Contract No. W-7405-eng-26
A Con-p i la t ion or" Curren t Practice iil Ana lys ts ,
Design, Cons t ruc t i on , 'Testl znd Operntri on
Wm. 73. C o t t r e l l . ,md. A. T+J.
Savol.ainen
Editors
m d Bechte l CorGorat ion
AUGUST 1965
OAK lI1DGE NATIONAL I J R O R A T O F Y
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
3 4456 0285561 2
Pr in ted i n USA. P r i c e $ 1 4 0 0 for V o l s . I and II. A v
a i l a b l e
from the Clear inghouse for Federa l Sc ie nt i f i c and Techn ica
l
In formation, N at iona l Bureau of Standaids, U.S.
Department
o f Commerce, Springfield, Virginia.
................... ................
~~~ ~
L E G A L N O T I C E
T h i s r e p o rt w a s prepored o s a n accoun t of Government
sponsored work. Nei ther the Uni tcd States,
n o r the Commission,
nor any ~ e r s o n c t i n g on beha l f o f thc Comn- i r s ion
:
A . M o L e s any wariai7ty or rep resen ta t i on ,
s x p r e s s e d o r
imp l ied , w i th respec: t o th; a c c u r o c y ,
conp le teness , or use fu lness of the in fo rma l ion con ta ined
in t h i s repor:, or tha t thz
use
of
o n y informat ion, apparatus, m e t i d , or p rocess d i s c l o
s e d ~n t h i s repor t may no t i n f i i nge
p r i v a t e l y o w n e d r ights, or
0 . A s s u m e s any l i a b i l i t i e s w i t h r e s p e ct t
o t h e “ 5 s of, or f o r dornoges
r e s u l t i n g f rom the uze of
a n y in format ion, apparatus, method, or p r o c e s s d isc lose
d in th i s repor t .
A s u s e d in the obove, “pe rson o i t i ng on beho l f of t he
Co inmiss inn ” i nc lud es any employee or
conl iuctoi of the Commissron, or employee of such cont rac to r ,
to the ex ten t thmt such emp loyee
or con t rac to r o f the Commiss ion , or employee of s u c h
controctar prepares, d issair i inutei , or
p rov ides o c c e s s to, any informat ion
pursuant t o h i s emp loyment or c o n t r o r t w i t h t h e C o
m m i s si o n ,
or h i s emp loyment wcth such controctur .
A s a consequence of p r e p a r a t i o n of Yne q u a r t e r l y
t e c b a i c a l p r o g r e s s
review Nuclear S ? f e t y , it became apparent both t o t h e Oak
Ridage Piat ion al
b b o r a t o r y e d i t o r i a l s ta f f and t o c o g ni z an
t p e rs o n s i n t h e AEC Div i s ion
of Reacto r Development t h a t t h e r e e x i s t ed a wea l t h
of m e o r r e l a t e d i n f o r -
mt t i on on t h e s u b j e c t of r e ac to r cont a inmen t .
Acco rdingly , i n the fall of
1.962, t h e L a b o ra t o ry w a s a u th o ri z ed t o mde-rtake
the present compi la t ion ,
which was e s s e n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e d i n i t s p r e s
e n t form i n t h e s p r i n g of 1364.
1x1 a n e f f o r t t o m k e t h e c o m p i l a t i o n as
comprehensive and. as authori-
-tai;ive as p r a c t i c a l . , t h e Lz'ooratory s u b co n t ra
c te d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
p r e p a r a t i o n of four of t h e 12 chapters (i. . , Chapters
2, 9, 10, axid 11)
t o TRechtel Corporation, a ma$jor a r c h i t e c t - e n g i n e
e r and f a b r i c a t o r of r e -
actor conta imen-t s t r u c t u r e s . ? he aix 'c l iorship of
the remaining chapters
w a s t h e n a s s i g n e d t o sen io r Labo ra to ry per sonne
l , supp lemen ted i n mzay
i n s t a n c e s b y e x p e r t s fro m o t h e r i n s t a l l a
t i o n s , Thus I n a ii d it io n t o t h e
l i t e r a l l y himdl-eas of p e r s m s who reviewed the v a r i
o u s d r a f t s , nmerous
persons have made s u 7u s ta nt i al o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b
u t i o n s t o t h i s work. A l -
t hough t he se pe r sons and the e x t e n t of t h e i r c o n tr
i b- u ti o n are indicated
a t t h e b e g in n i ng of each chap t e r , t he y a re a l l l
i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y b e-
low i n o r d e r t h . a t we may c o l l e c t i v e l y ac kn ow
le dg e t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s
Cont b u tor
S. .A. Eernsen
J. E. Buchanan
R. F. G r i f f i r s
J . 13. Iiczwtliorne
TE W. Tlloffml
G.. w. K @ i l h O l t Z
J. 0. Kolb
13. R. bb.ccary
J. E, Mot%
W. E. Nyer
P, F. Fasqua
T. W. P i c k e l
H. B. P i p e r
M. A. Salmori
G, c. H5binSOn
Argome Nczt - ioml hbora tory
Oak Kidge Nat.i.ona1 Labora tory
Beelitel Corpora t ion
Gak Ridge National L?,bor.atory
Oak Ridge Nat iona l Labora tory
PLvrdue [Jniversi ty
S t a n f o rd R es ea rc h I n s t i t u t e
Oak R i d g e N a t i o n a l k b o r a t o r y
3ech.tel . Corp orat io n
I T . S. E.\Tdml Research Labora tory
Oak Ridge Eit5onul Ltzboratory
Oak Ridge BTational Labora tory
AEC D i v i s i o n f Rea,ctor L i cens ing
TJrziVer ity of Mimesota
Phi.lli-ps Petroleum Company
U n i v e r s i t y of Tennessee
Oak Ridge Nation,d I a b o r a t o r y
Oak Xidge Wttioxisl h b o r a t o r y
Oak Ridge Wdt iona l Woora tory
Oak R id ge N a t i o n a l k b o r a t o r y
1l.l.i.n-ois T m t i t u t e of Technology Re-
re11 Inst i tu . l ;e ( foi--me:rly
A.r.rnour Re-
searcIi_ E'oimdatim )
I hapter
. E . St ,eele U.S. Naval Research Laboraiory 8
H . W. Wahl Re chi el Corp orat ion 9
C . S. Walker Oak Ridge Nat ional Laboraioly 9
N . A. TJJeil I l l i n o i s I n s t i t u t e of Technology Re-
6
ac to r I n s t i t u i c ( form erly A-rmour Re-
seclrch Foundat ion)
O f the
many persons 1-i ste d above, bot h w it hi n and wi.thout the
Labo-
ra' ioiy, w e w ould l i k e t o e x p r e s s p a r t i - c u l a
r th a n ks -toM. I. Tundin, who
c o o r d i n at e d t h e B e c h t e l C or p o ra t i on s u b c
o n t r a c t , and t o H . B . Piper who,
i n a d d it i on t o h i s con t r ib u t io ns as an au thor ,
coord- ina ted the rev iew of
all the chap te rs and prepared the index .
ers should famLl ia r ize themse lves wi th Chapte r 1, which, i n
a d d i t i o n t o
p r o v i d in g e s s e n t i a l b ac kg ro un d. m a t e r i a l
, c o n t a i n s a s e c t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y
designated "Guide t o t h e Use o f t h i s Report." In a d d i t i
o n , a n extensrive
index i s a v a i l a b l e .
I t . w i l l be
a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t a c o m p il a ti o n of t h i s t y
p e - p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e f i r s t of i t s
kind - on a r e la t iv e ly new su bj ec t and one upon
which
t'nere i.s considerable research a .nd development w i l l be s u b
j e c t to f requent .
e v a l u a t i o n and change,
a t least un.t i l a liiu.Ch h igher p la teau- of h o w l e d g
e
and experience i s a - t t a i n e d . Thus t h e e d i t o r s a r
e aware o f t h e l i m i t e d
t i m e l i n e s s o f t h e m a t e r i a l h e r e i n and. a n
t i c i p a t e , c i r c u m st a n ce s p e r m it -
ting, that -?ne m a t e r i a l w i l l be revised evercy two or t
h r e e y e a r s . Toward
that end, t h i s docurnznt i s bei.ng d i s t r i b u t e d i n a.
I .oose- leaf bin der , and
r e c i p i e n - t s w i sh i ng to r e c e i v e r e v i s i o n
s of t h i s m a t e r i a l a r e a sk ed t o a d-
v i s e the e d i t o r of any changes i n addr ess .
The ed i t o r s a l s o wish t o acknowledge th e suppo rt ,
encouragement, and
c o n s t r u c t , i v e c r i t i c i s m of t h e s p o n s o r
s w i t h i n % h e f E C Divis ion of Reac tor
Deve lopment , pa r t i cu la r ly J. A. L i.e be im i1 , A s s i s
t a n t D i r e c t o r f o r N u c le ar
Safe ty ; S. A. Szawlewicz, Chief, Research and Development Uranch;
and
R. N. Neikon, Res ear ch and Development Branch, w it ho ut whom t
h i s work
would no t have been po ssi ble , However, t h e rea der i s
caitri.oned not t o
regard t h e i n c l u s i o n of any in format ion here as g i v i
n g t h a t in format ion
any o f f i c i a l s a nc t io n as far as t h e AEC D i v i s i o
n ol" Compliance
or DivisLon
of
Reactor Licensing .i.s concerned. This re po rt does no mx*e 'tha,n
r e f l e c t
t h e c ur re nt , s t a t e OY t h e a r t t o t h e s a t i s f a
c t i o n of t n e Oak Ridge Nat i -mal
Laboratoyy and the Recbtel Corp orat i on. Furthermore, i t c a n n
o t a n t i c i p a t e
what, changes
i n
c o nt a in m en t t e c h n ol o g y inay e v o lv e f ro m r e s
e a r c h a d deve1.-
opment or the o f f ic i a l . a t t i t u d e s regard ing the
adequacy of co:ntainment.
p r o v i s i o n s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t io
n that may evolve f r o m the con t i -nu ing
d e l i b e r a t i o n of e i t h e r the Advisory Committee on
Resctor ,Safeguards o r
t h e Divtsj -on of Reactor Licensing.
In order th make the g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e u s e of t h i
s c o m p il a t io n , r e a d -
E d i t o r s
Wm. B.
A. W. Savolainen
V
Although t h i s r e p o r t was not prepared. by o r under the
auspices of
the
Xi~.cl.easSafety Informmtion Center, it i s bei.ng rlistr.lbiit.ed
as an
NSIC reprxt ; foT* tile fo l l owing r ea sons: (1) ontaim-en-t i s
one of t h e
nost '.inportant inte-resLs of t h e NSIT m c 3 ( 2 ) th.e NSTC can
provide t h e
c o n t i n u i t y , as -wel l as t h e s o i i i ~ e material, o
r f u t u r e revisions, The
Nucl-ear Safety Informatioi l Center w8.s esta'ol.-isl-~.ed n March
1963 a t the
Oak Ridge Nationd. Labora tory unc?e:r t h e sponsorsh ip ol" tbi:.
