GCP/INT/919/JPN MEETING REPORT No. 1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SEA TURTLES AND FISHERIES WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

REPORT OF THE

Workshop on Assessing the Relative Importance of Sea Turtle Mortality Due to Fisheries

Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania

25 - 28 April 2006 `

GCP/INT/919/JPN MEETING REPORT No. 1 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SEA TURTLES AND FISHERIES WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM APPROACH TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

REPORT OF THE

Workshop on Assessing the Relative Importance of Sea Turtle Mortality Due to Fisheries

Zanzibar, United Republic of Tanzania

25 - 28 April 2006

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. Introduction and background 2 2. Opening and welcome 2 3. Presentation of information and data by country 2 Kenya 3 Madagascar 4 Maldives 4 Mauritius 5 Mozambique 6 Réunion 7 Seychelles 8 South Africa 8 Somalia 9 Tanzania (Mainland) 9 Zanzibar 10 Yemen 11 IOSEA 11 4. Collating available data and information 12 5. Recommendations and identification of research priorities 14 6. Follow-up 16 7. References cited 16 APPENDIXES A. List of participants 19 B. Agenda and timetable 23 C. Prospectus 24 D. Welcoming statement by the Director of Fisheries and Marine Resources of Zanxibar, Mr Mussa A. Jumbe E. Opening statement by Louise Setshwaelo, FAO Representative of Tanzania 28 F. Speech by Principal Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Environment (Zanzibar), Mr Rashma Mshangama 30 G. Data formats 32

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page H. Annotated bibliography relating to sea turtles in the South West Indian

Ocean region 35

I. Threat matrices 50 South West Indian Ocean Leatherbacks 50 South West Indian Ocean Hawksbills 52 South West Indian Ocean Green turtles 54 South West Indian Ocean Loggerheads 56 South West Indian Ocean Olive Ridleys (Kenya) 58

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY National representatives from South Western Indian Ocean countries participated in a workshop to collate available information and assess the relative contribution of fisheries-related deaths to sea turtle mortality in the region. This workshop was organized as part of the FAO project GCP/INT/919/JPN “Interactions between Sea Turtles and Fisheries within an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management”. Information was reviewed on population size, feeding and nesting distributions, natural and human induced threats on sea turtles, along with the legal status and data collection/management. This was achieved through a series of presentations on a country-by-country basis. The large number of beach monitoring and protection programmes was encouraging, but paucity in consistent-effort monitoring with standardized methods and quantitative data also became clear. A regional overview of specific threats per species was compiled through averaging the individual score per country for each of the issues. The most general threats to all turtle species were direct exploitation of both adult turtles and eggs, fishery related mortality and data deficiencies. Hawksbill, green turtles and loggerheads are mostly under threat from longlines, coastal gillnet fisheries, trawling and climate change. For green turtles and loggerhead the most significant threats were coastal gillnet fishery, direct exploitation both in water and on nesting beaches. There was no evidence that leatherback turtles were under significant pressure in the region, although longlining may be a threat but no information was available. The relative threat posed by purse seining and IUU was also discussed, but no specific information was available on these issues. This exercise was followed by a presentation and training session on the data requirements, value and “power” of population models for conservation management of sea turtles. The final working session entailed drafting recommendations regarding fisheries practices as well as identifying research priorities for the region; this included both specific and general recommendations on two themes: biological and ecological issues and socio-economic priorities. The importance of promoting full integration of socio-economic issues in the future was emphasized. The workshop was concluded by attending the Zanzibar opening of the Indian Ocean South East Asia –Year of the Turtle 2006 events.

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1. Introduction and background to the workshop Within the framework of the FAO project GCP/INT/919/JPN “Interactions between Sea Turtles and Fisheries within an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management”, a regional workshop was organised by the Directorate of Fisheries of Zanzibar and FAO to assess the relative importance of fishery related sea turtle mortality in the South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) region. The Workshop was attended by 31 participants, 24 of which were from 11 countries1 of the Western Indian Ocean, mainly from the SWIO region. The list of participants is given in Appendix A of this report. The workshop consisted of following main activities:

• Collating, by country, data and available information on sea turtle occurrence and general biology, natural and human-induced mortality in the SWIO region;

• Assessing main threats to sea turtles at the regional level; • Evaluating the potential of a population model to assess the relative importance of the

various sources of mortality and particularly of fishery-related mortality on turtle populations;

• Determining priority follow-up activities in the region, related to sea turtle conservation, particularly in relation to fisheries issues.

The agenda and prospectus for the workshop are attached in Appendixes B and C, respectively.

2. Opening and welcome - Introductions by the Fisheries Department, Zanzibar (Appendix D) - FAO Representative (Appendix E) - Fisheries Department, Zanzibar (Appendix F)

3. Presentation of information and data by country Five species of marine turtles are documented from the Western Indian Ocean. Of these, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) are most widely distributed, most numerous, and have been the most severely impacted by directed exploitation (Hughes, 1974; Frazier, 1980, 1982). Loggerheads (Caretta caretta) and leatherbacks (Dermochelys coriacea) are less abundant in the region, and have had little importance in commerce and directed exploitation (Hughes, 1974). Relatively little has been documented about the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). According to FAO (2004), two species, the hawksbill and the green turtle, are believed to be severely depleted. Sea turtles are impacted by a number of natural and anthropogenic factors, both in the terrestrial part of their habitat as well as in the marine environment. Effective management measures to reduce the impact of anthropogenic factors on sea turtle populations can only be implemented if these address major threats. These threats need therefore to be identified and quantified. Furthermore, given the trans-boundary nature of sea turtle populations, a regional approach, such as the one adopted by this workshop, is essential.

