foradditionaldetail,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.

ExternalradiationExposuretoionizingradiationwhentheradiationsourceislocatedoutsidethebody.

ExtremitiesThehands,forearms,elbows,feet,knees,legbelowtheknees,andankles.Permissibleradiationexposuresintheseregionsaregenerallygreaterthanthoseforwholebodyexposurebecausetheextremitiescontainfewerblood‐formingorgansandhavesmallervolumesforenergyabsorption.(Seehttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003.)

FilmbadgePhotographicfilmusedtomeasureexposuretoionizingradiationforpurposesofpersonnelmonitoring.Thefilmbadgemaycontaintwoorthreefilmsofdifferingsensitivities,anditmayalsocontainafilterthatshieldspartofthefilmfromcertaintypesofradiation.

GammaradiationHigh‐energy,short‐wavelength,electromagneticradiationemittedfromthenucleusofanatom.Gammaradiationfrequentlyaccompaniesemissionsofalphaparticlesandbetaparticles,andalwaysaccompaniesfission.Gammaraysaresimilartox‐rays,butareverypenetratingandarebeststoppedorshieldedbydensematerials,suchasleadordepleteduranium.

GeigerMuellercounterAradiationdetectionandmeasuringinstrument.Itconsistsofagas‐filledtubecontainingelectrodes,betweenwhichthereisanelectricalvoltage,butnocurrent,flowing.Whenionizingradiationpassesthroughthetube,ashort,intensepulseofcurrentpassesfromthenegativeelectrodetothepositiveelectrodeandismeasuredorcounted.Thenumberofpulsespersecondmeasurestheintensityoftheradiationfield.ItwasnamedforHansGeigerandW.Mueller,whoinventeditinthe1920s.ItissometimescalledsimplyaGeigercounteroraG‐Mcounterandisthemostcommonlyusedportableradiationinstrument.Forrelatedinformation,seeDetectingRadiation.

Gray(Gy)Oneofthetwounitsusedtomeasuretheamountofradiationabsorbedbyanobjectorperson,knownasthe"absorbeddose,"whichreflectstheamountofenergythatradioactivesources(withanytypeofionizingradiation)depositinmaterials(e.g.,water,tissue,air)throughwhichtheypass.Onegray(Gy)istheinternationalsystemofunits(SI)equivalentof100rads,whichisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof1Joule/kilogram.Anabsorbeddoseof0.01Gymeansthat1gramofmaterialabsorbed100ergsofenergy(asmallbutmeasurableamount)asaresultofexposuretoradiation.Foradditionalinformation,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.

HalflifeThetimeinwhichonehalfoftheatomsofaparticularradioactivesubstancedisintegrateintoanothernuclearform.Measuredhalf‐livesvaryfrommillionthsofasecondtobillionsofyears.Alsocalledphysicalorradiologicalhalf‐life.

Halflife(radiological)Thetimerequiredforhalftheatomsofaparticularradioisotopetodecayintoanotherisotope.Aspecifichalf‐lifeisacharacteristicpropertyofeachradioisotope.Measuredhalf‐livesrangefrommillionthsofasecondtobillionsofyears,dependingonthestabilityofthenucleus.Radiologicalhalf‐lifeisrelatedto,butdifferentfrom,thebiologicalhalf‐lifeandtheeffectivehalf‐life.

Halflife,biological

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Thetimerequiredforthebodytoeliminateonehalfofthematerialtakeninbynaturalbiologicalmeans.

Halflife,effectiveThetimerequiredfortheactivityofaparticularradioisotopedepositedinalivingorganism,suchasahumanorananimal,tobereducedby50percentasaresultofthecombinedactionofradioactivedecayandbiologicalelimination.Effectivehalf‐lifeisrelatedto,butdifferentfrom,theradiologicalhalf‐lifeandthebiologicalhalf‐life.

HalfthicknessAnygivenabsorberthatwillreducetheintensityofanoriginalbeamofionizingradiationtoone‐halfofitsinitialvalue.countriesandmultipleinternationalpartnersworktogethertopromotethesafe,secure,andpeacefuluseofnucleartechnologies.TheUnitedNationsestablishedtheIAEAin1957as"AtomsforPeace."