U.S. Atonic
Ensi-gy Co.mrission. T'ne Center serves as a f o c a l poi .nt for
the c o l l e c t i o n ,
s t o r a g e , eval.uation, arrd d-isseminatton of informat i on
j.n t h e following
areas :
nuclear f aci1i.t .es
F i s s ion -pmduc t release, -trai-,sport, and removal
Nuc lea r i n s nimenta,ti .on, con.tm1.. and s are- ty sys
teins
Radioac t ive effI.ment co n tr o l monitorin.g, movement, and
dosage
Reactor t r a n s i e n t s , k ine t i . e s , and. s t a b i l i
- t y
Meteoro1ogi.ca]- consi.clera,tions
Oper.ationa,l s a f e t y =id exper ience
:In add . i t ion t o state-o:f-the-ar-L repoyts i n t he above sub
jec t areas,
tine Cen-ier prepares t h e q u a r t e r l y t e c h n i c d
progress review Nuc1ea.r Safety_--
and has a reTerence ?rile stored. on j-nagnctic tape for. the
computer search
of safety i.nformatioi> :mt3. the pyepar~ . t , io~if a
qiia.rrterly indexed bi.bl.iog-
raphy of the nuclear sa.Pety 1it;erxti.ire
Center should- e acl.d.:ressed. t o :
Inquiries eoncern i~ng he services, c a p a b i l i t i e s , a d
operation o f - the
mim. B. Cot t re l l . , Di rec- tor
Nuel ear Safety In format ion Ceti.ter
Oak Ri.d.ge Bat onal. Labo ra tmy
P. 0. Box Y
Rnrpos
I n o r d e r t o make use of t h e i n fo r m at i o n t h a t rmy
be found
i n
t h i s
: report , not on ly shou ld t he spec i f i c pu rposes be known
but also the sub-
j ec t s tha t a re exc l .uded . . For the pu rpose s to s t a n d
out clear ly . , i t i s
p e r t i- n e n t t o n o t e t h a t t h i s r e p o r t d oe s n
o t p ro po se -to
1.
2. present i n f o r m a ti o n on t h e d e si g n , i n t e g r i
t y , o r p e rf o m a , m e of
3.
4 .
e v a l u a t e t h e safety of s p e c i f i c s y s t e m s f o r
s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
t h e pr imary system,
d i s c u s s e x t e n s i v e l y t h e b e h av i o r of f i s s
i o n p ro d uc t a f t e r l e a v i n g
t h e reacto r-con tainm ent system. (s ee See. 4 .5 . l),
e s t a b l i s h c r i t e r i - a by Twhich contaiiunen-t;
systems must be designed,
fab r ic a t ed , t es tt? 1 , and opera ted .
On the other hand,
it
i s t he pu rpose 02 t h i s repor+, .Lo
1. d e s c r i b e t h e c on ta in me nt f e a t u r e s of e x i
s t i n g r e a c t o r i1i:;talla-
2. describe some of t h e calculational echni ques t h a t have
'oeen
t i o n s ,
employed t o de te rmine f l .u id dynamics and rad. iol .ogica1
loads 011
cont a i rment systems,
presen t exper i r t l en ta l data p e r t i n e n t t o i t e m s
1 and 2,
of contaimnent systems,
p r e s en t e x i s t i n g d a t a on t h e cost of containment
systems,
above items.
3.
4 . d e s c r i b e p e r t i n e n t d e ta i- 1 s of th e de s
ign , cons t ruc t i on , and t e s t
5.
6 . r ev iew the cu r r en t r e se a r ch and deve lopmen t pe r t
i ne u t t o t h e
Pe r t i n ea t r a t t e r s o f s ig .n i. fi eant; l i n t e r e
s t to t h e containment; de-
sFgne r and f ab r i c a to r o r t o t h e pl3.n.t operahor
concerning the contairmeni;
system have been considered. i n this report. l%.us it i s
concerned. no-t
ordy w i t h tlie design of t h e many ex is t i ng containment
systems hi i t al-so
how and why these des?:.[yns were devel.oped. and why particular
contc-,irm.ent
systems appear Iiioimesuit:i'ole i n cer ta i r i r e a c t c r
systems f o r c e r t a i n applf-
c a t i o n s . The c a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n
s o f t h e va.riov.s containment sys-
tems and. a l s o tine acc id en t s f o r which t he conta im.en t
i s provided a re d i s -
The reg1iLai;ory requiremexts must b e met a
ticul. .ar place and time a r c c i t e d U n f o r l x n a t e l y
, none o f t h e s e requirernnts
are fixed and i t i s no t possib1.e t o speak. lin absol-ute te
rms except wi th
r ega rd t o wha t has been done. The in format ion pres en t ed
provides a, p o i n t
o f depa r tu -j e fo r more
advanced designs, irnproved engineered safeguardk,
a.nd possibly even chamges in t he s i t i n g requirements .
ing eoi i ta lnment requiremerits for. pa , r t i cu l a i e r ea c
to r s and sites. Chaqter 2
g ives t he pe r t i ne n t r egu .l at i .oa s mi1 e x i s t i n g
c r i t e r i a . C'naptcr 3 d i s c u s s e s
th e na t ure and scope of t h e a c c i d e n t s Lha-t :ire
examined for e v e r y r e a c t o r
i n oi-d-cr t o i d e n t i f y t h e a c c i d en t t lmt is cons
idered t'ne maxj.inu:m credi 's le
f o r Y I a t r eac to r and whi.ch i n turn tl.etermines t h e
cont:.tiimcn-L requi rements .
Chapter 4 gi:v.es t h e m o i m t s and na;tu.rci of t he l ' i s s
i on p roduc t s Lhat rmst
be conta, ined. Chapter 5 d i s c u s s e s t h e energy t h a t t
h e containment syst,eni
must 1oe designed. t o cope wi th . ChxpLi:.;c. 6 gives a
:;Ltrm:_lr y f .$lie spc:cial.
a n a l y t i c a l t ec h n iq u e s f r e q u e n t l y i n v o
lv e d i n containment anal.yses . Chap-
t e r 7 d e s c r i b e s e x i s t i n g containm ent sys'cems;
Chapter % gi.ves design con-
s ide r a t i ons ; Chap t e r 9 de sc ri be s ai ixi l . iary
components; and Chapter 10 l i s t s
th e performance t e s t s req ui red . In ChaIpter 1.1. t h e i d
e n t i f i a b l e c o s t s as-
soc i a t e d w i t h va r ious cont ainmen t sy s tems and pa r t
s t h e r eo f a r e t abu l- a ted .
Chapter 1.2 p r e s e n t s a resume o f c u r r e n t r e s e a r
c h p e rt i -n e n t t o a l l aspec t s
of contairment .
Limi ta t ions and Use
A t t h e p r e s e n t stage i n th e deve lopment of boLh r ea c
t or and conta in-
ment technology, i t i s no t possj .bl.e t o develop a d e f i n i
t i v e : re la ,t io n sh i p
between re ac to r type, power le ve l , and containment system t h
a t can be
employed t o i d e n t i f y th e most econom3.cal containment
system fo r use w i t h
g i v en r e a c t o r i n s t a l l a t i o n . E xa mi na ti on
of t h e t r e n d s discussed here ,
as well.. as cons ide ra t i ons o f t he obvious po in t s of
compatibiJ . i ty and in-
compatibi l . i .ty between va,r ious r ea ct or and con-taimient
type s, w i l l . J however,
p o i n t t o combi-nations in t e r e s t . 'The cos t i n fo rma
tion i n Chapt er 11
of' l imi . ted value because of - th e u n c e r t a i n t y til t
h e c o s t a c c o un t s t h a t w ere
ava i lab l -e , th e apparen t wide range i n cos t s f or s i rn
i l-ar sys tems, and t'ne
many s u b t le d.i ff er en ce s i.n s u p e r f i c i a l l y s i
rn i-l ar r ea ct oi ? i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
Trends do become e vid ent wit h d at a presel l te il hel-e , a l
tho ugh th es e t r en ds
anyway.
of f eyed r ega rd ing co s t s o f d i f f z r e n t cont a inmen
t sys t ems for a given a$-
p l i c a t i o n j.s t h a t ,
assu:ming no obvious mismatch ( see Tab1.e I.12) a n d t h a
t
t h e s a f e ty p rov ided by each i s a x c ep t a bl e t o t h e
r e gu l at o ry - a u t h o r i t i e s ,
th e b es t con- takxnent sys tem (i.. , t h e l .eas 'i expens
ive) must be de te rmined
from a cost a,na.l.ysis of a fair1.y de ba il ed design of two and
sometimes more
arrangements .
r epo r t ed he re ha s been de r ived f rom a r e a c t o r t e c
h n o l o g y t h a t has been and
s t i l l i s o r i en t ed t oward a water-cooled. and -moderated
re ac t or . It i s n o t
s u r p ri s i ng t h a t s t a r t i n g wi-th t h i s background,
t h e contai-men-t systems pro-
v i d ed f o r o t h e r ty y e s of r e a c t o r a r e a d a p t
a ti o n s o f , ai id~subject to, much
o f th e same r a t i on a l e a s t hose t h a t developed ou t o
f the technol .ogy of
water -cooled power reac tors . It i s q u i t e conce tvab l e
Lhat s t a r t i n g from
another f rame of refe ren ce, f o r example, t h e gas- cool-ed
graphi te-mod-erated
r e a c t o r s , which form t h e b a s i s of .the Un ite d
Kingdom nuc7.ear power program,
the accep-Led containment sys L e n s might have been con s idera b
ly d i - f fe ren t.