1 Countries were Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Maldives, Mozambique, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, France (Reunion), United Republic of Tanzania (including Zanzibar), and Yemen

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Representatives from each country received data formats prior to the workshop to be used for compiling information (Appendix G). National presentations largely followed the prescribed format2. A bibliography of relevant literature on sea turtles in the SWIO is presented in Appendix H. A synopsis of the information provided is presented by country. Kenya Kenya lies between 1º 41’S and 4º 40’S with a coastline of approximately 640 km. The coastline borders Somalia at the north and Tanzania in the south, with an almost continuous fringing reef running along the coastline. The marine habitats of the Kenyan coast, which include coral reefs, sea grass meadows and sandy beaches, provide diverse habitats for sea turtles. An aerial survey in 1994 indicated that sea turtles are widely distributed along the coastline within the 20m isobath mainly within sea grass and coral reefs (Wamukoya et al 1996). Kenya’s waters host five of the seven species of sea turtles known to occur in the world. Of these three; the green hawksbill and olive ridley turtles nest in Kenya ( comprise 94% of nest) while according to Frazier 1975, leatherbacks and loggerheads use Kenya’s waters as foraging grounds as well as migratory route. Tagging and monitoring of sea turtle activities has been going from the early 90s and is co-coordinated by is Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM), which was established in 1993. The committee sought to specifically address the problems of illegal poaching of turtle eggs and meat and a burgeoning list of threats posed by the growth of the tourism industry. Through support and cooperation from government institutions and NGOs as well as private interests and volunteers, KESCOM has to date established ten community based Turtle Conservation Groups (TCGs) along the Kenyan Coast. The activities of TCGs involve collection of turtle data and information at the ground level and engaging local communities in the conservation process through education and awareness programs, beach patrols and surveillance-to protect turtle nests and nesting females, tagging of sea turtles, and fishermen-turtle-release programs. Their activities cover 31% of the Kenyan Coast. The nesting beaches have been grouped into eight major conservation areas: South Coast, Mombasa, Kilifi, Watamu, Malindi, Kipini, Lamu and Kiunga. Nesting activities in Malindi cannot be quantified due to limited monitoring effort. The respective number of nests per annum was reported as 113 (1997), 126 (1998), 235 (1999) and 210 (2000), with a total of 684 over the four year period. The distribution of nests per district was uneven and rated as follows from highest to lowest (Okemwa, 2003): Kiunga (299), Mombasa (219), Watamu (86), Lamu (69), South Coast (21) and Kilifi (1). Green turtles made up 94% of the records, with the remainder of the nests comprising hawksbill and olive ridley nests. Nine hawksbill nests were recorded in the same period with highest records reported in 2000 from Mombasa (4) and Kiunga (2). A total of 17 olive ridley nests were reported in 2000; eight of which were sighted at Mombasa, four at Watamu and five at Kiunga. The available data for the period 1990 to 2004 indicate an overall increase in the number of reported nests, with a peak in 2001 and 2002, followed by a 62% decline in number of nests in 2003 and 2004. There was no clear trend in either hawksbill or olive ridley nesting activity over the 15-year period. Major threats on most nesting beaches are non-human (egg predation and nest inundation) and human (egg poaching). For example, in 1997, an estimated 20% of the eggs (506 out of 2519 eggs from 22 nests) were poached in Lamu. In Mombasa and Kiunga non-human predation on eggs seems to be a major threat. An estimated 100 incidents of slaughtering of nesting females, especially green turtle, were reported in 1997-2000, contributing to 58% of other mortality causes to nesting females. The documented mortality from incidental entanglement in fishing is 18% while pollution contributed 3%. Estimated incidental catch rates of turtles in shrimp trawls are as high as

2 A CD with PDF versions of the presentations in handout format is available upon request; the power point presentations are also available at http://www.ioseaturtles.org/ electronic_lib.php.

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2-3 turtles/day (Mueni and Mwangi, 2001; Mwatha, 2003), and 100 – 500 turtles/year when Turtle Excluder Devices (TED) were not in use (Wamukoya et al., 1997). The relative mortality due to fisheries either as targeted or incidental is approximately 95% of all documented turtle mortalities in Kenya. Other documented sources of mortality are relatively low, with the main constraint being the lack of data on foraging and developmental habitats of the turtles in Kenya (not to mention mortality on “Kenyan” turtles when they disperse and migrate out of Kenyan waters). Sea turtles are protected by law; Fisheries Act Cap 378 (1989) and Wildlife (Conservation and Management Act Cap 376. The law prohibits turtle capture, harass or chase of turtle with an intention to kill or in possession of any turtle products whether alive or dead. In 2001/2003, a number of restrictions; the use of monofilaments, scuba diving, beach seine and spear gunning were put in place (Kenya Gazette notice no. 7565 of 2001 and 214 of 2003). It also included the use of TED in shrimp trawlers. Existing information gaps on turtle populations • Inadequate data and information on population status, structure • Inadequate data on migrations and remigrations intervals Madagascar All five species of sea turtles occur in the waters around Madagascar, and all but leatherbacks turtles nest regularly. Fisheries along the 5300 km coastline of Madagascar are classed as industrial, artisanal and traditional, using vessels with engines more than 50 HP , less than 50 HP and non-motorized wooden boats, respectively. Each type of fishery uses different types of gear. Even though traditional fisheries are the least technologically advanced, they pose the most significant threat to sea turtles in Madagascar. Juvenile and adult turtles of all five species are caught by fishermen, using a variety of gear types. In addition, egg collection is also practised on nesting beaches. Before the implementation of mandatory TED use, shrimp trawlers represented an additional significant threat to the sea turtle populations of Madagascar. However, the situation has now changed, and the number of sea turtles reportedly caught in this fishery has sharply declined. In 2004, 120 turtles were caught by trawlers as opposed to two in 2005. A national policy and management framework for marine turtle conservation exist for the country. The main objectives are to reduce fishing and other human-induced mortality of sea turtles and preserve marine turtle habitats. These legislative measures currently need to be improved, and the knowledge on sea turtle biology and ecology needs to be developed. Maldives Five species of sea turtles occur in the Maldives: green turtle, hawksbill, olive ridley, loggerhead and leatherback turtles. However, only two, green and hawksbill turtles, regularly nest and forage in the Maldives. High level of exploitation of both eggs and adults, and trade of hawksbill tortoiseshell in the past has led to the protection of sea turtles through a decree that bans catching, killing and possession of any species of sea turtles found in Maldivian waters, since June 1995. However, this ban does not include egg exploitation, and as a result, egg take continues throughout the country, with few exceptions such as the self-imposed bans on individual islands where hotels are located.