Ion(1)Anatomthathastoomanyortoofewelectrons,causingittohaveanelectricalcharge,andtherefore,bechemicallyactive.(2)Anelectronthatisnotassociated(inorbit)withanucleus.

IonizationTheprocessofaddingoneormoreelectronsto,orremovingoneormoreelectronsfrom,atomsormolecules,therebycreatingions.Hightemperatures,electricaldischarges,ornuclearradiationscancauseionization.

IonizationchamberAninstrumentthatdetectsandmeasuresionizingradiationbymeasuringtheelectricalcurrentthatflowswhenradiationionizesgasinachamber,makingthegasaconductorofelectricity.

IonizingradiationAformofradiation,whichincludesalphaparticles,betaparticles,gammarays,x‐rays,neutrons,high‐speedelectrons,high‐speedprotons,andotherparticlescapableofproducingions.Comparedtonon‐ionizingradiation,suchasradio‐ormicrowaves,orvisible,infrared,orultravioletlight,ionizingradiationisconsiderablymoreenergetic.Whenionizingradiationpassesthroughmaterialsuchasair,water,orlivingtissue,itdepositsenoughenergytoproduceionsbybreakingmolecularbondsanddisplace(orremove)electronsfromatomsormolecules.Thiselectrondisplacementmayleadtochangesinlivingcells.Giventhisability,ionizingradiationhasanumberofbeneficialuses,includingtreatingcancerorsterilizingmedicalequipment.However,ionizingradiationispotentiallyharmfulifnotusedcorrectly,andhighdosesmayresultinsevereskinortissuedamage.ItisforthisreasonthattheNRCstrictlyregulatescommercialandinstitutionalusesofthevarioustypesofionizingradiation.Radiation,asusedinhttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/10CFRPart20,doesnotincludenon‐ionizingradiation(seealsohttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003).

IrradiationExposuretoionizingradiation.Irradiationmaybeintentional,suchasincancertreatmentsorinsterilizingmedicalinstruments.Irradiationmayalsobeaccidental,suchasbeingexposedtoanunshieldedsource.Irradiationdoesnotusuallyresultinradioactivecontamination,butdamagecanoccur,dependingonthedosereceived.

IsotopeTwoormoreforms(oratomicconfigurations)ofagivenelementthathaveidenticalatomicnumbers(thesamenumberofprotonsintheirnuclei)andthesameorverysimilarchemicalpropertiesbutdifferentatomicmasses(differentnumbersofneutronsintheirnuclei)anddistinctphysicalproperties.Thus,carbon‐12,carbon‐13,andcarbon‐14areisotopesoftheelementcarbon,andthenumbersdenotetheapproximateatomicmasses.Amongtheirdistinctphysicalproperties,someisotopes(knownasradioisotopes)areradioactivebecausetheirnucleiemitradiationastheystrivetowardamorestablenuclear

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configuration.Forexample,carbon‐12andcarbon‐13arestable,butcarbon‐14isunstableandradioactive.

LicensedmaterialSourcematerial,byproductmaterial,orspecialnuclearmaterialthatisreceived,possessed,used,transferred,ordisposedofunderagenerallicenseorspecificlicenseissuedbytheNRCorAgreementStates.

LicenseeAcompany,organization,institution,orotherentitytowhichtheNRCoranAgreementStatehasgrantedagenerallicenseorspecificlicensetoconstructoroperateanuclearfacility,ortoreceive,possess,use,transfer,ordisposeofsourcematerial,byproductmaterial,orspecialnuclearmaterial.

Lowlevelradioactivewaste(LLW)Ageneraltermforawiderangeofitemsthathavebecomecontaminatedwithradioactivematerialorhavebecomeradioactivethroughexposuretoneutronradiation.Avarietyofindustries,hospitalsandmedicalinstitutions,educationalandresearchinstitutions,privateorgovernmentlaboratories,andnuclearfuelcyclefacilitiesgenerateLLWaspartoftheirday‐to‐dayuseofradioactivematerials.Someexamplesincluderadioactivelycontaminatedprotectiveshoecoversandclothing;cleaningrags,mops,filters,medicaltubes,swabs,andhypodermicsyringes;carcassesandtissuesfromlaboratoryanimals.Theradioactivityinthesewastescanrangefromjustabovenaturalbackgroundlevelstomuchhigherlevels.