It i s a l s o possibl -e 'i;hat th ey might have a- f fordcd
compara.bl.e protection.
t e r i a a nd d es i g ns d e s c r ib e d h e r e as b e i n g f
i x e d . The p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s
have witn esse d many inn ova tio ns i.n containm ent desig n, inc
rea sj- ng expendi-
'cures i n cont ainm ent re se a rc h and d.eve.l.opmrnt, and 'ihe
es tab l i shment o f
t h e f i r s t r e a c t o r s i t i n g c r i t e r i a . The p r
e s e n t r a p i d p ac e i n t h e d ev el oy -
merit of containmen?; technolog y cannot he1.p b u t have s i gn i
f i ca n t rarnif ica-
'Lions i n con ta inmen t de s i . gn and c r i t e r i a .
mation hcye as g i v in g t h a t i nf o rm a ti on a ny o f f l c
i a l s a n c t i o n as far as t h e
MC Div i s ions o f Compl.iance o r Reac tor Lic ens ing a,re
concerned . Even i n
I t sho1i.d a l s o b c a p p r e c i a te d t h a t m ost of 'ihe
containment inforrriatj.on
The conlaimnent analyst i s a.l.so cau t i oned aga i . n s t r ega
rd ing t he c r i -
f .ns taaces Tdhel?emenibers of these M C e g u l a t o r y d i v i
s i o n s may have r e c e i v e d
or s l ipp l ied -m-Lt:?rial o r use h e r e i n , t h a t d oe s
not per se e s t a b l i s h tha-1;
mai:,c?ri.nl o r any other p o r t i o n of t h i s report as an o
f f i c i a l regp.l.ation,
s t a n d a r d , o r c r i t e u i o n th , a t nn.~st, e f ol lo
w ed i n t h e d e s i @ con-
s t r w t i o n , t e s t i n g , o r opera t icri of 1-1
contaimer?”i systern. V i i s r e p o r t
does, however a%terr@c o iiicIiade a l l relevant, n f o r m a t i
o n amd i n s o d.oing
i.ncl.udes many cr i te : r ia that a r e f r equen- t ly a s s o c
i a t e d w i t ? corita.imrien-1;
systxms, some of which liaxe ’men approved f o r speci.fi.c s i t e
s and s p e c i f i c
reactors.
I. . IJ ETXODUCTION
................................................
l.1 Phi1osopb;y .............................................
1.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n s
.....................................
7..1 .. . Reactor Con-Lainnent ....................
1.1.1.2 Engtneered. Safeguards ..................
1.1 .2 Need for Containment ............................
1.1.3 E v o l u t i o n of Contairirnen-i;
........................
1.1.4 Safety Fac to r s ..................................
1...l4. I. Exposzire Calcuhtions ..................
1.1 . .3 Mec.haKi.ca1. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
1.2.1 Reactor S it e Crite:ri .a ...........................
1 . 2 .101 Stipulat i .ons of Current Cr-iterj-a . . . . . .
.
1 . 2 . 1 . 2
1 .2 .1 .3 Concl.usions ............................
1 . 2 . Nuclear Merchant Ship Si-Le C r i t e r i a
.............
I-.2,2.3. Essen'cial Features of Ship S i t e
C r i k e r h ...............................
l .2 .2 .2 Other A4spects of .theCri.t;eria ..........
1 .2 .2 .3 Discuss ion .............................
1 .2 .3
1.2.3.2 Re.Liabili ;y of Coni;ainrrs3nt Systems .....
1 . 2 . 3 . 3 R e l i a h i 1 i t y i n Opera t ing V e r s i . ~
hut-
down Condit ion .........................
1 . 2 . 4
1 .2 .4 .2
1 .2 .4 .4 Conclusions ............................
1.2.5 Lia,bilri.ty and Iad.emni.ty .........................
1 . 3 General
D e s c r i p t i o n of Reac-tor Types ...................
1.3.1 Water-Coolea Reactors ...........................
1 .3 . .4 Hea-vy-'/Jater Reaeto??s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
1.3.2 Liquid-Meta3.-CooLed Rea.c t o r s ....................
1 . 3 . 2 . 1 'Thei-mal Reactors .......................
1 .3 2 . 2 F a s t Reac-Lors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
iii
1 .3 .5 Fused-Sa l t Reac tors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6 Un ive r s i t y Reac to r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Genera l Desc r ip t i on o f Containment Systems . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
1.4.1 Pressi l re Contaimient .............................
1.4 .2 Pressur e-Supp ression Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
1. 4. 3 Pressu re-Releas e Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
1. 4. 3. 1 Pressu.re-Venting Contalnment . . . . . . . . . . .
.
1 .4. 3. 2 Pre ss ure -R eli ef Containmeint.............
1.4 .4 Mult i ple Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
l.[+.[+.lIigh-Pressure Double Containmel?.t . . . . . . . .
t a
nment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
1 . . 5 S t a t e of t h e
A r t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
2.1 Introd.uc.i;ioil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
2 . 2 . 1 Atomic Energy Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
2.2 .1 .1 Div is ion of Reac tor L icens ing . . . . . . . . . .
.
2.2.1 ..2 Di-riision of Compl.iance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
2 .2 .1 .3 Office of the General Counsel. . . . . . . . . . .
.
2.2. 1.4 Atomic Sa fe ty and Lic ensi ng Hoard . . . . . . .
2.2 .2 Ad vis ory Cornmi-ttee on Re ac to r Safe gua rds . . . . .
. . . .
2, 2. 3 Jo in t Cormit tee on Atomic Energy. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
2 .2 .4 S -Late Ac t i v i t i - e s i n A t o r n i c Energy . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 .3 .1 Cene r s l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Code of Federa l Regi l lat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
2.3 .3 Cons t ru c t ion Permi t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 .4 Opera t ing Licensc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.5 Containmen-t De sc r ip t io n i n F i n a l S a f e t
y
Analys i s Repor t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
Codes and Regulations
t e e l Conts.i.nxenl; St ru ct ur es .
2.4.1 . Genera l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 .4 .3 .1 Case l.270M-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
2. 4. 3. 2 Case 1271M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
2. 4. 3. 3 Case 1272N-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
2.4.3.4 Case 1.273N-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
2 . 3
. . . . . . . . . .
2.4
2.4 .3.8 Cases Appli cable 'io S e c t i o n 111 ........
a t Pressures Under 5 p s i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
. 4 . 4 ASME Prov i s ions for Steel Containment Vessels
2.4.5 Manufacturers of ASME Code Boil .ers and Pres-
s u r e Vesse ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.6 The Na tio nal Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
1.38
3.4 Yrohabil t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Reactor Accid.cnt Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . 1 ~t:rod.uctioii.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.. Rad ioac t i v i t y Gene ra t i un . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 .1 F iss ion-Product Dis'il.ib1ltioil . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
4.2 .2
Radioact i .vi ty of F i s s ion P roduc t s . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
4.2.3 CalculatJj .on of Fiss ion -Prod uct In ve nt ori es . . . .
. . .
4.2.3.1 Calcu l a t i on o f Fission-Product Accuinu-
l a t i o n i n Ci. rcula. ti .ng Fue ls . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.2.3.2 Sumnary and Commen'is on Evaluating
Fis sio n-P rod uct Buildup and Decay. . . . . . .
4.3 Fiss ion-Product Release from Fuel Elements . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
4.3.1 Introduct j .on, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . . . . . .
4 - 3 . 2 €rerlj .cting Cladding Fa il ur e . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.1 Release of Fi-ss ion Gases from UO;
D u r i n g I r r a d i a t i o n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
4-3 .2 - 2 Pressure Bui ldup and Cl~addingStress
i n a Fuel Rod ...........................
4*3 .3 Release from fibel. AfLer Clad-ding Fa i l ur e . . . . . .
. . .
Ae3.3.1. Rel-ease from Oxidized U02 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.3.3.2 ilelease from Mol-ten UO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.3.4 Re le as e from Non-U02 Fu el . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
4*3 .4 .1 Release f r0 i -n Metal l ic Uranium . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.3.L~ Relea.se from Grraphite-Ma-trix Fuel
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
4.3.5 Pai- t icul .a te Generat ion During Fuel Meltdown
......
4.4 Fiss ion-Product Transpor t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1
'Transport Within t h e Primary System. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.4.2 Chemical and Physical. B e h a v h r
of Released .
Fissrion Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
4.4.2.2 Fission-Product Behmvior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.4.2.3 Chemical States .........................
4.4.3 Transpo r t E f f ec t s o f Srml-I Par t i c1.e s . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
4.4.4 Fiss ion-Product Behavior Wi th in t h e Outer
3.3.2 Pip lng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Droplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
4.4.4.2 Behavior o f Iod ine i n Reactor Con-
A - 4 . 4 # 3 Removal of Iodine from Containment
4.4.4-.4 Behavior o f P a r t i c u l a t e s i n C on ta in
.-
4.4.4.5 Relea se o f Ac t iv i t y from Three-Barr ie r
ta inment Bui ld ings ......................
Ves sel Atmosphere by Sprays . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ment Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Containment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5*1- Atmospheric
Dispersi.on ...........................
4 . 5 . 2 Biological Haza ' rds and Dose Ca, lcu la t ions . ,
.......
4 , 5 . 2 . 1 Deposition of Act ivi .ty frorn l;he Cloud .
4 , 5 . 3 , 2 Hazards 5w-e t o 1od.ine . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
4 e 5 .2 3 Coritarcdnation of Exposed. Food i~ . i . tb
Iodi le ..................................
4 . 5 . 2 . 5
InhaLation and 1ngesi;Lon Hazards of
" ~ r arid 8 9 s ~..........................
4 - 5 . 2 . 6 n a r g e s of Hazards - Swmlszry-
References ..............................................
5 .2.1. 2 $iialy-t;ical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
5.2.1 .3 F~d.l.-Scal.e Yxeursicxx ...................
5 . 2 .I.*& S1i~l1.- ca le Mel-tdowri Tests in TRFAT.....
5.2.I .T O L l L - o f - : P i l c S t u d i e s
.....................
5.2.l.b Specif ic React i .ons. .....................
5 2 1 .7 &a.lys is of Clad.ding-Wa-ter Reac-i;:ion
During Reactor Acc:iclents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Oxidatirjn Reactions ..............................
Sodium Oxidation ........................
5 * 2 . 2 * 4 Ily-drogen-Oxygen Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
5 . . C;ra,pbit,e-S.teaxrLrieaetions
.........................
ment ....................................
5.2.3.3 Il~ i za rdsCalcul_stions ....................
5.3
R-c~cC.ezrE.ncrgy..........................................
5.3.1 F i s s i o n E n e
r....................................
5 , 3 . 2 'Power ..cursj.ons
.................................
5.3.2.1 1nLrodu.etion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
5 . . 2 .2 Nu.clea,r FXCl nS iOr* Xoclels ................
5 , 3 . 2 . 3 m i e r r r ~ ~ lurst SIxLpe Proper t i e s
..........
5 . a 2 . 4 Sone Comparisons of 'Xherval Models and
5.3.2.5
5.3.2.6
F n e r ~ j n Fast Ekactor Exci;rrsions .......
Xkcixrs%on Energy for TJse in
Acc. i -d .ent
5 - 3 3 13el.ayed Neu1;rons .................................
4.1'78
4.178
4.1.86
4.192
4.193
4.1.99
5.4 Other Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.128
5.L+.1 Heat Conten t o f Mater ia l s ........................
5.1.28
5.4.2 Sto red Energy i n Graphi-te (Wigner Energy) ........
5.1.28
5.4 .2-1 E f f e c t o f I r r a d i a t i o n ...................
5.130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.133
6 . ANALYTILYJ. TECmiQUES
AND PERTINENT EXPERImNmL DA'YA. . . . . . . . 6 . 1
6 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.
