Reading ProficiencyDownload Report (PDF)

After increasing for nearly a decade, average reading scores among eighth-gradersdecreased between 2013 and 2015. Progress among fourth-graders has alsostalled.

Importance

The ability to read proficiently is a fundamental skill that affects the learning experiencesand school performance of children and adolescents. Students who are competentreaders, as measured by their performance on reading tests, are more likely to performwell in other subjects, such as math and science.[1],[2] Children who struggle withreading and reading comprehension also often have deficits in spoken language.[3]Students with reading difficulties are much less likely to be academically engaged.[4]Reading achievement predicts the likelihood of graduating from high school[5] andattending college.[6]

Reading skills also influence students’ well-being as adults. Adults with poor literacyskills find it difficult to function in society, because many basic decision-making skillsrequire reading proficiency.[7] People who are not able to fill out an application becauseof limited reading or writing skills are likely to have difficulty finding a job or accessingsocial services. Strong reading skills protect against unemployment in early adulthood.[8]Research has confirmed that performance on adult literacy tests helps explain differencesin wages.[9] Finally, adults with limited reading abilities are likely to have children withlimited reading abilities.[10]

Enjoyment of reading is associated with reading success. In an international studyinvolving 15-year-olds from 14 developed countries, students reported they read daily forpleasure achieved reading scores higher, by the equivalent of one-and-a-half years ofschooling, than their peers who did not.[11]

Trends

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Trends in reading scores over the past two decades have varied by grade level.

Among eighth-graders, average reading scores rose in the 1990s, and then remainedrelatively steady between 1998 and 2002. Average scores decreased between 2002 and2005 (from 264 to 262), then showed nearly a decade of increases (rising to 268 in 2013).In 2015, average scores had decreased back to their 2011 level of 265. (Figure 1)

Fourth-grade reading scores reached a high of 221 in 2007 after rising steadily since theearly 1990s, but have increased only slightly since, and were at 223 in 2015. Meanwhile,reading scores for twelfth-grade students declined between 1998 and 2005, from 290 to286, but increased slightly in 2009 to 288. Since then, twelfth-grade scores haveremained steady.  (Figure 1) According to how achievement levels are scored, the latestdata show students at each grade-level performing, on average, at the “basicâ€level—below “proficient†and “advanced.†(See Definition section for furtherinformation.)

Note: In 1996, NAEP began a transition to allowing testing accommodations for studentswith disabilities and students with limited English proficiency. Between 1996 and 2002two samples (one with, one without accommodations permitted) were used while a newbaseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowedaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,translation of assessments, or the use of bilingual dictionaries and are determined bystate and district policies.

Differences by Race and Hispanic Origin[12]

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At all grade levels, Whiteand Asian/Pacific Islander students have the highest reading scores, followed byHispanic and American Indian students. Black students have the lowest reading scores.For example, among eighth-graders in 2015, Asian/Pacific Islanders had the highestaverage scores (280), followed by whites (274), Hispanics and American Indians (253and 252, respectively), and blacks (248). Patterns were similar at other grade levels,except that among twelfth-graders in 2013 (the latest data available) white andAsian/Pacific Islander students had similar scores. Among fourth-graders in 2015, therewas no significant difference between the scores of American Indians and blacks. (Figure2)

Among fourth-grade students, the reading gaps between white and black, and white andHispanic, students narrowed between 2003 and 2007, but have since remained steady.(Appendix 1) Among eighth-grade students, there has been no change in the black-whitegap in reading scores, but the Hispanic-white gap decreased between 2003 and 2009.(Appendix 2) For twelfth-grade students, the performance gap between whites and blacksincreased between 2005 and 2013, while the gap between whites and Hispanics did notchange significantly. (Appendix 3)

Differences by Gender

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Girls have higher readingscores, on average, than boys. In 2015, the gap was seven points in the fourth grade, andnine points in eighth grade. Among twelfth-graders in 2013 (the latest data available), girlsalso had significantly higher reading scores than boys (by nine points). (Figure 3) In fourthand eighth grades, boys’ and girls’ scores have followed similar trends over thepast decade. However, twelfth-grade boys’ scores increased between 2002 and2013, while girls’ scores remained unchanged. (Appendix 1, Appendix 2, andAppendix 3)