MicrocurieOnemillionthofacurie.Thatamountofradioactivematerialthatdisintegrates(decays)attherateof37thousandatomspersecond.

MilliremOnethousandthofarem(0.001rem).

Milliroentgen(mR)Onethousandthofaroentgen(R).1mR=10‐3R=0.001R.

MonitoringofradiationPeriodicorcontinuousdeterminationoftheamountofionizingradiationorradioactivecontaminationinaregion.Radiationmonitoringisasafetymeasuretoprotectthehealthandsafetyofthepublicandtheenvironmentthroughtheuseofbioassay,alphascans,andotherradiologicalsurveymethodstomonitorair,surfacewaterandgroundwater,soilandsediment,equipmentsurfaces,andpersonnel.Forrelatedinformation,seeRadiationMonitoringatNuclearPowerPlantsandtherelatedfactsheetslistedonthatpage.

NeutronAnunchargedelementaryparticle,withamassslightlygreaterthanthatoftheproton,foundinthenucleusofeveryatomheavierthanhydrogen.

NuclideAgeneraltermreferringtoallknownisotopes,bothstable(279)andunstable(about2,700),ofthechemicalelements.

OccupationalDoseTheinternalandexternaldoseofionizingradiationreceivedbyworkersinthecourseofemploymentinsuchareasasfuelcyclefacilities,industrialradiography,nuclearmedicine,andnuclearpowerplants.Theseworkersareexposedtovaryingamountsofradiation,dependingontheirjobsandthesourceswithwhichtheywork.TheNRCrequiresitslicenseestolimitoccupationalexposureto5,000mrem(50mSv)peryear.Occupationaldosedoesnotincludethedosereceivedfromnaturalbackgroundsources,dosesreceivedasamedicalpatientorparticipantinmedicalresearchprograms,or"second‐handdoses"receivedthroughexposuretoindividualstreatedwithradioactivematerials.Foradditionaldetail,seeInformationforRadiationWorkersandMeasuringRadation.

PeriodictableAnarrangementofchemicalelementsinorderofincreasingatomicnumber.Elementsofsimilarpropertiesareplacedoneundertheother,yieldinggroupsorfamiliesofelements.

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Withineachgroup,thereisavariationofchemicalandphysicalproperties,butingeneral,thereisasimilarityofchemicalbehaviorwithineachgroup.(Seeanonlineperiodictable.)

PersonnelmonitoringTheuseofportablesurveymeterstodeterminetheamountofradioactivecontaminationonindividuals,ortheuseofdosimetrytodetermineanindividual'soccupationalradiationdose.

PhotonAquantum(orpacket)ofenergyemittedintheformofelectromagneticradiation.Gammaraysandx‐raysareexamplesofphotons.

Pig

Acolloquialtermdescribingacontainer(usuallyleadordepleteduranium)usedtoshiporstoreradioactivematerials.Thethickwallsofthisshieldingdeviceprotectthepersonhandlingthecontainerfromradiation.

ProtonAnelementarynuclearparticlewithapositiveelectricchargelocatedinthenucleusofanatom.

Rad(radiationabsorbeddose)Oneofthetwounitsusedtomeasuretheamountofradiationabsorbedbyanobjectorperson,knownasthe“absorbeddose,”whichreflectstheamountofenergythatradioactivesourcesdepositinmaterialsthroughwhichtheypass.Theradiation‐absorbeddose(rad)istheamountofenergy(fromanytypeofionizingradiation)depositedinanymedium(e.g.,water,tissue,air).Anabsorbeddoseof1radmeansthat1gramofmaterialabsorbed100ergsofenergy(asmallbutmeasurableamount)asaresultofexposuretoradiation.Therelatedinternationalsystemunitisthegray(Gy),where1Gyisequivalentto100rad.Foradditionalinformation,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.