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Data on island-specific egg takes have been collected by the Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources (MOFAMR) since the late 90s to assess the extent of egg exploitation and possibly to use this information to make management decisions for an already dwindled resource. Analysis of egg exploitation data for the past ten years indicates no sign of recovery of the two nesting species. More importantly, this information has identified major green and hawksbill nesting islands, which need to be protected. The ten-year Decree banning egg take terminated in 2005 and was extended for another 10 years (until 2015) after the Fisheries Advisory Board reviewed the management actions and recommendations by the MOFAMR for a total ban on egg take. Similar to the initial decree, this decree bans catching, killing and possession of any species of sea turtles, allowing exploitation of eggs in general. However, consideration was given to protect 14 islands, including some of the best turtle nesting islands, for 10 years. Eleven of these islands are protected with a total ban on egg take, effective from January 2006, and a further three islands were added to this list beginning 2007. Two of these islands (Gan Island in Gaaf Alif atoll and Gaadhoo Island in Laam atoll) are regarded as sites of the most important green turtle nesting beaches in the country. Fisheries related mortality on sea turtles is largely unknown, and direct take of eggs is regarded as a serious threat to the sea turtle resources in the Maldives. Over 80% of the fish harvest in the country is from small- to medium-sized vessels with poles and lines using small live bait. Longlining is an emerging fishery, which started in the 80s, almost exclusively by licensed foreign vessels (of less than 50 gross metric tons) targeting tuna, and related species. Licensing is conditional to reporting of catch statistics to MOFAMR. Little information is currently available on the specifics of the by-catch, which is reported simply as “others”. Coastal fisheries, largely comprising reef-related species, such as grouper and shark fisheries, are not known to pose a significant threat to sea turtles. Mortality due to entanglement in marine debris, such as ghost nets, is largely unknown. Some entanglement of olive ridleys has been recorded, both within and out of the atolls. Most are juveniles (<60 cm carapace length) that may come to the Maldives specifically for foraging or as part of a migratory dispersal. Mortality due to loss or disturbance of coastal habitats, resulting from coastal development, is currently low. Nevertheless, this may become a significant issue/threat due to the rate of new development, especially within the tourist sector and in fisheries. Activities associated with such developments include engineering works, beach nourishment, “reclamation” and dredging, which may pose significant, site-specific threats. In addition, artificial lights and effluent runoff may be locally significant and cause mortality, but the impacts from such factors are largely unknown. Mauritius The Republic of Mauritius consists of one major island, Mauritius, at 20oS and 57oE, and a group of outer islands and islets including: Rodrigues, Cargados Carajos Archipelago (including St. Brandon), Agalega, Tromelin and the Chagos Archipelago (including Diego Garcia), endowing it with an Exclusive Economic Zone of around 1.9 million km2. Two species of marine turtles are commonly found in the waters of Mauritius: the hawksbill turtle and green turtle. Nesting of marine turtles is common on all the outer islands, e.g. St. Brandon, Agalega, Tromelin and Chagos. Nesting peaks in the summer season. Foraging on sea grass, algae and reef areas provided by islands. The main threats to the survival of marine turtles include natural disturbances viz. cyclones, storms, surges, erosion, illegal egg collection and fishing, accidental capture during fishing by purse seiners and long-liners. Frequent occurrences of marine turtles are noted in the near shore waters of Mauritius and Rodrigues, and sometimes migrating turtles are affected by boat strikes.

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No study on population trends has been carried out for nesting turtles on the outer islands, mainly because of their distant locations, lack of funding and personnel. Monitoring of the populations of marine turtles in St. Brandon and Agalega islands is considered very important, and monitoring and management plans are under development. Mozambique Mozambique is located between 10°20S’ and 26°50’S with a coastline of 2 700 km characterized by several marine/coastal ecosystems. Five species of sea turtles are recorded, including the green turtle, the hawksbill, the olive Ridley, the loggerhead and the leatherback. Green turtle, hawksbill and olive ridley are typically found in the north of the country, while loggerhead and leatherback nesting occurs in the south. According to Hughes (1971), the green turtle is widespread but nests north of the tropic of Capricorn, from Quewene Peninsula to the Quirimbas Archipelago. However, the main concentrations of nesting greens occur in the Primeiras and Segundas Islands. Small and immature animals are also concentrated around Bazaruto and Inhassoro and some found in Maputo Bay (Costa, 1989). Little information is available concerning the other species. Loggerhead and leatherback turtles are more common in the south and nesting beaches are found along the entire coast from Ponta do Ouro to the Bazaruto Archipelago. The most important nesting areas are Ponta do Ouro region, Maputo Special Reserve, Inhaca Island, Quewene Peninsula and Bazaruto Archipelago. Table 1. Number of nests and estimated number of females nesting in Maputo Special Reserve (Magane and Joao (2002).