Differences by Free/Reduced-Price School LunchProgram Eligibility

At all three grade levels, lower-income students (eligible for free and reduced-pricelunches) had lower NAEP reading scores, on average, than students who were noteligible. In 2015, differences were 28 points in the fourth grade, 24 points in the eighthgrade, and, in 2013 (the latest data available), 22 points in twelfth grade. (Appendix 1,Appendix 2, and Appendix 3)

Differences by Region

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In 2015, fourth-graders inthe Northeast, on average, had the highest reading scores (228), followed by students inthe Midwest (224), South (223), and West (217). Similarly, eighth-graders in theNortheast, on average, had the highest scores (270), followed by those in the Midwest(268), and the South and West (263, each). Among twelfth-graders, those in the Northeastand Midwest had higher average scores (292 and 291, respectively) than those in theWest and South (287 and 286, respectively). (Figure 4) None of these average scoreswere above the “basic†level of achievement. (See Definition section for furtherinformation.)

State and Local Estimates

Note: NAEP differs from most state assessments, in that it uses a sampling procedurewhere only some students are selected to participate, and no student is administered allquestions. State-level scores are derived using statistical methods that impute astudent’s range of likely scores on the whole test, given their performance on selecteditems.

2015 reading estimates for 4th- and 8th-gradersfor states participating in NAEP.2015 estimates for 4th- and 8th-graders in 22 large urban districts participating inNAEP.The KIDS COUNT Data Center provides a variety of fourth- and eighth-gradereading proficiency indicators for 2013.

International Estimates

International estimates of reading literacy for 4th-grade students are available from the

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International estimates of reading literacy for 4 -grade students are available from the2011 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) assessment, whichcompares the scores of U.S fourth-graders to their peers in 44 different countries.International estimates of reading literacy for 15-year-olds are available from the Programfor International Student Assessment (PISA) are available in the Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Reading, Mathematics, and Science Literacy in an InternationalContext report.

National Goals

The No Child Left Behind Act, signed into law in January 2002, requires states to setperformance standards for multiple subjects, including reading, and requires that eachstate measure students’ progress in reading and mathematics every year from gradesthree to eight, and at least once in grades 10 to 12. Each state is expected to makeadequate yearly progress toward meeting standards, and all children are expected tomeet or exceed minimum proficiency standards, as defined by the state, within twelveyears.

What Works to Make Progress on This Indicator

The U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Science’s What WorksClearinghouse provides reports that evaluate research on beginning reading (for studentsin grades K–3), and adolescent literacy (for students in grades 4-12), including curriculaand instructional strategies. As stated on the Clearinghouse web site, “Thesecurricula and strategies are intended to increase skills in alphabetics, reading fluency,comprehension, and general reading achievement.â€

In an international study involving 15-year-olds from 14 developed countries, studentswhose parents regularly discussed political or social with them scored an average of 16points higher on a comprehensive reading assessment, controlling for differences insocio-economic background.[13]

Also, see Child Trends’ LINKS database (“Lifecourse Interventions to NurtureKids Successfullyâ€), for reviews of many rigorously evaluated programs, including thefollowing which have been shown to be effective:

Building Early Language and LiteracyBuilding Educated Leaders for Life Summer Learning ProgramDialogic ReadingHoward Street Tutoring Program

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Interactive Book ReadingLet’s Begin With the Letter PeopleSAFEChildrenSuccess for AllVoluntary Summer Reading Intervention

Related Indicators

Writing ProficiencyReading to Young ChildrenDual Language LearnersMathematics ProficiencyScience Proficiency

Definition

Reading proficiency refers to performance on the National Assessment of EducationalProgress (NAEP) Reading Assessments. Scale scores range from 0 to 500, with astandard deviation of 100. In 1996, NAEP started allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Accommodations mayinclude extra time, one-on-one administration, use of magnifying equipment, translation ofassessments, or the use of bilingual dictionaries and are determined by state and districtpolicies. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allow accommodations. Onlystudents currently enrolled in school are assessed.