6.2 Heat 'Transfer Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 .2
6.2.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . 3
6.2.2 Convect ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5
6.2.2.2 Free Convect ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 6 .10
6.2.3 iadi.ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2
6.2.4 Condensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.9
6.2.4 a 1 Condensat ion Wi-tbout I n e r t Gas P r e s e n t .
6.20
6.2.4.2 Condensa tion Wi th i n e r t Gas P r e s e n t . . . . .
6.21
6.2.4.3 D i r e c t Contact of Liquid and Gas 6 . 2 1
6.2.5 B o i l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.22
6.3 P r e s s u r e , Vol.m.e, and Temperature Helat ions . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 6.26
4.4 IIyd:caul.i.c Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.35
6.4.2 Two-Phase Flow ................................... 6 .
4
6.4.2.1 Q u a l i t y and V0i.d.
Fractions i n a PJon-
6.4.2.2 S l i p Flow System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 6.47
Fric'cion i n a . . . . . . .
Two-Phase Flow ......................... 6 . 5 6
6.4.2.6 C r i t i c a l Flow .......................... 6.60
6.4.2.7
Equilibrium Two-Phase A n n u l a r C r i t i c a l
%I_ow ................................... 6.62
6 4.2.8 Nonequi l ibr i im or Metas a b l e Two-P'nase
C r i t i c a l Flow .......................... 6.48
6-4.2.9 T r a n s i t i o n a l C : r i t i c a l Flow . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 6.71
6.4.2.10 Metastable Flow ........................ 4.71
6.4.2.11 Pressure-Fl-ow-Time History. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.72
6.4.3.1 Rankine-Hugoniot Conservation Laws . . . . . . 5.77
6.4.3.2 Wave Forms .............................. 6.81
C.4.3.3 Shock Transfe r Across an I n t e r f a c e . . . . . .
6.34
6.4.3.4 I n i t i a l P r e s su r e G en e ra ti on.............
4.86
6.4.3.5 Spray P r e s s u r e .......................... 6.m
6.4.3.6 E ne rg y D i s s i p a t i o n ......................
6.89
h.c+./, Set Condensat ion .................................
6.91
6.5 Struc.t;ural. Probl.ems .....................................
6.92
6.5.1 In t roc iuc t ion .....................................
6.92
6.5.1.1 L i m i t a t i o n s o f A n a l y s i s .................
6.92
6.5 .I.. 2 lVoinmclati.we. ........................... 6.94
s l i p Fl.ow system........................ 6.46
6.5. 2 Mechanical Pr op er ti es of .Wi.t;erial.s
6.5.2.1 Fwndamentals of t h e Plas” i ic Behavior of
Me ta l s Under B iax i a l S t a t e s of Stress...
6 .5 . 2. 2 U n i a x i al S t r e s s - S t r a i n Re la t ions
........
6 .5 .2 .3 Y i el d C r i t e r i a f o r B i a x i a l S t a t e s
o f
S t r e s s ..................................
6.5 .2 .4 Flow Rule ..............................
6.5.2.5 Behavior of Ma te r i a l s Sub j ec t ed t o
Dynamic Loading ........................
6.5 .3 S t a t i c P1 .asti .c S t re ngt h of Thin C y l i n d r i
c a l
Shells with Various End Closures Under In te rna l
P r e s s w e ........................................
6.5.3.I Cornparison of Fxac t So lu t i ons wi th
Test Kesu l t s ............................
6.5. 3.2 Approximate Theo ries ....................
6 -5.3.3
G.5.3 .4 Conclu-‘olls .............................
6.5 .3 .5 ENDCON ..................................
6.6.1 Missile Genera t ion ...............................
6.6 .1 .1 Shock-Generated Mis s i le s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
6 .6 .1 .2 Se l f -P rope l led - Mis s i l e s . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
6 . 6 . l . 3 Jet-P.ropel.1.ed bEsssi.J.es . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
6.6.1.4 Xpa.ll ing ................................
6 . 6 . 2 P e n e t r a b i l i t y of She1.l~ . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2 .1
P e n e t r a t i o n Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
6.6.2.2 Conclusions .............................
6.6.3.2 Abs orpti on Mechanism....................
6.6.3.3 C ri t e r i a f o r Id ea l A.bsor’.ers . . . . . . . . .
. . .
6.6.3.4 Reduct ion Factor ForrnLa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
6.6.3.5
Material-s ...............................
6.6.3.6
6.6.3.7 Composi.te Design ........................
.......................................
6.6 .3 B l - a s t S h i e l d i n g
..................................
References ..............................................
DZSCRIPTIONS OF SPECIFIC cc_)irCiA_irammYs mrcs .................
‘7.1.
‘7.1- I n t r o d u c t i o
n............................................ ‘7.1.
7.1.1 General Design Cons idera t ions ....................
7.5
7 ...I . H i g h - and Low-Pressure Contaj.ncys ....... 7.5
7.1.1.2 ?resswe Suppress ion ....................
7.1 .I.. 3 P r e s s w e V en ti ng ........................ ‘ 7 .
9
7.1.1.4 R r e s s i r e R e l i e f .........................
7.10
7.1.2 &carnple of Ccr i ta immit System Planning ...........
7.10
7. 2 Hig h-Pr ess u-re
Conta.i.nment,............................... ‘7.1.1.
7 .2 .1 Spher icaL Conta iners .............................
7.15
7.2.1.1 l7anlrc.e .................................. 7.15
7
7 .2 .2 Cy l ind r i ca l Con ta iner
s...........................
7. 2. 2. 1 Remi s p he ri ca l Top and Beriliell . ipsoidal
Bottom ..................................
7 . 2 .
7.d.4 F ~ o o fT e s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.4.1 NS Sa.vamah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
7 .2 .4 .3 C v ' m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 .4 .4 Future T e s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
7 . 2 . 4 * 5
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5 Mate r i a l s and Spec i f i c a . t i ons . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
7 .2 .6 Pene t r a t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 .7 Containmcn-t Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
7.2.7.1 Exte rna l P ro t ec . t i on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
7.2 .7 .2
Shock Pro tec t ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
7 . 2 . 7 .3 M i s s i l e P r o t e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
7. 2. 8 Coolan-t Rop er-L ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 .9 Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . . . . . . . .
7.2 .9 .2 Pressurized-Water Reac tors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
7. 2.9 .3 Pressin-e-Tube Xeact ors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
7. 2. 9. 4 Sodium-Cooled Reac.tors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
7.2.9.5 Gas..Cool.ed . Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
7.2.1.0.1 Power H is to ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
'1.2.10.2 Fi s s ion -P roduc t Re l ea se . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
7.2 .10 .3 Birec-t ; R ad h t i o n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
? . 2 . 10.4 Ledcage from -the Bu?.lding.
..............
Low-Pressure Contalnment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
r S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
7.3.2 Proof Tes ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 . 3 .3 M a t e r i a l S p e c i f i c a t i o n s . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4 Pene -brat .ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.5 Bui ld ing Pro tec t . ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
'7.3.5.1 Exte rna l P ro t ec t ; i on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
7 .3 .5 .2 f i ss i J .e Pro tec t i .on .
.....................
7.3.6 Moderator and Coolant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Release and '1'ra;nspor t . . . . . . . . . . . .
P r e s sure Suppression Con-tainriient. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 D e s c r i p t i o n and
Design...........................
7.4.2 T E s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.3 Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.4 P e n e t r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.5 Contaimnent Protect ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
7.4.8 A c t i v i t y Belease
.................................
7.5 Pressu.re-Ven.1;ing Containment
...........................
7.5.1. Building Concept .................................
7.5.5 Bui .l .ding P rot ec t io n
..............................
7.5.6 Buil.dj.ng Design Basis ............................
7.5.7 The Maximum Accident .............................
Tes t s ............................................
'7.6.3 P e n e t r a t i o n s
.....................................
7.6.4 Accidenl; Analysis ................................
7.7 Underg:round Containment
.................................
Building Concept .................................
7.7.2 Tests ............................................
7.7.3 P e n e t r a t i o n s
.....................................
7.7.4 ..otection .......................................
7.8.2 MS Savannah .....................................
7.8.4.1 Buildin g Design .........................
'7.8.4.- 2 Vacuum System...........................
'7.t3.7 Penet.ati.ns .....................................
'7.8.8 Buj.1 ..d. .ng F m t e c t i o n
..............................
7.8.5 Noderator and Coolant ...........................
7.8.1.1.1n dia n P o b t ............................
7.8.11.2 -sB Sa-cnnnalz .............................
7.9 Engineered Safeguards ..................................
7.9.1 .1 Water Reacimr Syste~s..................
7.9.1.2 Ga,s-CooP.ed Systems
7.9.2.2 Exte rna l Spra.y Systenis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
7.9.3 Fi l ee l ' Systems ..................................
7.9.4 i%ilt:i.ple ~ontainmenl. ............................
'I .(3 .5 Con1binat;:icjn 02 Engi.neered Sa.fegusrd.. . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
7.10 B i b l i ~ ~ g ~ a p h y
............................................
Heferences ..............................................
7.9.2
7.100
'7.1.02
8.1..1.1 Topography and So i l Condi t ions. . . . . . . . .
.
8.1.1.2 Meteorology- and I1ydrol.ogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Containment Znvelope Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
8.1.3 Plant TJayout and St. u c t u r a l C o n si d er a ti o ns
.......
8.1.3.1. S i z e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3.3 Mate r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Additional Requiremen-Ls..........................
8.1.4.3 Refue l ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
8.1.5.3 Fl.a,t-Walled Rectangular Prisms . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Choice o f P a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 St.el . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 . . Reinfor-ced Concrete .....................
8.2.2.2 Pres t r e s se d Conc re te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
8.2.3 Canbina t ion S tee l and Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
8.2.4 Low-Leakage-Rate Conventional Buildings . . . . . . . . .
.
8.3.1- ConLai-nment Foundation and Support ...............
8.3.2 P e n e t r a i i o n s i n Containment Vessels . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
8.3.3 'Therma1 and O ther Motions of Containm ent Ves-
8.1
8.1..
8.1.5 Examples o f Design Cons idera t ions Leading t o
se..s .............................................
8.3.5 Attachments and Accessories
8.4.1 Sin gle -St age Constvuct . ion........................
8.4.2 Phn.l-tis-i;age C on st ru ct io n
..........................
8.4.3 Lined Concrete . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3.1 & t a l . Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
8.4.3.2 Monme-Lallic Coa tin gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
8 . 4 . ) ~ Fabr i -ca t ion and E rec t ion Tecl?ni.ques. . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
8.5 B r i t t l e Fracture o f Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1
T r a n s i t i o n Tempera-Lure T e s t s . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
8.5.1.1 impact T e s t s
............................
8.5.1.1r Crack-Arres-t Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
8.5.2.1 Three Cond-itions f o r Practr i re . . . . . . . . . .
.