No. nests Estimated no of females Season Loggerhead Leatherback Loggerhead Leatherback 1999/00 255 92 51 - 65 12 2000/01 220 105 44 - 55 13

Peak nesting is between November and January. Both loggerhead and leatherbacks nest on Inhaca Island, with an average of 40 nests per year for both species together on a 12 km strip if beach. The coastline surrounding Inhaca Island is an important foraging area for green turtles. A tagging and monitoring program for loggerhead and leatherback is underway just north of the Mozambique/South African border. This programme has been running for more than 10 years over about 27 km of beach (Lombard, 2005). The study reported 1 236 turtle tracks over 11 breeding seasons, of which the majority (84%) were from loggerhead turtles and the remainder, leatherbacks. Of the 382 individual loggerheads tagged, 32 tag returns have indicated mortality from a variety of causes. Two higher density rookeries have been reported for loggerheads, around 3-25 km north of Malongane; and this pattern was consistent from year to year. Related to leatherback, a consistent high intensity nesting area was found around 14-18 km, north of Malongane (Kyle and Lombard 1996). According to Gove and Magane (1996), turtles are exploited for a variety of reasons, but mostly for the eggs and the shell. Eggs are used as food by local people, or for traditional medicine to treat sexual disorders. Turtle shell of particularly hawksbill and green turtle are used by craftsmen and

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witch-doctors to produce ornaments. In some villages there is a belief that consuming a turtle heart will improve longevity. Threats to turtles are not evenly spread along the coastline. Erosion, ghost crab predation and egg collection by humans are the most significant threats to eggs and hatchlings on nesting beaches. Off-road vehicles, although banned, are another human-related threat. Fishery-related threats, such as entanglement in gillnets, is dominant in Maputo Bay and Bazaruto, while beach seining (using tractors) is a threat in Inhassoro. These fishery practices have been estimated to kill on average 30 - 35 green turtles per month in these areas (Hughes, 1971; Magane, pers.comm.). Sofala Bank is one of the main shallow water shrimp fishing grounds of Mozambique were shrimp trawlers may be a significant source of mortality. Gove et al (2001) estimated over 1 000 deaths per year from this fishery. The National Directorate for Forestry and Wildlife under the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the conservation and management of forestry, wildlife (including sea turtles) and protected areas. Maritime authorities are responsible for controlling the coast as well as coastal and marine resources in those areas. At Inhaca Island, activities for the conservation of all resources including sea turtles are carried out by the Department of Biological Sciences of the Eduardo Mondlane University. The legal platform for turtle conservation is mainly provided by the Mozambican hunting Law 7/1978 and Decree 117/1978, which protect marine turtles. In addition, there are specific regulations such as Law 20/1997 (protecting turtle habitat and the environment), and Decree 12/2002 and Decree 43/2003 which prohibits the collection of turtles through fisheries practices and specifically mandates the use of Turtles Excluder Devices in shrimp trawling operations. TEDs, although compulsory, are not widely used nor enforced, and a campaign to convince the fishing industry about the advantages using TEDs, is planned for 2006. The Decree will be fully implemented in 2007. Réunion The scattered nature of the French territories requires partnerships for effective research and conservation of sea turtles. The coordination of research and monitoring is shared between Kelonia and Ifremer. Their work is mainly focussed on nesting and foraging green and hawksbill turtles in the South West Indian Ocean. The areas under their coordination include Réunion Island, the French Scattered Island (Europe, Juan de Nova, Glorieuses and Tromelin), Mayotte Island in collaboration with the Departmental Collectivity of Mayotte, Mohéli Island (Comoros) in collaboration with the Mohéli Marine Park and the Socio-Economic Development Association of Itsamia (ADSEI), and in Iranja Island (Madagascar) in collaboration with the Iranja Lodge Hotel. Databases on different marine turtle programmes have been compiled and, depending on the area, include information on population assessment (tracks, mark/recapture, microlight aerial survey, and hatchling production), genetic stock structure (all maturity stages), sea grass assessments and diet of marine turtles, migration routes and photo-identification. Réunion Island and the Scattered Islands benefit from a database of more than 20 years. Mayotte and Mohéli have been monitored since 1998 and Iranja since 2002. Population assessments of nesting turtles show overall stable or increasing stocks. The small longline fishery offshore of the French islands seems to have a very small impact with very low incidental capture and mortality rates. Totally protected, turtle stocks on the Scattered Islands are troubled only by natural threats while turtles on Réunion, the Comoros archipelago and Iranja suffer man-induced threats like poaching, pollution and habitat degradation. Most of data are currently