NAEP also reports scores by achievement levels: Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. Cut-off scale scores for these levels, and descriptions of what students are expected to knowand do in reading at each level, at fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades, are available fromthe Nation's Report Card website.

Data Source

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center forEducation Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress Reading andMathematics Assessments (NAEP), 2015, 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005, 2003, 2000,1996, 1992, and 1990 Reading Assessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorerat http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/

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Raw Data Source

National Assessment of Educational Progress

http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/

Appendix 1 - NAEP Reading Average Scale Scores,3 Grade 4:Selected Years, 1992-2015

1992 1994 1998 1998 2000 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015NoAccommodationsPermitted1

Accommodations Permitted1

Total 217 214 217 215 213 219 218 219 221 221 221 222 223Gender

Male 213 209 214 212 208 215 215 216 218 218 218 219 219Female 221 220 220 217 219 222 222 222 224 224 225 225 226

Race/HispanicOrigin2

White 224 224 226 225 224 229 229 229 231 230 231 232 232Black 192 185 193 193 190 199 198 200 203 205 205 206 206Hispanic 197 188 195 193 190 201 200 203 205 205 206 207 208Asian/PacificIslander 216 220 221 215 225 224 226 229 232 235 235 235 239

AmericanIndian - 211 - - 214 207 202 204 203 204 202 205 205

Other - - - - - 219 223 223 225 226 227 227 227Free/Reduced-Price SchoolLunch ProgramEligibility

Eligible - - 198 196 193 203 201 203 205 206 207 207 209Not eligible - - 227 227 226 230 229 230 232 232 235 236 237Information

- - 227 223 225 226 230 232 233 236 235 237 236

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not available - - 227 223 225 226 230 232 233 236 235 237 236

EnglishLanguageLearner Status

ELL - - 198 196 193 203 201 203 205 206 207 207 209Not ELL - - 227 227 226 230 229 230 232 232 235 236 237

Type of SchoolPublic 215 212 215 213 211 217 216 217 220 220 220 221 221Nonpublic 232 231 233 232 231 234 235 - 234 235 234 235 -

1992 1994 1998 1998 2000 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015NoAccommodationsPermitted1

Accommodations Permitted1

RegionNortheast - - - - - - 224 225 228 228 228 227 228Midwest - - - - - - 222 222 224 223 222 223 224South - - - - - - 217 218 220 221 221 222 223West - - - - - - 212 213 214 215 216 217 217

Type ofLocation4

City - - - - - - - - 215 216 216 216 218Suburb - - - - - - - - 226 225 226 226 227Town - - - - - - - - 219 218 218 220 219Rural - - - - - - - - 222 222 223 223 224

Percentile Score10th 170 159 167 163 159 170 169 171 174 175 174 174 174

25th 194 189 193 191 189 196 195 196 199 199 200 200 201

50th 219 219 220 217 218 221 221 221 224 223 224 225 226

75th 242 243 244 242 243 244 244 244 246 245 246 247 248

90th 261 263 263 262 262 263 264 263 264 264 264 265 266"-" Indicates no data available.

1In 1996, NAEP began transitioning toward allowing testing accommodations for students withdisabilities and for limited English proficient students. Between 1996 and 2002, scores were

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reported for samples with and without testing accommodations, while a new baseline wasbeing established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allow accommodations.Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration, use of magnifyingequipment, translation of assessments, or the use of bilingual dictionaries and are determinedby state and district policies.

2None of the race groups include Hispanics of those races.

3Scale Scores range from 0 to 500, with a standard deviation of 100.