8.5.2.2 S i g n i f i c a n c e a nd Practical Use o f t h e
F r w t u r r kria1ysri.s Diagram
8.5.3.3 Comments Pertinent bo Pressure Vessel-
Fabricat j .on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
8.5.2 TJow-.Teiilpei-a'iure Bri.ttLer-.-us
......................
8.5.3 Neutron Embrit'Liement o f S t r i l e
1...................
t i l i - L y - of
S t e e l s ........................
Cyclic I r r a d i a t i o n and hi ica l . ing . .......
8.5.3.1 Effects of Irrs,tli.-rtt,rion on r b t c h Duc-
8.5.3.2 Pos t i r r ad i a t J . on FTea1; Tx?atrmcn'c iXId
3.5.3.3 Effec'cx of Irradiation on T e n s i l e
P r o p e r t i e s ..............................
8.5.3.4 Rese tor Surveilhnce Progixms ...........
8 .5 .4 Swmx>y .........................................
8.6 Conta.imient Protection .................................
8.6.1 1ns.u-l .1o.n- '
.......................................
8.6.3 Caj;hi;dlc Pro.Lzction ..............................
8.7.1 Conc.ete .........................................
8.7.2 Steel ...........................................
8.'7.3 Welding and Other F i e l d F a b r i c a t r i m
Operatioris ...
8.7.4. Nomne.t;allic Coatings ............................
9.1 Introd.u.ctjon.
...........................................
9.2.3 Air-Lock Accessories aid Det.ari.1.s . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
9.2.3.1 Locking Devices.........................
9.2 . 3. Systems Por. Gpera.t.ion. . . .
9.2.3.4 T n t e r b e k s anti I~nte.sI.oclrByqmsses . . . . . .
.
9.2.3.5 EquaLizi~g alves .......................
9.2.3 . Ren;oval Floor Sys terris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
9.2.4 Doors in Low-Leakage Bui1.di.ngs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
9.2.4.1 Quick-A.cting atertj-ght Ship' Door .....
9.2.4.2 B u l k h ~ a d oor ~ 5 t h n f l a . a b l e S X I . ~ S
....
9.2.4.3 Shieldj.ng Door ..........................
9 . 2 , 5 Tes t i ng of Access Pene"cra.tions . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
9.2.5.1 Slzop Tes t i ng ............................
9 . 2 , 5 . 2 Field Tes t i ng ...........................
9.2.5.3 R e t e s t i n g...............................
9.3 P i p i n g P e n e t r a t i o n s
.....................................
9.3.1. General .........................................
.v.entiona1.Struc- tures ............................
9.3.5 . r e s t i n
g..........................................
9.4 me1 ~ r a n s f e r e n e t r a t i o m .
.............................
9.4.1 c..eneral ..........................................
8.48
8.69
8.76
8.77
9.5 Elec’wlical . P e n c i r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 .29
9.5 .1 Gencral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.29
9 .5 .2 E l e c t r i c a l C ab le s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.3
9.5.3 El ect r i - ea1 Pe ne tr at io n Assernb1.j.e~ . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 9.34
9 .5 .3 .1 h c k e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 9.36
9 .5 .3 .2 Po t t ed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 9.37
9 .5 .3 .3 Gaske ted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 9.40
9.5 .3. 4 Nonseparab le Hermetic Connectors ........ 9.40
9.5 .3.5 Separabl-.e Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 9.41
9.5 .4 Pe ne tr at io ns rin Con-,renti.onal_Walls ...............
9.41
9 .5 .5 T e s t i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.Lil .
9 . 6 V e n t i l a t i o n and Pressure Cont ro l - Sys‘~ec
.~~............... 9.45
9 .6 .1 Genera l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.45
9 .6 .2 Ven t i l a t i on Sys t em . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.5
9 . 6 . 3 V e n t i l a t i o n S’~ack.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.47
9.6.5 I n e r t Atmosphere Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 9.49
9.6.6 Negat ive-Pr essure Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 9.50
9 .6.7 P re s su re -Re l i e f Sys t em . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.50
9.6 .8 Pressure-S l ippress ion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 9.51
9.6.8.1- pool Pressure Suppress ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.52
9.6.8 .2 Water Spray Systems ..................... 9.52
9.7 Fis sio n-P rod uct Remova a n d Trapping Systems . . . . . . .
. . . . . 9.53
9 .7 .1 Genera l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.53
9.7.2 Pa.s-t?.cul_ate F i l t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.55
5.7.2.1 .. f i e f i l t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.55
9.7 .2 .2 I i igh-Eff ic iency F i l . t c r s . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 9.55
9.7 .2.3 M0istui.e Se pa rat ors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 9.57
9. 7. 3 Iodine-Kernoval Devi ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 9.60
9.7.3.1 Cailstic Scru.bbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 9.60
9.7.3.2 Heated Si.l.ver Ni t r a t e Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 9.60
9 . 7 . 3 . 3 S i l v e r - P l a t e d Wire Beds . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 9.60
9.7.3.4 Act i-o.at.ed . Charcoal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 9.61
9.7.4 Con tai rme nt A’cmosphere C k a n u p Systems . . . . . . .
. . . . 9.62
9 .7 .4 ,l R e c i r c d a t i n g F i l t e r Sys erns . . . . . .
. . . . . . 9.62
9.7.4.2 Spray Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 9.63
Foa.ms...................................
9.7.5 Tes t i ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.64
9 .7 .5 .1 P a r t i c u l a t e F i l t e r s . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 9.64
9.7.5.2 Iodine-Removal . S y s t e ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 9.65
5 .7 .5 .3 Requirement fo r F i l t e r Tcsting . . . . . . . . .
3.66
9.8 Operahion of Containment Systems .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
.. 9.66
7.8.1 System Reliabil . i . ty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6‘/
9.8.1.1. Trotec’cive Chamcls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
9.8. l .3 Independence o f
Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.71
9.8.2 Ope ratio nal- Requirements o f System Components . . . .
9.73
9.8.2.1 Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 9.73
9. 9. 1 Pri rra ry Power System..........................
9 .9 .2 Aux i l i a ry Power Xys-l.em........................
9.9.3 .&~ r g e n c y ower Sou.cces
.......................
9.9.4 lower f o r I n s t r u n e n t a t i o
n.....................
References ............................................
1.0.1.
1ntrocl.uction..........................................
1 0.2 S t ~ e n g t h e st in g
......................................
10.2.1. General .......................................
10 .2 .2 .1 Cod.e Requirements ...................
1.11.2.2.2 Tes t ProcedLu-e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
LO .2.3 Eqi.~ipuient ..........................
1.0.2.2.4 Precau t ions .........................
10 .2 .3 Oth er Contari.nment Strinctixces . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
10.2 3 .1 Convent ional Buildings ..............
LO 2 . Concrete Containment S t n i c t u r e s . . . . .
1-0.2.3,3 Pressure-Sirppressicin Containment .. ..
10.3,1_ GeIleral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2,l Soap Bubble Tes t ....................
1-0.3.2.2 Water Subrflersl.on Tes.i;. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
3-0.3.52 Halagen S n i f f e r Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
10.3.5 IIeliurn &iss Speetromzter Test .......
10 3.5 4 Udditlional AduiLterant Gas Methods
10.4 i ,ea.hge-Rate Tes t ing
..................................
10.4.1- General .......................................
10.4 .2 Leakage-Rate C r i t e r i a
.........................
3.0.4.3 TerminoLogy ...................................
J_O.l+. 5 Na.twre of Leakage .............................
1 0 . 4 . 5 . 1 T h e o r e t i c a
l.........................
1.04 .5 .2 Fredomina.nt Leakage Charsc-
t e r i . t i c s ...........................
10.4.5.3 Leak Locat ions ......................
1.0.4.6
t a t i o n ..............................
10.4.4.4 S i g n i f i c a n c e or" T e s t s f o r Leakage
Pyedic+.iori ..........................
1.0.3
1-0.4.6
9.78
9.79
9.82
9.82
9.83
9.84
1.0.1.
10.1
10.2
10.2
10.3
1.0
3
xxiv
10.1+.7 Theory and General- Procediire f o r P re s su re -
Decay Leakage-Rate Te st in g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
10.4-.‘1
3.0.4.8.1 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
10.4.8.2 Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
10.4.10.2 AdulLei-ant Gas Method . . . . . . . . . . . .
t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
1.0.4 10.4 Resiskance Therrnomnet.ry . . . . . . . . . . .
Cornpaxison of Leakage-Rate Testing Methods .
1.0.4.12 Ref inemeli ts in Leakage-Ra. e De- te rmina t ions.
10.L+.1_2.1 o r r e c t i o n f o r C%langes i n :Jater
Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.L~. .2.4 Other Corrze-ti0n.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.12.5 Error Considera t ions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.12. 6 R q e r i m e n ’ d . Checks on Leakage-
R a - t
10.4d3.1- Conventional Biiri.1.dings. . . . . . . . . . .
10.4-13.6 Miil.tipl.z-Ba,rrier Containment . . . . .
1.0.5 A Typi cal Ini t j .a l - 1ntegi. i .ty T est i ng
Procedure........
1.0.6.1 Requirements fo r Hetest img . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
10.6.2 L i m i t a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0.6.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
1.0.7.2 Operat ing Procedures .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ..
..
10.6 R~testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. ECONOCS
..................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
1 1 . 2 . 1 General......................................
11.2.2 Effect of Containxilent on Total Plant and
Power Costs ................................
1.1.2.2.2 Power Cost ........................
11.2.2.3 Con ta imen t Cos t Pena l ty . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.3 Effect of Containment on P l a n t L o c a t i o n . . . .
.
1.1.2.3.1 Engineered Safeguards vs D i s -
tance Recpirements . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.3.3 S i t e C o s t s ........................
11 .2 . 3 . 4 Evalua t ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
Effect of Containment on Plan% Destgn and
Cons t ruc t ion . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . . . . .
11.2.4,1 Design Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 G.eneral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3
Concrete Contaimnent Vessels ................
1 l . 3 * 4 Other Concre te S t rue t i i res . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
11.3.5 E=lrca-c.tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.6 A i r Locks and Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
-1-.3 . 7 Heat ing , Vent i l a t ing , and A i r Condi.tic:)ning.
e
11.3.4 F i l t e r s .....................................
11.3.9 Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1.0 Penetrations ...............................
1l.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2 Reac-tor Contaimnent Destgn Stxdy . . . . . . . . . . .
.
11.5 " 3 S e l e c t i o n of t h e Coni;airm ent S t r i i c t u r
~
f o r .the Dresden Nuclear Power Station . . . . . .
1.1-.5e4 Cost, Ncrurla.,l ization Study ....................
1l.5.5 E C G ~ ( X K ~ Cspects of Reactor SaTety. . . . . . . . .
.
1-1.5.6 S te e l Contalnment Vesse l Costs . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
11.5. Conventionial Builcli.ng Co,:;.ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
11.5.9 F i l t e r System Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Cost E s t i...
ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
11.6.2 General Cost Estima-Ling Pro cediire . . . . . . . . . .
.