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being analyzed and the population assessments should be available in 2006. The first genetic assessment shows two stocks in the area, one in the North of the Mozambique Channel and another one in the South. A complete genetic overview of the area will be available in 2007/8. Seychelles Five species of sea turtles are found in the Seychelles: loggerhead, leatherback, olive ridley, hawksbill and green turtle, of which only the latter two actually nest in the Seychelles. Hawksbill and green turtle nest throughout the year but with a peak season from October to January. The hawksbill often nests during the day (unique to the Seychelles and East Africa and the Red Sea). The Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act includes the Wild Animals (Turtles) Regulations enacted in 1994, which completely bans all disturbances, exploitation, and sale of any turtle meat and other turtle products. Data on sea turtles have been collected for several decades in the Seychelles and efforts are underway to incorporate the data into a centralized database under the control of a National Association of Sea Turtle Stakeholders. Data gathered under the Global Environment Facility - Seychelles Marine Ecosystem Management Plan (GEF SEYMEMP) project showed that the green turtle nesting is gradually increasing at Aldabra Atoll and some other protected areas, but that the population is continuously decreasing at other sites in the unprotected inner granitic islands. The hawksbill population, which is most important around the inner islands, is declining due to poaching of nesting females, except at protected sites where there are moderate increases. Seychellois fortuitously do not consume turtle eggs. Another factor affecting sea turtles is the loss of habitat and feeding grounds in the inner islands due to coastal development and reclamation of land for housing and industrial purposes. Trawls, dredges, driftnets, and gillnets for sharks have been banned in Seychelles waters. Fishery related mortality of sea turtles is probably associated with longlining and purse seining, but data are not available given that fishing vessels do not land in the Seychelles. South Africa Two species of sea turtles are found nesting along the 200 km north-eastern coast of South Africa: loggerheads and leatherbacks; this, and coastal areas farther south serve as feeding/developmental areas for hawksbill and green turtles. The first conservation measures along with a beach protection and monitoring programme were introduced on the beaches of KwaZulu-Natal in 1963. The reason for it was the large number of turtles being slaughtered for meat, and eggs collected. Now after four decades these measures have proved to be successful in protecting sea turtles, and both the nesting species are showing recovery, a trend significant for loggerheads. Current legislation protecting sea turtles and there habitats are the Marine Living Resources Act (1998) and the World Heritage Convention Act. The nesting female population per annum is about 300 individuals of loggerheads laying 2 500-3 500 nests per season, and about 70 leatherbacks laying 200-300 nests in the index area, per season. Impacts on sea turtles are, however, not restricted to the nesting beaches, and interactions with a number of fisheries do exist in the region. The most important ones are longlining (taking up to 140 turtles per annum), a small prawn trawl fishery (10% of trawls) and coastal gillnets (about 50 turtles/year) with the specific purpose of bather protection against shark attacks. Impacts of longlining are recorded on both the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts, where these pelagic fisheries target swordfish and tuna. Incidental catch rates of sea turtles have been calculated for four years of data from onboard observers from the longline fisheries.

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The catch rates of sea turtles in the swordfish and tuna fisheries differ, with swordfish being more damaging and catching 0.05 turtles per 1000 hooks (tu/103hks) whereas the tuna fishery catches 0.02 tu/103hks. The species composition of turtles is proportional to abundance with 43% of the catch being loggerhead, and 34%, leatherbacks. Hawksbill and green turtles both comprise 2-3% of the catch. These figures must be treated with caution since 28% of the catch is unidentified, hence the impact on an individual species could be much greater. A limited amount of data exists for the prawn trawling, but a total of 16 turtles, all Caretta, have been reported to be caught in 177 trawls between 2003 and 2005. Occasional stranding does also happen with about five -10 reported per annum (excluding hatchlings) predominantly in summer and autumn. The cause of death is often unknown, although pollution and ghost fishing/net entanglement are suspected to be significant causes. Tag returns (about 5/year) from the region also indicate that a fraction of turtles die in the SWIO caught in artisanal fisheries, although it is difficult to quantify using only tag returns. Combining all the scores from the known mortalities mentioned here, about 135 turtles (independent of size) die due to fisheries related activities. Somalia Somalia has one of the longest coastlines of any east African country. Green and hawksbill turtles are known to nest extensively, but there is no quantitative information on nesting numbers or the exact location of main nesting areas. At present, there is no special legislation or management framework for the sea turtles in Somalia. Furthermore, there are wide gaps in knowledge of marine turtle populations, biology, life histories and threats. Directed take of marine turtles or eggs is not practised in Somalia (except in the extreme south where Bajun live). Coastal development is also very limited and is not considered to be a threat, neither is pollution. One of the major sources of mortality seems to be gillnets used for shark fishing, particularly during the southwest monsoon season. IUU fishing is a major problem, and may be a significant threat to sea turtles. Management of sea turtles in Somalia should start with an appropriate legislative and enforcement framework. Tanzania (mainland) Five species of sea turtles occur off the 900 km long coast of Tanzania: green, hawksbill, loggerhead, leatherback and olive ridley. Of these, only the green and hawksbill nest. The key turtle nesting sites, and relative importance, in Tanzania are Mafia (high), Temeke / Mkuranga (medium), Mtwara (medium) and Bagamoyo / Pangani (low). Approximately 1/3 of the coastline has yet to be monitored. The main nesting season of green turtles is between March and July and for hawksbill turtles between November and February. It is estimated that there is an average of 250 - 300 green turtle nests per year and between 5 – 10 hawksbill nests per year. However, these figures only represent data for about 1/3rd of the country’s coastline. Data on foraging populations and population trends are unknown. Turtles are afforded protection under the Fisheries Act of 2003 and the Marine Parks & Reserves Act of 1994. Fisheries regulations prohibit the use of dynamite and poison for fishing as well as beach seine netting, which damages coral reef habitat; hence, these regulations have positive implications for sea turtles. Turtle conservation and management activities in Tanzania started in the 1970s but have only been consistent since 2001, when a local community-based NGO, Sea Sense, was established. In the