Radiation(ionizingradiation)Alphaparticles,betaparticles,gammarays,x‐rays,neutrons,high‐speedelectrons,high‐speedprotons,andotherparticlescapableofproducingions.Radiation,asusedinhttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/10CFRPart20,doesnotincludenon‐ionizingradiation,suchasradio‐ormicrowaves,orvisible,infrared,orultravioletlight(seealsohttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003).Foradditionaldetail,seeRadiation,ionizing.

RadiationareaAnyareawithradiationlevelsgreaterthan5millirems(0.05millisievert)inonehourat30centimetersfromthesourceorfromanysurfacethroughwhichtheradiationpenetrates.

RadiationdetectioninstrumentAdevicethatdetectsanddisplaysthecharacteristicsofionizingradiation.

RadiationshieldingReductionofradiationbyinterposingashieldofabsorbingmaterialbetweenanyradioactivesourceandaperson,workarea,orradiation‐sensitivedevice.

RadiationsourceAradioactivematerialorbyproductthatisspecificallymanufacturedorobtainedforthepurposeofusingtheemittedradiation.Suchsourcesarecommonlyusedinteletherapyorindustrialradiography;invarioustypesofindustrialgauges,irradiators,andgammaknives;andaspowersourcesforbatteries(suchasthoseusedinspacecraft).Thesesourcesusuallyconsistofaknownquantityofradioactivematerial,whichisencasedinamanmadecapsule,sealedbetweenlayersofnonradioactivematerial,orfirmlybondedtoanonradioactivesubstratetopreventradiationleakage.Otherradiationsourcesincludedevicessuchasacceleratorsandx‐raygenerators.

Radiationstandards

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Exposurelimits;permissibleconcentrations;rulesforsafehandling;andregulationsregardingreceipt,possession,use,transportation,storage,disposal,andindustrialcontrolofradioactivematerial.Fordetail,seeTitle10,Part20,oftheCodeofFederalRegulations(10CFRPart20),"StandardsforProtectionAgainstRadiation."

RadiationwarningsymbolAnofficiallyprescribedmagentaorblacktrefoilonayellowbackground,whichmustbedisplayedwherecertainquantitiesofradioactivematerialsarepresentorwherecertaindosesofradiationcouldbereceived.Fordetail,seetheFactSheetontheNewInternationalRadiationWarningSymbol.

Radiation,ionizingAformofradiation,whichincludesalphaparticles,betaparticles,gammarays,x‐rays,neutrons,high‐speedelectrons,high‐speedprotons,andotherparticlescapableofproducingions.Comparedtonon‐ionizingradiation,suchasradio‐ormicrowaves,orvisible,infrared,orultravioletlight,ionizingradiationisconsiderablymoreenergetic.Whenionizingradiationpassesthroughmaterialsuchasair,water,orlivingtissue,itdepositsenoughenergytoproduceionsbybreakingmolecularbondsanddisplace(orremove)electronsfromatomsormolecules.Thiselectrondisplacementmayleadtochangesinlivingcells.Giventhisability,ionizingradiationhasanumberofbeneficialuses,includingtreatingcancerorsterilizingmedicalequipment.However,ionizingradiationispotentiallyharmfulifnotusedcorrectly,andhighdosesmayresultinsevereskinortissuedamage.ItisforthisreasonthattheNRCstrictlyregulatescommercialandinstitutionalusesofthevarioustypesofionizingradiation.Radiation,asusedinhttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/10CFRPart20,doesnotincludenon‐ionizingradiation(seealsohttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003).