11.6.3 D e t a i l e d C :mt; E s t i m a t e o f t h e €'V\TCTR
Con-
tainment St ruc tu re
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.]., /+
11.5
1.2. KESEAXCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1. Int-roduc.tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 .2 S tud ies o f th e Response of Vessc l s , P ip ing ,
and
Outey Containment Structures to Acciden ts . . . . . . . . . . .
.
1.2.2 . Aberdeen Proving Ground ......................
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
12 .2 .4 B a t te l l e Memor ia l Tns t i t ln te . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
12. 2.5 General El e ct r i c Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References ...................................
1 2 . 2 . 7 S ou th we st R e s ea r c h I n s t i t u t e . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
1 2 . 2 .8 S - ta il fo r d R e s ea r c h I n s t i t u t e . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rcfe2?ences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
m s t i t u t e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
12.3.4 P h i l l i . p s Petrolcum Company . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
12.4 Me.tal-Watcr Reactions and Meta l Ign i L j ns . . . . . . . .
. . . .
12.4 .1 Argonne Nat iona l Labora tory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
1 2 . 4 .2 A to mi cs I n t e m a t i o n a l . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Referznces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
t i c u l a t e Gene>.ation, and Transp ort
o f R a d i o a c t i v i'Gy
1 2 . 5 . 1 Atomics In te rna t iona l . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
12 .5 .3 I I snford Labo ra to r ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
1.2.5.5 Oak Ridge Na ti on al Lab ora tory . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
-
-
12
5 SLudi.es of F iss ion-P roduc t . l eleasc , Aeroso l and
Par-
12 1
xxvi
1.2.6 A i m s of Future Contairment Research Programs ..........
12.23
12.6.1 T r a n s i e n t
'Tests ............................... 12.24
12 G .2 Metal-Water Rea ction s .........................
1-2.24
12.6.3 Power Burst F a c i l i t y .......................... 1 2 .
2 4
1 2 .Q.4
12.6.5 Conclusion .................................... 12.27
Fiss ion-Produc t Release and Laxge-Scale
Appendix A . Code of Fe de ra l Re&gL atlons, T i t l e 10, P
ar t 100 -
R e a c t o r S i t e C r i k r i a
Appendix
B.
D e s c r i p t i o n o f Containment System i n
F i n a l S a f e t y
Analys i s Repor t
Appendix C . Cri-ber ia o f Seetion I11 o f the ASME B o i l e r a
n d Pres-
suy'e Vessel. Code f o r Nuclear Vessels
Rpperidix D . A r t i c l e I of S e e t i o n I11 of the ASME B o
i l e r and
Pressure Vessel Code f o r I'Juclear Vessel-s
Appendix E . Safe-by
tandard for Design, F&ri .cat ion a n d k i n t e -
nance of S t ee l . C on ta in me nt S t m c t w e s f o r S t a t
i o n a r y
Nuclear Power Reactors
Appendix F. S%andar.d Accounts
Appendix G. Bebav3or of Ic din e i n Reactor Containment Sys
ern
Index
1 1.
1. IMTRODUCTIOB
]-.I .1 D e f i n i t i o n s
1 .3 . .1..I Reactor Contarimtieril;
Reactor c o n t a i m - e n t i s a general t e r n which, f o r t
h e pixpose of t h i s
report, 7.s d.efi .ned t o inc lud e a1.l structures sys erns
rriechanisins, aid
devi-ces t h a t csri be provitled t o a-l;t;ain wi.t,h a h i g h
degree of r e i . i a b i l i - t y
some s p e c i f i e d a t t m u a t i o n i n 'the radioactivity
p=esumed t o be released.
f rom th e p r imary system i n
a reactor ncei.dent and m.i it okhex-wise be re-
I ased to the surrounding envi:rorment. Mosl; containment
enclosures gel?-
e-r.a.l.ly i n c o r p o r a t e some r a d i a t i o n
shj.eJ.cJ.irig ia 0rcl.e-r t o r e s t r i c t tbe d i r e c
t
r a d i a t i o n eicposu-re -therefrom j.n the event of n majoi-.
fission-yrodiuct; re-
I.ease Contai.iment i s usus1l.y riot requi.r.ed f o r routine o p
e r a t i o n s and need
n o t he absol-ute, a n d , i n fact, ge ra.J.1.y is not,
ConCa,rirunr;..xit sy-s eins a r e
normally r e f e r r e d t o as "~.e:lk-tigki-t'~ t r i~ .c t ixes
,whrich, i .n real- i ty , l e a k a
-fi.ni.te ,wiount,. T'riiis as ZI. conseyu.ence, coritairmtznt
sy-:;-Leins ~ n n y ~ n s i - s - t f
i n t e g r a t e d conipJ.exes o f structures, processes arid
subsystems, which con-
b i n e o control t'ne a c t i v i t y r e l e a s e 9 . n a
prescribed m.;;i.niierwith a. high de-
gree of r e l i a b i l i t y . To the elitegt Lhat ac t iv r i ty
may t d s o he rei-eased from
r e f u e l i n g h1~5.l-d.igs aid- chemical. p m c e s s i r g p
lan t s si inilar conta i imeat and
ot1:re-r. engineered. safegua.rd Teatuxes are c:o:f:irnorily prov l
deci with these r"aci1.i-
t i e s d s o ,
-.
I n considering the sa,fii-i ,y of any i:eactor sys tem a large
number of
p o t e n t i a l a c ci d z ii t s a r e e xam ined i n t e r m s
o f the’;r pro bab le consequ ences.
?‘he maxiliium cred.ib1.e accidenL (mca) (a.l.so somet imes r e f e
r r e d t o as t h e
m i n i u m des ign acc id .en t ) i s t h a t a c c id e n t wnose
consequences, as measured
by t h e r a d i a t i o n exposu.iae o f t he su r i -omd i
rg
piiSli.c,
would not he exceeded
by any o the i - acc ide nt w h c x e occur rence dur ing the l i
fe t i -me of the f a c i l i - t y
would appear to b e c r e d i b l e . It i s imr iedi .a te ly
obvious t h a t t h i s de f i n i -
t - ion i s singularly dzpznd-ent upon what i s corisi~dered.“ c r
e d i b l e , ’ a n d upon
f u -r t he r r e f l e c t i o n i.t w i l - l be s een that t h i
s c r e d i b i l i t y m u s t be a s c e r -
tained a t l e a s t t w i c c for. any r ea c t o r acciden- t ,
OiTCe for the credl-bj . l j . ty
of t h e i n i t i a t i n g ev en t and again f o r th e c r e d i
b i l i t y of the performance
of the va r ious consequence -l im it i ng s a f egua rds . I n t h
e former eva l ua t i on
a double-end.ed primary p ipe ru -p tu r e , bu t no t a gros s p r
e s su re ve s se l . faj-1-
ure , i s frequen-L.l.y co ns id ere d t o be tile in i . t i a t j
.ug event ;; and i n t he l a t t e r
h e cont inuous jntegrj- ty- of t h e containment envel.ope 5 s
assumed cr ed ih l e ,
b u t t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e c o r e cool-fng system, a l
thougi - l ike ly , may not ’oe
deemed t o be sufTic ien t1.y ce r t a i n f o r c r ed i i t o be
confident1.y ass igned
i n -bile event of an acc iden t .
The maxirflmwu ci- ed -ibl e a cc iden t i s g e n e r a l l y t h
e a c ci d en t t h a t r e l e a s e s
-iiie p e a t e s t a m o u n t o f f i s s i o n pi-oducts to the
conta inme nt. However, t h i s
i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so , inasmuch as Yne p a r t i c u
l a r s a fe g ua rd f e a t u r e s in
use et a given instal-latten may be 1non.c e f f e c t i ~ v e o r
some acci.d.ents than
I”or o t h e r s .
1 . 1 . 2 Need f o r Contzinment
The need L’or a contajnment systeici i n the l a r ge power r ez c
to r i n s i d . -
l a t i o n i s wel l e s t ab l i s hed by conven tion
arid preced-ent, i n the Un i t ed S t a t u s ,
and t h z specific des ign requi rements a - e dete- rmined by the
re ac to r s a f e t y
ana lys i s . Philosophlca.l- .y, con tai nm ent i s p ~ o v 5l e d
s o t h a t
tile r i s k
tha t c anno t be d. i ssoc ia ted from t he ope ra t i on o f a pa
rt , icu .l a r r e ac t o r can
be red-uced t o accep tab le prop or t ion s w i t h r e sp ec t t
o t h e coarespond ing
gairi that i s expected
Lo result from i t s
ope?>zt i.on. However, such a
o f r i s k i s
t o a
b a s i s i and only t h e r i s k e n t er s i n t o the e v a lu
a t io n t h a t i s made i n con-
n e c t i o n
w i t h
every reactor. s af eL y a n a l y s i s . Y’he speci~fic unc- t
ion of t h e
containment system i s t o r ed uc e t h e consequences of t h e
maximum credible
acci~dei l tso t h a t a p a r t i~ c u l a r a c i l i t y may fv
ll . fi l l s i t i n g r equ i rement s
as d e fi ne d i n t h e Code of Federa l Regula t ions . ’ O n t h
i s basi.s, contaitn-
rneLit systelcis may be c a l l c d upon t o effcc- i ; a r educ t
i on i n a c l ; L v i t y r e l e a s e d
i n an acc iden t by 2 f a c t o r o f 1O2 t o
lo5.
1 . 3 - . 3 Evolution of ~ o n t a i n m e n t ~
As defined, coniainrr~ent s t ile p rov i s ion foi- c o n t r o l
l i n g t h e pub-
1..
1.1.- S a f e t y F a c t o r s
ii?asmuch a containment i s p ro vi de d p r i n c i p a l l y i n
o r de r t o 1.i.m-i.t the
p u b l l ~ c x p os u re as the result of s i g n i f i c a n t a
c t , i v i t y r e l e a s e , i t i s of
i n t e r e s t t o constdei- t h e var-j_oiiss a f e t y f a c t o
r s i n vo l v ed i n - th e e v- al .u at io n
o f e x po s ur e . T he se s a f e t y f a c t o r s f a l l in-bo
t w o c .asses: f i r s t , t h o s e as -
s o c i a t e d w i t h c o ns e rd a ti v -e a s s m p t j .ons
eriiployec? i.n h e a n a l y ti c a l . repi-e-
senia-Lions of fission-product t r a n s p o r t a nd , s e co n d,
t h o s e a s s o c i a l e d w i t h
t h e d e si gn e d i n t e g r i t y a n d perf ol-mnce of
engineered sa feguards ,
I .ncluding
die coi-itain.ment enclosure i t s e l f .