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same year, Tanzania ratified the IOSEA MoU, and in 2003, the Tanzania Turtle Committee was established. Data on turtles in mainland Tanzania is being collected by Sea Sense via a network of over 50 trained community conservation officers. Sea Sense also has a strong environmental education component and is promoting eco-tourism. A tagging programme also exists. An average of 240 turtles stranding are recorded a year, comprising mostly green turtles. These include both juvenile and adult turtles. The causes of mortality are unclear in most instances but are thought to be fisheries-related. The main threats to turtles include poaching of eggs and nesting females, limited law enforcement and habitat disturbance. With regard to coastal fisheries, information gathered from questionnaire interviews and catch monitoring (on Mafia Island) indicates that bottom set jarife (6-inch mesh) and sinia (12-inch mesh) nets pose a major threat to turtles. The level of mortality from inshore commercial prawn trawlers, pelagic longline and purse seine nets is unknown. The main gaps for turtle conservation management in Tanzania are a lack of information of turtle mortality from both inshore and pelagic fisheries, limited data on fine and large-scale turtle migration patterns, information on foraging and developmental habitats and genetic stock delineation. Zanzibar (including Pemba, Unguja (Zanzibar), and other islands) All five species of sea turtles occurring in the SWIO are recorded from Zanzibar waters, two of which nest on the island’s beaches (green and hawksbill). People in Zanzibar have traditionally used turtles for food and medicinal purposes. Zanzibar was known as one of the world’s major clearinghouses for tortoise shell (hawksbill shell) and historical records show exports of 2 600 kg per year around 1891. Although this trade no longer exists, populations of sea turtles in Zanzibar have declined to a fraction of what they once were due to various human impacts. Since 1990, Zanzibar has made efforts to conserve sea turtles. A successful government campaign on local trade in turtle products culminated in the symbolic burning of turtle shells and shell products in 1995. This campaign started with a survey of souvenir shops in 1993 – 1994. A total of 567 turtle products were found (shells, bracelets, earrings, hairpins) all worth $1 000. These products were voluntarily exchanged with turtle T-shirts or cash. All products were burnt on August 26, 1995. Important nesting sites for green turtles are Misali (west), Vumawimbi and Kiuyu in Pemba, and Matemwe and Mnemba Islands in Unguja where there is an ongoing tagging programme (on Mnemba Island). Several tags from neighbouring countries’ monitoring programmes have been collected in Zanzibar, highlighting the importance of these waters as feeding areas for adult female green and loggerhead turtles from range states. These tags are reported from Seychelles, South Africa and Comoros. Records of nesting in Zanzibar are recorded by dedicated beach recorders, “turtle contact persons,” who report the number of females that come ashore to nest, as well as observing hatchlings on several beaches. Distribution information on turtles is also obtained from records of incidental capture in gillnets and stranding of dead turtles on beaches. The collective impression from these researchers/observers is that the turtle populations, and specifically the number of nests, are declining in Zanzibar.

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Additional critical threats to sea turtles in Zanzibar include destruction of nesting beaches due to tourism developments; direct take of adult sea turtles both at sea and on nesting beaches for meat and medicine; consumption of turtle eggs and entanglement in gillnets (jarife). Awareness and education activities are conducted hoping to reduce threats to turtles and their habitats. Sea turtles in Zanzibar are protected by the fisheries’ Regulation under Fisheries Legislation (The Fisheries Act No 8 of 1988), which prohibits the capture of sea turtles. Other legislation includes the Forest Conservation and Management Act of 1996 and Environment Act of 1996, but compliance and enforcement is poor. Information from nesting surveys and education campaigns resulted in the generation of a conservation action plan for Zanzibar. In addition, the Zanzibar National Sea Turtle Conservation Committee was established in February 2002, which is seen as an important component for the implementation of conservation activities regarding turtles and their habitats. The majority of published work on turtle populations of Zanzibar was conducted by Jack Frazier in the 70s, but since 1995 several studies have been conducted through the Department of Environment, Zanzibar, although publication of these finding are mostly in grey literature. A small book has recently been published in Kiswahili on the Sea Turtles of Zanzibar (Khatib et al., 2006). Of concern are various incidences of “turtle poisoning.” In Chwaka (1930) 20 people died from the consumption of turtle meat, in Pemba (1996) 38 people died, and in Tumbatu (1999) four died. Yemen

Sea turtles are widely distributed along the coasts of Yemen, both in the Red Sea and in the Gulf of Aden. All five species common in the Western Indian Ocean are found nesting and feeding in Yemen. Nesting takes place between June to August, and numbers can be as high as 500 individuals per night as recorded at Ras Sharma and Jethmun. The beach at Ras Sharma is recognized as one of the most important nesting sites along the entire Gulf of Aden, particularly for the green turtle and, to a lesser extent, the hawksbill. Medium threats to sea turtles include trawling (hawksbill and greens), habitat destruction, exploitation of eggs and adults. Predation by aquatic animals such as sharks and groupers is considered as representing a high-level threat. IOSEA Mr. Douglas Hykle, IOSEA MoU Coordinator, introduced the Indian Ocean – South-East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding, drawing particular attention to its comprehensive online reporting facility. The facility allows 25 Signatory States to submit and update their reports over the internet at any time. Implementation progress of the IOSEA conservation and management plan is also being objectively assessed and monitored according to a newly developed set of evaluation criteria. The IOSEA website contains many tools for dissemination and exchange of useful information, including an interactive mapping system holding over 30 years of nesting and tag return data. The Online Reporting Facility (www.ioseaturtles.org) allows users to query the national report database by country, by sub-region (e.g. Western Indian Ocean), for the entire IOSEA region, or according to specific objectives, such as impacts on turtles and their habitats. Signatories have been requested to provide information on fisheries-turtle interactions and mitigation measures in place, as well as to assist in monitoring application of the FAO guidelines on reducing sea turtle mortality. Queries that are even more sophisticated could be made of specific species and habitat types; and the relative intensity of 15 threats to turtles at more than 500 sites around the IOSEA region, as well as measures in place to mitigate those threats. Participating signatory countries were encouraged to