Radiation,nuclearEnergygivenoffbymatterintheformoftinyfast‐movingparticles(alphaparticles,betaparticles,andneutrons)orpulsatingelectromagneticraysorwaves(gammarays)emittedfromthenucleiofunstableradioactiveatoms.Allmatteriscomposedofatoms,whicharemadeupofvariousparts;thenucleuscontainsminuteparticlescalledprotonsandneutrons,andtheatom’soutershellcontainsotherparticlescalledelectrons.Thenucleuscarriesapositiveelectricalcharge,whiletheelectronscarryanegativeelectricalcharge.Theseforcesworktowardastrong,stablebalancebygettingridofexcessatomicenergy(radioactivity).Inthatprocess,unstableradioactivenucleimayemitenergy,andthisspontaneousemissioniscallednuclearradiation.Alltypesofnuclearradiationarealsoionizingradiation,butthereverseisnotnecessarilytrue;forexample,x‐raysareatypeofionizingradiation,buttheyarenotnuclearradiationbecausetheydonotoriginatefromatomicnuclei.Inaddition,someelementsarenaturallyradioactive,astheirnucleiemitnuclearradiationasaresultofradioactivedecay,butothersareinducedtobecomeradioactivebybeingirradiatedinareactor.Naturallyoccurringnuclearradiationisindistinguishablefrominducedradiation.

RadioactivecontaminationUndesirableradioactivematerial(withapotentiallyharmfuleffect)thatiseitherairborneordepositedin(oronthesurfaceof)structures,objects,soil,water,orlivingorganisms(people,animals,orplants)inaconcentrationthatmayharmpeople,equipment,ortheenvironment.

RadioactivedecayThespontaneoustransformationofoneradioisotopeintooneormoredifferentisotopes(knownas“decayproducts”or“daughterproducts”),accompaniedbyadecreaseinradioactivity(comparedtotheparentmaterial).Thistransformationtakesplaceoveradefinedperiodoftime(knownasa“half‐life”),asaresultofelectroncapture;fission;ortheemissionofalphaparticles,betaparticles,orphotons(gammaradiationorx‐rays)fromthenucleusofanunstableatom.Eachisotopeinthesequence(knownasa“decaychain”)

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decaystothenextuntilitformsastable,lessenergeticendproduct.Inaddition,radioactivedecaymayrefertogamma‐rayandconversionelectronemission,whichonlyreducestheexcitationenergyofthenucleus.

RadioactivityThepropertypossessedbysomeelements(suchasuranium)ofspontaneouslyemittingenergyintheformofradiationasaresultofthedecay(ordisintegration)ofanunstableatom.Radioactivityisalsothetermusedtodescribetherateatwhichradioactivematerialemitsradiation.Radioactivityismeasuredincuries(Ci),becquerels(Bq),ordisintegrationspersecond..Forrelatedinformation,seeMeasuringRadiation.

Radioisotope(Radionuclide)Anunstableisotopeofanelementthatdecaysordisintegratesspontaneously,therebyemittingradiation.Approximately5,000naturalandartificialradioisotopeshavebeenidentified.

RadiologicalsurveyTheevaluationoftheradiationhazardsaccompanyingtheproduction,use,orexistenceofradioactivematerialsunderaspecificsetofconditions.Suchevaluationcustomarilyincludesaphysicalsurveyofthedispositionofmaterialsandequipment,measurementsorestimatesofthelevelsofradiationthatmaybeinvolved,andasufficientknowledgeofprocessesaffectingthesematerialstopredicthazardsresultingfromexpectedorpossiblechangesinmaterialsorequipment.

RadionuclideAnunstableisotopeofanelementthatdecaysordisintegratesspontaneously,therebyemittingradiation.Approximately5,000naturalandartificialradioisotopeshavebeenidentified.

RadiosensitivityTherelativesusceptibilityofcells,tissues,organs,organisms,orothersubstancestotheinjuriousactionofradiation.