The term " s a f e t y fac' ior" does n o t n e c e s s a r l l y i
mp ly t h e u n if or m a p p l i -
ca , t ion of a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e g e r (e.g,, 3 o r 5 )
t o a d - j u s t
d e s i g n d . a t a i.n 3
d i r e c t i o n . of overd-esign. I t d o e s d e s c r i b e a
phi losophy - t h e use of v a l u e s
i n desigri t h a t a r e r e a l i t i c b ut , c o n s e r v a t
i v e . A lt ho ug h b o t h c o n ce p t s
a t tempt t o es-Labl ish margiri. o f s a f e t y j.n order t o
compensate f o r un-
known or u n c er t ai n e f f e c t s , t h e ti.ro di ff er . pr
i rnari1 .y i r i t h e i r d e g re e of
uncer-Lainty. 'The term " s a f e t y factor"
i m p li e s t h a t t h e basic v a l u e o f a
given parameter has been es ta b l i s hc d Lhrough con . s
ider~~1~l .experience, whereas
"degree o f conservati.sic" impl.ies t h e use of va lu es much
more p2ssimistic
tlna,n o th e rw i se i n d i c a t e d i n o r d e r to c o v e r
t h e l a c k of exper ience .
L
I. .4.1 Exposure Calculat lons
Calcu la t ions o f exposure Lo ra d i oa c t iv i t y resu.1 i .ng
f rom a p o s t u l a t e d
r n a x i : n u m a c c i d e n t
are
not comple te ly conf i rmable i n t e rms o f amounts and
bchavior of t h e f is s io n. produ cts re le as ed . Thus con ser
vat ive me'chods
Y~zat,
r e f l e c t t h e d e s i g n e r ' s judgiiicnt a.s i;o t h e s
a f e t y of t h e r e s u l t s a m ubi-
l i z e d . The accepted. 8-pproach i~s o ex er c i s e ext reme
conserva t i sm iYn im-
c e r t a i ~ n ituaLions owing t o -the s e v e r i t y OP poss
i~b le onsequences .
As daLa become ava,i.l.able, valu es can be e st im at ed f o r t h
e s e u n c e r -
ta in-L ies t h a t can be desigr iabed d-e pee s of conse rvat
ism. An example of
t h i s i s g iv e n i n a n AEC document': i - e l a t i n g t o s
i t i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s , a n d t h e
e s t i m a t e s a r e l ~ i s t e d n T ab le l,l, Great, u nc e
rt ai n- ty i n t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s
.and assumptions i s i l . lus t i -a ted by the wide range of es t
im ate d val ues .
1 .1 .4 .2 Energy-.- Release Ca lcu la i ionsc
The s a f e t y f a c t o r s i n v ol ve d i i z enel-gy r e l e a
s e ca l -cu la t ions, whi le
much smaller, have izot been as 'choroughLy docime iited. Thus, i t
i s f r e -
queiltly assumed that a l l t h e energy i n t h e p r i ma r y s y
st e m is r e l e a s e d i n t o
th e con ta inmeni; s t ru c t ur e with no h e a t I.osses. P r a
c t i c a l l y s p e ak i n g, t h at ,
woluld, o f c o i i ~ s e ,be impossible S i m i l a r l y , t h e
en e rg y c o n t r i b u t i o n s due
t o c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s a n d nuclear energy are each
conset-vat ively ap pl ie d
i.n &posu.r'e ~ a , ~ . e i ~ ~ ~ t i o n s "
Calculation or Assumption
C011s r v a t i m
Removal of i o d i n e from con-taj.nrnent v e s s e l 3-10
at;mospliere by various phys i.cal. phenomena
such as ad .sorp t ion , adherence, and. s e l t l i n g
Removal or i o d i n e by p r o t e c t i v e safeguards
1C-1000
such ;:is coo l ing sp r ay and : f i l t r a t i o n of
i n t e r m l ai . r re c i r c u l a t i n g s s te.m
peak pre G F we
Vessel leakage rate ca,lcv.lal;ed at c o m h n t 5-10
2-50
ni3
Wind di ect on s h i f t i5u.r.i rig extended period
Wind me ndeYi g
t on
5-1000
Particulate :t'a.llout, -from r 'adi.oactive c1oi.iC'. 2-5
Direct,g:unma d.ose neg;l.cr ctin.g s h i e l d i n g from
2-1000
stru.cture:; and- topogrsphy
1.1.4.3 ?i?echanic:21Design
Tie term szii'ety factor i n its s t r j . c t e s t sense means t
h e r a t i o o f the
magal i i & of a, parameter at fai .hire t o t h e magnitude of
the same pa rzmte r
d. f o r design : p ' u q m s e s The parameter may b e stress
Ioo~ce , pre s su re ,
r e p e t i t i v e cycl.es 03 I.oa.di.:ng, e t c lJnfost
ii.na.tely , the s i t u a t i o n i s not
clear-cut, si~ic:: 8, d e f i n i t i o n of f a i l u r e i s a l
s o invo lved , Y ie ld ing , ex-
cess-ive defo-ir .1~~i~tj .o~.,r i t t 1 . e f r a c t u r e ,
I.ea,kage, nd t h e formation of fa,-
t r i gue c ~ a e k s 1.l m<?y cons t i - Lu te inodes of li
'ailurc in c e r t a i n ei.rcumst,ances
f r a , c t i o n
of the smallest of several. values : t h e min i rnum speci f i e d
or
expecr:ted ult imate t e n s i l e s.Lrength, y-ie:l.d
:jtreng.'i'n, creep rate, and s t r e s s
rup tu re , For m o s t fez-ri.tie niateri.als 03 eonstruction
oye:ta-t;ing at tern-
pemtixres beI.ow their creep range the specif l ied f r a c t i o n
of the 1xLtirnate
teris4.ie s t r e n g t h governs the p e m i s s i b l e des-ign s
t r e s s . This f r a c t i o n 9.s
i n S e e t i o n 111.. Genera:L1y, i;lx: membrane ;; t resses a r
e thus l i m i t e e l to 1/~+
or 1/3 of the ul t imate tensile s-trength of the material; however
, s t resses
c l u e t o s t rue t ix ra l disco-ot;i.nul.ti.es thenmal. grsci
ients , e t c , are a , l l o w e d . t o
exceed- ines? val-ues In t:i.e:i.tYxx case is the term s af e ty
fac tor used i.n
'Tile permissible des ign si;r>essesin the ASME C o d e s s are
ba,sed 011
a
- -
1.6
t h e skyi~c5 ense nor i s t h i s s a f e t y f a c t o r per se a
r el .. iab le i nd i ca to r
o f t h e r e l a t i v e s a f e t y of v e ss el s bu.?'.3.1; t o
t 'ne two Codes. 'The va r jous
ASME Codes r a t he r c a r e fu l l y avo id t h e u se o f t h e
Leim sa f e t y f ac to r .
7.s t h e a i m of S e c t i o n 111 of t h e ASME Code. It;
ccomplf-shes t h i s by ( I )
plac ing c l ea r l y dei 'ined.
I . j . rn7 . t~
on t h e v a r i o u s t y pe s o f s t r e s s e s ,
( 2 ) 1-2-
q u i r i n g d e t a i - l e d s t r e s s aiia3.yses based on
ri-gorous methods of e xpe rim ent al
methods , ( 3 requi - r ing 'ihorough ma.ter ials irisp..cti.ons, (
4 ) r e q u i r i n g
t ho ro ug h v e s s e l i n s p e c t i on d u r i r g f a b r i c
a t i o n a nd , finally ( 5 ) c l e a r l y
d e f i n i n g the r e s p o n s i b i l i Lies of th e pu rchase
r , f a b r i c a t o r , and a i it ho r i zed
i n s p e c to r .
c e r t z i n s t r e s s e s m a y be sign< i c a n t l y h ig
h e r t h a n i~na comparable vesse l
des igned t o Sec t i on 111. This i s due t o t h e f a c t t2iat
t h e ru-les of Sec-
t i o n VI11 a r e l e s s r e s t r i c t i v c (by omiss:i on ) r
e g a r d i n g d i s c o n t i n u i k y
s t r e s se s , t he rmal s -L re s ses , met er ia1. s i n speck
ion, t e s t i n g , and so fo r t h .
One impor-tant f e a t u r e t h a t i s dependent on mechaii -
ical design , bu t i s
nol; covered i.n ny detai.1. by t he ASME Boiler Code, i s l e a h
g e . General ly;
t h e smallest l.ea.kage r a t e th a t c an be r ea sonab ly ob t
a ined from t h e s t a n d -
points of economics , f a b r l c a b i l i i y , and m e as u ra b
il i L y -is sp ec if .ed, pro-
vided t h e maximum permiss ib le exposure i s iiot exceeded a t
the excl . i is ion
a re a pe r imetc r i n t' le even t o f an a c c i d e n t . A t p
re se n- i t h i s f i g u r e f o r
l a r g e s - t e e l o r s t e e l - l i n e d co nt ai ,n men t v
e s s e l s c an be r ed uc ed t o l e s s than
O.l.% of t h e con-tainecl vol.ime p e r day a t desi.gn o r
acceptancc t e s t pi-essure.
The economical U'G~ .i.za,t,fon of matc.ria.l.s, wi-thou'i
sacrifi~cLng a f e t y ,
Whi le Sec t ton VI11 appears t o use lower alI.owa,ble des ie n s
t r es s e s ,
1.2 MITCFICATIONS OF KEACTOR CON'IAIIDENT'
A s khis r e p o r t shows, t h e r e a x t o r containmen-l
technology has many
and v a r i e d r a m i f i - m t i o n s , not. a l l of ~ ~ 7 h i
c hr e w e l l unders'cnod. Mhile
sorile o f these may seem qui te remote fi-om h e s t i - u c t u r
e i t s e l f , all . are
i nv o lv ed i n i t s s p e c i f i c a t i o n , d es ig n , f a
b r i c a t i o n , t e s t , o r opei-ation
i n some way.
1 . 2 . 1 R ea ct or S i t e C r i t e r i a
-__..I
The Atomic Energy Corm?ssion ( A E C ) has es tab l i . shed guides
fo r use
i n the eva.l-u.a.trion o f pyoposed s i - t e s f o r s t a t i o
na ry power and- t e s t r e a c to r s
l ~ i c e n s e d y t h e AEC. These guides apply on1.y t o r e a c
t o r s i n which t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y of any acc iden t occu r r i ng i s small..