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supplement the national reports with fisheries-related data and other relevant information presented at the Zanzibar meeting. 4. Collating available data and information and using models to assess the relative

importance of fishery-related sea turtle mortality Five species of marine turtle are documented from the Western Indian Ocean. Of these, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) are most widely distributed, most numerous, and have been the most severely impacted by directed exploitation. Loggerheads (Caretta caretta) and leatherbacks (Dermochelys coriacea) are less abundant in the region, and have had little importance in commerce and directed exploitation. The olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) is the least common marine turtle in the region, and as such relatively, little has been documented about this species. For reasons of time, the risk assessment analysis conducted during the meeting did not include Lepidochelys olivacea. This is no reflection of their importance for conservation. The relatively small numbers that apparently occur in the Western Indian Ocean region, and the possible unique/singular genetic material of this population, make their conservation especially significant. As all five of these species of marine turtle are affected by incidental capture in diverse fishing activities, future initiatives will need to consider bycatch issues and mitigation measures for all five species. Abundance of any animal population is affected by birth, death and migration (dispersal), and these are in turn influenced by various factors (Fig. 1). In order to carry out population modelling, information on these processes should be understood. Life cycles of sea turtles are particularly complex, given their long life, delayed maturity, wide geographic distribution, and the use of different habitats, ranging from terrestrial to pelagic. Figure 1. General scheme of demographic processes that affect population abundance. A summary of data needed to carry out population modelling was presented. Key demographic processes for sea turtle populations were presented (Fig. 1) as a framework for information and data needs required to build a population model. Data requirements for modelling populations are: Regional genetic meta population structure per species, for all five species, defining the boundaries of stocks/population.

Abundance Birth Death

Dispersal In

Dispersal Out

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Abundance Indices: � Nesting population trends � In-water population abundance estimates � Age/size/sex composition � Indirect abundance from standings Abundance estimates are affected and informed in the model by: Birth (or reproduction) rates affected by: � Annual breeding probabilities � Fecundity (clutches, clutch frequency) � Hatchling production (temperature-dependent hatching) � Hatchling production (temperature-dependent sex determination/pivotal temperature) Survival (mortality) � Survival probabilities correlated between sexes and between some age classes � Disease � Cause-specific stranding (autopsy/pathology) Dispersal (In/Out) � Somatic growth, ageing and maturation � Development migration As an overall conclusion, it appeared evident that data availability in the region was very limited as compared to data requirements. Furthermore, data presented showed inconsistencies and lack of standardization in data collection. There is a need to normalize current initiatives and develop protocols and procedures at the regional level. This should be included in the terms of reference for the WIO Marine Turtle Task Force, to be established in the near future within the framework of the IOSEA-Nairobi Convention collaboration. The need for relating the information collected to possible analyses was also discussed. It was noted that often data are collected without a clear understanding of their usefulness in relation to data analysis. Furthermore, often sampling does not seem to have a sound statistical basis. For example, many tagging and nest protection programmes are not recording nesting success per effort of sampling which makes the data inadequate for statistical analysis. In plenary, all data and information available, both qualitative and quantitative, were used to complete tables, by species, locations and main sources of sea turtle mortality. The results of this session are presented in Appendix I. The threats were classified into three categories: nesting ground, marine environment and habitat modification and destruction. Each species was scored per life history phase, and the lower the score the more important the threat. Data deficiency was also scored as a threat under each of the threat categories. The most general threats to all turtle species were direct exploitation of adult turtles and eggs, fishery related mortality and data deficiencies. In addition, hawksbill turtles were considered to be under major threat (value of 2 or lower) from coastal gillnet fisheries and climate change. For green turtles, degradation due to erosion control measures (jetties, breakwaters etc.) and coastal fisheries (gillnets) were considered major threats while for loggerhead these were longline and coastal fisheries. There is no information that leatherback turtles are under significant pressure in the region, with the exception of longlining, but data deficiency was also reported as a significant

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threat. Information on olive Ridleys was available only from Kenya. For these turtles, in addition to direct harvest of eggs and adults, other threats were considered artificial lighting, global climate change, trawl and other coastal fisheries and degradation of reefs. 5. Recommendations and identification of research priorities

The workshop identified numerous categories of threats, including direct exploitation of turtles and eggs, coastal development and habitat degradation, and fisheries (Appendix I). Regarding fishery-related threats, the impacts of three fisheries were identified as significant: gillnetting, longlining, and prawn/shrimp trawling. The following recommendations to fisheries administrations, regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and fishing industry on reducing fishery-induced mortality were agreed upon:

Gillnetting is considered the number one fishery related threat in the SWIO.

(a) Fisheries administrations are encouraged to collect quantitative data on sea turtle mortality in gillnets to better identify high risk interactions (spatially and temporally)

Longlining for swordfish, tuna and shark, is considered the number two fishery-related threat in the SWIO.

(b) National administrations and RFMOs are encouraged to collect quantitative data on sea turtle mortality in longline fisheries to better identify high-risk interactions (spatially and temporally).

(c) Trained-observer programmes should be encouraged in local and foreign longline fishing fleets (which could be undertaken more cost-effectively on a regional basis).

(d) RFMOs are encouraged to promote experimentation with possible mitigation measures, including circle hooks in foreign longline fishery fleets.

Prawn trawling is considered the number three fishery related threat in the SWIO.

(e) Encourage the development and adoption of TEDs for/by the region. (f) Consider the adoption of time/area closures in the vicinity of –

i. nesting beaches and internesting areas; and ii. foraging areas.

Furthermore,

(g) Encourage the national administrations to review, improve/harmonize and enforce legislation on turtles.

(h) For RFMOs and national administrations to recognize the potentially significant impacts of IUU 3 fishing on sea turtle populations in the region (especially for Somalia and Tanzania).

Additional research priorities and collaborative projects on sea turtles in the SWIO area were identified under two broad themes, namely biological/ecological and socio-economic. These are to

3 The specific question of illegal, unreported and unregulated fisheries was brought up, and emphasized on numerous occasions. While it is fully recognized that the problem of IUU is being addressed specifically in other fora, particularly by the FAO, the workshop participants felt that it is important to explicitly emphasize that resolving this complex issue is intimately related to mitigating problems of sea turtle bycatch.