REM(Roentgenequivalentman)Oneofthetwostandardunitsusedtomeasurethedoseequivalent(oreffectivedose),whichcombinestheamountofenergy(fromanytypeofionizingradiationthatisdepositedinhumantissue),alongwiththemedicaleffectsofthegiventypeofradiation.Forbetaandgammaradiation,thedoseequivalentisthesameastheabsorbeddose.Bycontrast,thedoseequivalentislargerthantheabsorbeddoseforalphaandneutronradiation,becausethesetypesofradiationaremoredamagingtothehumanbody.Thus,thedoseequivalent(inrems)isequaltotheabsorbeddose(inrads)multipliedbythequalityfactorofthetypeofradiation[seeTitle10,Section20.1004,oftheCodeofFederalRegulations(10CFR20.1004),"UnitsofRadiationDose"].Therelatedinternationalsystemunitisthesievert(Sv),where100remisequivalentto1Sv.Foradditionalinformation,seeDosesinOurDailyLivesandMeasuringRadiation.Roentgen(R)Aunitofexposuretoionizingradiation.Itistheamountofgammaorx‐raysrequiredtoproduceionsresultinginachargeof0.000258coulombs/kilogramofairunderstandardconditions.NamedafterWilhelmRoentgen,theGermanscientistwhodiscoveredx‐raysin1895.

ScintillationdetectorThecombinationofphosphor,photomultipliertube,andassociatedelectroniccircuitsforcountinglightemissionsproducedinthephosphorbyionizingradiation.

SealedsourceAnyradioactivematerialorbyproductencasedinacapsuledesignedtopreventleakageorescapeofthematerial.

ShallowDoseEquivalent(SDE)Theexternalexposuredoseequivalenttotheskinoranextremityatatissuedepthof0.007centimeters(7mg/cm2)averagedoveranareaof1squarecentimeter.

Shielding

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Anymaterialorobstructionthatabsorbsradiationandthustendstoprotectpersonnelormaterialsfromtheeffectsofionizingradiation.

Sievert(Sv)Theinternationalsystem(SI)unitfordoseequivalentequalto1Joule/kilogram.1sievert=100rem.NamedforphysicistRolfSievert.ongoingseriesofreactions,possiblyasaresultofincreasedneutronleakageorpoisons.

SurveymeterAnyportableradiationdetectioninstrumentespeciallyadaptedforinspectinganareaorindividualtoestablishtheexistenceandamountofradioactivematerialpresent.

TerrestrialradiationTheportionofthenaturalbackgroundradiationthatisemittedbynaturallyoccurringradioactivematerials,suchasuranium,thorium,andradonintheearth.

TotalEffectiveDoseEquivalent(TEDE)Thesumofthedeep‐doseequivalent(forexternalexposures)andthecommittedeffectivedoseequivalent(forinternalexposures).

Tritium

Aradioactiveisotopeofhydrogen.Becauseitischemicallyidenticaltonaturalhydrogen,tritiumcaneasilybetakenintothebodybyanyingestionpath.Itdecaysbyemittingbetaparticlesandhasahalf‐lifeofabout12.5years.Forrelatedinformation,seetheFactSheetonTritium,RadiationProtectionLimits,andDrinkingWaterStandards.responsibleforpreparingforandrespondingtoallhazardsanddisastersandincludestheformerlyseparateFederalEmergencyManagementAgency,theCoastGuard,andtheSecretService.inductionofstochasticeffectsofradiation(see10CFR20.1003forcompleteinformation).

WholebodyexposureWholebodyexposureincludesatleasttheexternalexposure,head,trunk,armsabovetheelbow,orlegsabovetheknee.Wherearadioisotopeisuniformlydistributedthroughoutthebodytissues,ratherthanbeingconcentratedincertainparts,theirradiationcanbeconsideredaswhole‐bodyexposure(seealsohttp://www.nrc.gov/reading‐rm/doc‐collections/cfr/part020/part020‐1003.html10CFR20.1003).

WipesampleAsamplemadeforthepurposeofdeterminingthepresenceofremovableradioactivecontaminationonasurface.Itisdonebywiping,withslightpressure,apieceofsoftfilterpaperoverarepresentativetypeofsurfacearea.Itisalsoknownasa"swipe"or"smear"sample.

XraysPenetratingelectromagneticradiation(photon)havingawavelengththatismuchshorterthanthatofvisiblelight.Theseraysareusuallyproducedbyexcitationoftheelectronfieldaroundcertainnuclei.Innuclearreactions,itiscustomarytorefertophotonsoriginatinginthenucleusasx‐rays.

Documents

Radiation Use Program, Policy, and Procedures