The ap p-o ved s i t e c r i t e r i a .
gu ides were re leased i n the Fede ra l Reg i s t e r on April 12
, 3.962, and were
subsequent ly i -ncorpora ted i n T i . L l . e 1.0,Code o f Fede
ra l R e g u l a t i o n s as
P a rt 100. The appi-ovd. of the se gu ide s w a s preceded. by
more th an t h re e
y e a r s o f i n t e n s i v e s Ludy dii-ring which t im e pr opo
sed giii des appeared tw-ice
i n t he Federtd. Reg iste r6y 7 fo r comments , which were profu
se on both oc-
ca s ions , 8 ,
.._...I- 7
1 .
r e v i s e d . The I h s t r ev i s i . on i nco rpo ra t ed many
of' t h e corrlments, and th e
pu'diskied doeurfierit; has been de s igna t ed a guide f o r a n i
.n ter im per iod unt i .1
enough exper ience can be accmula ted w i t h r e a c t o r s -to
permit t h e wr it l ing
of m o r e d e f i n i t e s -Lmdr i ; rds
i.n s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n ts . A predominant
po in t of o b j e c t i o n . w a s the
i n c l i l s i o n of a SiXap1.e c a l c u l a t i o n of
environmental and distance charac-
t e r i s t i c s as an appendix t o t he proposed guides on t h e
gr ou nd s t h a t (1)
t h e d e f i r i i t e n m e r i c a l va lue s used i n t h e sam
ple c a l c u l a t i o n gave a n a s p e c t
of undue r i g i d i t y t o t h e guides and (2) he example tended
t o overemphasize
t h e concept of e n v i r o n m n t a l i s o l a t i o n . T hi s
o b j e c t i o n w a s r e so lved no t
o n l y by d e l e t i n g t h e sample c al-cu l.ati on from t h e
guide and. placing i t i n
3 separate doewnt-nt'" bu t a l s o b y i d- en ti f' yi ng t h e c
r i t e r i a as i n t e r i m m e a -
s u r e s an d b y s t a t i n g t h a t t h e "app l i can t s are
f r e e and. .ncleed. encozr.raged
to d-emonst ra te t o the Conlmission t he ap p l i c ab i l i t y
arid s i gn i f i c a nce of
cons id .e ra t ions other t h a n t h o s e s e t f o r t h i n t
h e guTdes. "
c l a r i f y t he i n t e n t of t h e Commission on s p e c i f i
c s u b j e c t s an d t o c ov er
a,d.d.i.ti.ona,l p o i n t s t h a t were r a i s e d by the
comments. T h u s some fur ther
c l a r i f i c a t i o n i s now inciucled on t h e fo l l -owing
i ssues :
( I ) rndt j -p le re-
actors a t one site, ( 2 ) d-epericlence upon i s o l . a t i o n
vers iw engineered safety
f e a t u r e s ,
( 3 )
a p p l i c a , b i l i t y t o mob i l e r eac to r s , ( 4 ) e f
f e c t of p o p u l at i o n
growth, a n d - ( 3 ) :eopLLZa-tjon-center-d.istazice c m c e p t ,
s f o ~ o w s
d.ei;enmlr*ed on t h e bas l s of t h e e v a l u a t i o n of
i.ndi.vid.ua1. w a c t o rs i f t h e
reac-bors t2i-e iridept?ndent t o the e x t e n t tha t an a c c i
d e n t i n one does no t
result I.n a si.multa.neous acctd-ent or o therwise aitversely a f
f e c t t?ie s a f e t y
of o p e r a t i o n of a d j a c e n t reactors.
2. The r e v i s e d gu ides s t i l l r e f l e c t the
Commission's emphasis on
t s o l a t i o n , a1t;Ziough t h . e pbraseoI.ogy has been
modified t o i n d i c a t e n po-
i;e lt;Fa1 w LI ngne s s t o ac e p t dezons ra'u ly x*(::1ia-ble
eng .nee L'ed saf -t;y
T e a t i n e s on psoven plzmts i n l i e u of i s o l a t i o n
.
3. Although the general . safety c o n c e p t s t h a t are
embod-ied i n these
c r i t e r i a may be expec ted t o be a p pl i ca b le t o a l l
power reac tors , these
guide:; were n o t tfieant t o b e d . i : r e c t k f a p p l i c
a b l e t o o th ei - th a n s1;sl;iona:r.y
4. P o t e n t i a l f u t u ~ e opi j la t ion growth i.n thE: l r
i c in i ty of a reactor
i.s cons idered . i n i t s hazards c?valix,tion and it i s an t ic
ipa-Led t h a t e ach
i i i ~ c-ear i n s al. l .a, ti.n wi.11 a qui.r e su f f i c t e n
t expe r i ence w i th eng inee red
sa fqyard-s t o make i t possi1iI.e t o r e l y on suxh f w t o r s
, rather than i s o l a -
t l o n , as -the ~ ~ ~ ' r o u i d i n gopu la t i on i nc rea se
s .
s a t i s f a c t o r y , pruvlidhs mi i n s i g h t i n t o
currenb s i t i n g p :rac :t ice and ph i -
I.osophy. I t was s a i d to be re-tained n 'Lieu of any be'itcx
.technique o f
both (a) l im i t i . ng the total. popul.a-tion expos-ure nd (b)
provid-ing pro-
l ;ec-bion against excessive e,xposure d.oses t o people i n h r g
e centers
where protc:c . t ive measu-res nay ncit
be f e a s i b l e . The mari-roi:ril;gen equiva-
lent umn (rem) concept suggested. o t h
i n
p u c l e a r Safety'' and by the
R.&viscsry CorruniZ;l;ee on R e a c t o x - Sa.fegua,rd.s'" i s
a di.rect means o f spec<fy-
iny popula t i? - ,nexpcjsure and hm been g iven cons i .dera t ion
for inc:l.u.s?.on
i n the ;ji ling guid e .
The approved s i t e gu ides differ from the i r . immedia te p
redecessors
Other changes i n t he c r i t e r i a mi*e inco rpo ra t ed in an
a tt em pt t o
1. The s i t i c g c r i t e r i a f o r m u l t i p l e r e a c t
o r s a t one sj.te may be
p l a n t s .
I..
-
Thz piril?l.i-slied s i - t e - c r i t e r i a docwtien-t
does
not
d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y
i n pi-i-nciple from the pr-ev-j.oik5 d r a f t . Il’he c r i t e r
i a i n e f f e c t d ef i ne t h re e
d is tan ces f rom the reac to i . tha t iilust mee t ce r t a i n
condi t ions T‘hese
di .s-
t a n c e s a r e (1. ) t h e e x c l us i o n area, ( 2 ) t h e
low-population zone, and ( 3 )
th e pop ulat ion -cen ter di.sta,nce. The popu la t i on -cen t e
r d i s t ance i.s de f ined
as L I E d i s t a n c e from t h e reac-Lor t o t h e n e a re s t
boundai-.y of a dense ly
popnla ted a r e a con t a in ing more than about 25,0013 r e s i d
~ e n t s ,nd i s somewhat
arbi’ir.ari1.y talien a s l 1/3
o f t he low-population one. On t h e o th er hand
bo th t h e Low-population zone and t h e excl.usi.on area are
re1a”ied t o expo-
sures , which are c a l c u l a t e d at t h e o u t e r p e r im e
t e r of those a.reas fo l low-
i n g t h e ma.xi.mnum c r e d i b l x
a.cci.dent . T h e
e x c l u s i o n area is the area.
i .romdi-
a t e l . y su r round ing t he r eac to r t’hat i s iinrler the
cont ro l . of t h e r e a c t o r
o p e ra t o r and. w’ni..ch i s of such s i ze tha.t ax1 a d u l t
l o c a t e d at tlie bomda.ry
f o r 2 hr immediately f oll.oWj.ng t h z -maximum c r e d i b l e
a cc id en t W0lA.d not
a
in excess of 25 rem t o t h e -,Thole body
o r
300 r e m . to the t hy ro id . The l ow-populab ion zone m y con t
a in resj-dents ,
but,
the
t o t a l number and dens i t y n i m t
be such t h a t t h e r e i s a reasonable
p r ob ab i l i t y t h a t app rop r i a t e measures cou ld be t
a k e n . in t h e i r b elmlf i n
t h e e v m t o f a s e r i o u s acci.dent. T h i s
zoiie is of such s i z e t h s t an adul.’;
l o c a t e d a t any pori-nt on i t s ou’mr boundary- ui-ing t h e
e n t i r e time o r pass-
age
o f
t h e a c t i v i t y rei-eased from
t h e m.xl.muni c r e d i b l e a c c i d e nt w o u M not
receLve 8, t o t a l rad . ia t ion dose i n exces s OB 25 r e m t
o t h ? who1.e bo dy or
300 r e m t o the ’ ihyroid,
i n t o consideratT-on when evaluai;in g s i - tes (and hence a l s
o when ca1culatiri .g
exposures a t tlie specif . ed d i s tances ) :
I. c k i a r a c t e r i s t l c s o f t h e r e a c t o r , w hi
ch in el .u de t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of
t h e r e a c t o r , d e s i gn of -Yne fa c i l . i t y , fe a t
ur es a ffcc-t ;int i; a c t i v i t y
r e l ea se , and
eng3.neerj.n.g
features;
2 . popu la t i on dens iby and u se cha .mc te r i s t i .c s o f
t h e s i t e environs,
which inc lude the exclusiori area, low-populatLon zone, and
ihe
po-pui~.a,tl.on-cen’ier d i s t a n c e ;
meteorology , geology~, nd hydrol.ogy.
The s i t e c r i .L e ri a a l s o I-iist t h e f o l l ow i n g f
a c t o m t h a t a re t o be t aken
. p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
s i t e ,
1.2.1.2 Calculat ional ..Procedures
“he samp1.e ca l cu l a t i on a l procedu re t hat , was 5-ncluded
i n th e secoiid
d - r a f t as an as was d e l e t e d
espaadeii., and i -nco rpo ra t ed i n t o a s e p a r a t e r e p
o r t . ‘
n i z e s t h a t t h e r e wi1.1. be s j gn i f i c a n t d~ i f r
e r enc es e L-ween d i f f e r en t r e ac-
t o r s and d i f fe r en t . contaiarnent systems. Thc a n a l y -
t i c a l example presen ted
-refers s p e c i f i c a l l y t o “iic maximum cred.ih1.e
aceid-ent, which i s de f ined
for p r e ssiwi ed- and bo i ing-wat e r r act 1’s with h igh-pres
ure con ta in -
ment. I t i s n o t e d t h a t fol- o t h e r types of r e a c t o
r i’i w i l l
be neces sa ry
a n a l y s e s .
” €Iowev~er7 iie cal..cul.ationa]. pro ccd urzs w ere never
inteiideii to
b e r i g i d and. tiie appJ.j.cant i s fr ee t o propose h i s own
aiialy-. tical .
r epo r t r c cog -
1 .10
( r e f . 1.4). Recently a simp1 I . f i . e d . method of
dispersion c a l -
c u l a t i o n has b ee n p ro po se d, b y P a ~ y u - i l l '
~,nd Mzade, l 6 which
r e f l e c t s i - e c e n i d i s p e r s i.orn f i e l d t r i a
l s , as well. as c u r r e n t
d i s p e r s i