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be implemented (insofar as possible) as regional partnerships with NGOs, universities, eco-tourism ventures, the fishing industry, etc. Theme 1: Biological and ecological issues (a) Studies of long-term abundance monitoring trends could be improved, and should strive for:

- Standardized nesting beach sampling techniques (and more effective use of existing practices);

- Baseline surveys identifying nesting, inter-nesting and foraging grounds; - Standardize stranding protocols and create a regional stranding database; - In-water abundance estimates.

(b) Genetic management unit and stock structures (c) Modelling the population dynamics of sea turtle stocks in the region including capacity building

of modelling expertise in the region. (d) Address localized threats, like disease and toxic waste that have a disproportionate impact on

isolated rookeries. These threats are to be identified in collaboration with a sub-regional technical committee – the Marine Turtle Task Force.

Theme 2: Socio-economic priorities The workshop was designed to focus on technical aspects of the “relative importance of sea turtle mortality due to fisheries.” Nonetheless, the participants from each country identified turtle bycatch to be intimately dependent on a host of other complex problems that are driven by social, economic, and political forces. Hence, it was agreed by consensus to include both general and specific recommendations on socio-economic considerations with the intent to promote full integration of this area in the future. Recommendations on socio-economic aspects must be addressed if questions of sustainable fisheries and an ecosystem approach to fisheries management are to be adequately framed and addressed. Without resolving root issues of livelihood, resource access, governance, and other such complex concerns, even the best attempts at technological advances, such as gear modifications, will have limited success. The meeting therefore agreed on the following recommendations: Theme 2: Socio-economic priorities

(a) Compile and develop demographic profiles of communities interacting with sea turtles and their habitats including:

- Cultural, historic, and economic parameters in relation to sea turtles. - Land tenure/property rights and permanence of residency.

(b) Assess and document the levels of take, historical and contemporary uses, and trade in

turtles, their parts and products. (c) Document perceptions and attitudes regarding the status and value of marine turtles as well

as that of major threats. (d) Explore socio-economic issues, such as alternative livelihood opportunities, incentive

schemes, and education/awareness programmes that will assist/be fundamental in reducing threats to sea turtles and their habitats.

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6. Follow-up

Follow-up activities foreseen as part of the project include workshops aiming at sensitizing the fisheries sector, fishermen and fisheries administrations, on management practices that minimize unnecessary negative impacts of fishing on the environment and in particular on sea turtles, in the spirit of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. During this workshop, it was proposed that Madagascar should be the venue for the first of such workshops, to deal with coastal trawl fisheries. The Madagascar representatives welcomed this initiative and promised to forward the proposal to relevant authorities for their consideration. 7. References cited FAO. 2004. Expert Consultation on Interactions between Sea Turtles and Fisheries within an

Ecosystem Context. Rome, 9-12 March 2004. FAO Fisheries Report 738/Suppl.: 85-134. Frazier, J.G. 1975. Marine turtles of the western Indian Ocean. Oryx 13: 164-175. Frazier, J.G. 1980. Exploitation of Marine Turtles in the Indian Ocean. Human Ecology. 8(4):

329-370. Frazier, J.G. 1982. The status of marine turtles in the central western Indian Ocean. In: The Biology

and conservation of sea turtles (Ed) K.A. Bjorndal, p. 385-390. Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution Press. (reprinted 1995).

Gove, D. and Magane, S. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Mozambique. In:

Humphrey, S.L., Salm, R.V. (Eds) Status of Sea Turtle Conservation in the Western Indian Ocean. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165. IUCN/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya pp 89-94.

Gove, D., Pacules, H. and Gonçalves, M. 2001. The impact of Sofala Bank (Central Mozambique)

shallow water shrimp fishery on marine turtles and the effects of introducing TED (Turtle Excluder Device) on shrimp fishery. WWF, 24 pp.

Hughes, G. 1971. Preliminary report on the sea turtles and dugongs of Moçambique. Vetrinária

Moçambicana 4(2): 43-84. Hughes, G.R. 1974. The sea turtles of South East Africa. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of

Natal, p 209. Khatib, A., Jiddawi, N.S., Haji, A. 2006. Kasa wa baharini, Zanzibar. Kamati ya Kitaifa ya

Uhifadhi wa Kasa, Zanzibar. Menai bay. 23, pp. Kyle, R. & P. Lombard (1996). Sea turtle research in southern Mozambique. A brief overview and

results of some recent monitoring and tagging activity. Unpublished report. 13 pp. Lombard, P. (2005) Marine turtle monitoring and conservation in southern Mozambique. Summary

(1994-2005). Ponta Malongane. Unpublished report. 7 pp Lombard 2005 – COMPLETE REFERENCE

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Magane, S. and Joao, J. 2002. Local community involvement in monitoring and protection of sea turtles, loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) in Maputo special reserve, Mozambique. In: 22nd Annual Symposium on Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles’. Miami, USA, 4-7 April 2002. (Ed. J. Seminoff), pp. 100-101. (NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-503).

Mueni, E. and Mwangi, J. 2001. A survey on the use of Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) in trawlers

along the Kenyan Coast. KESCOM Technical Report- 1 KWS series. Mwatha, G.K. 2003. The Malindi -Ungwana Bay Fishery: Assessment of the prawn fishery,

bycatch, resource use conflicts and performance of the Turtle Excluder Device: KMFRI Report, pp 43-64.

Okemwa, G.M. 2003. Nesting and mortality patterns of sea turtles along the Kenyan coast (1997-

2000). Mombasa, Kenya, Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM). Wamukoya, G.M., Mirangi, J.M. and Ottichillo, W.K. 1996. Marine aerial survey; marine

mammals, sea turtles, sharks and rays, KWS Technical Series Report 1:22pp. Wamukoya, G.M., Kaloki, F.P. and Mbendo, J.R.1997. Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for Kenya

(STRAP). KESKOM Technical Report Series, 69 pp.

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