Source: Data for type of school and 'unknown' race 1992-2002 from: U.S. Department ofEducation. Office of Educational Research and Improvement. National Center for EducationStatistics. The Nation's Report Card: Reading 2002, NCES 2003-521, by Wendy S. Grigg,Mary C. Duane, Ying Jin, and Jay R. Campbell. Washington, DC: 2003.http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2002/2003521.pdf. All other data for 1992-2003U.S. Department of Education. Institute of Education Sciences. The Nation’s Report Card:Reading Highlights 2003, NCES 2004-452. Washington, DC: 2003.http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2003/2004452.pdf. Data for 2005-2015: U.S.Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for EducationStatistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Reading Assessments.Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer, at http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/

Appendix 2 - NAEP Reading Average Scale Scores,3 Grade 8:Selected Years, 1992-2015

1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015NoAccommodationsPermitted1

Accommodations Permitted1

Total 260 260 264 263 264 263 262 263 264 265 268 265Gender

Male 254 252 257 256 260 258 257 258 259 261 263 261Female 267 267 270 270 269 269 267 268 269 270 273 270

Race/HispanicOrigin2

White 267 267 271 270 272 272 271 272 273 274 276 274

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Black 237 236 243 244 245 244 243 245 246 249 250 248Hispanic 241 243 245 243 247 245 246 247 249 252 256 253Asian/PacificIslander 268 265 267 264 267 270 271 271 274 275 280 280

AmericanIndian - - - - 250 246 249 247 251 252 251 252

Other 256 - 269 - 265 266 266 265 267 269 271 269Free/Reduced-Price SchoolLunch ProgramEligibility

Eligible - - 246 245 249 247 247 247 249 252 254 253Not eligible - - 270 269 272 271 270 271 273 275 278 277Informationnot available - - 272 272 271 272 275 277 280 283 286 282

EnglishLanguageLearner Status

ELL - - - 218 224 222 224 223 219 224 225 223Not ELL - - - 264 266 265 264 265 266 267 270 268

Type of SchoolPublic 258 257 261 261 263 261 260 261 262 264 266 264Nonpublic 278 279 281 281 281 282 - 280 282 282 285 -

1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015NoAccommodationsPermitted1

Accommodations Permitted1

Parent'sEducation

Did notfinish highschool

243 238 243 242 248 245 244 245 248 248 251 249

Graduatedhigh school 251 252 254 254 257 254 252 253 254 254 255 253

Some

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educationafter highschool

265 266 269 268 268 267 265 266 267 267 270 267

Graduatedcollege 271 270 274 273 274 273 272 273 274 275 278 276

Unknown 238 238 242 242 247 243 242 244 244 246 248 246Region

Northeast - - - - - 268 269 269 271 271 273 270Midwest - - - - - 269 266 266 268 268 269 268South - - - - - 261 260 261 262 264 266 263West - - - - - 258 257 258 258 261 265 263

Type ofLocation4

City - - - - - - - 257 259 260 263 261Suburb - - - - - - - 267 268 269 272 269Town - - - - - - - 262 261 264 264 262Rural - - - - - - - 264 265 267 268 265

Percentile Score10th 213 211 217 216 220 217 216 217 219 221 223 220

25th 237 236 242 241 244 242 240 242 243 244 246 244

50th 262 262 267 266 267 266 265 265 267 267 269 268

75th 285 286 288 288 288 288 286 287 288 289 291 290

90th 305 305 305 306 305 306 305 306 305 307 310 308"-" Indicates no data available.

1In 1996, NAEP began transitioning toward allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Between 1996 and2002, scores were reported for samples with and without testing accommodations, whilea new baseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,use of magnifying equipment, translation of assessments, or the use of bilingualdictionaries and are determined by state and district policies.

2Note that none of the race groups include Hispanics of those races.

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3Scale Scores range from 0 to 500, with a standard deviation of 100.

Sources: Data for type of school and 'unknown' race 1992-2002 from: U.S. Department ofEducation. Office of Educational Research and Improvement. National Center forEducation Statistics. The Nation's Report Card: Reading 2002, NCES 2003-521, byWendy S. Grigg, Mary C. Duane, Ying Jin, and Jay R. Campbell. Washington, DC: 2003.http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2002/2003521.pdf. All other data for 1992-2003: U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. The Nation’sReport Card: Reading Highlights 2003, NCES 2004-452. Washington, DC: 2003.http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2003/2004452.pdf. Data for 2005-2015:U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center forEducation Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), ReadingAssessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer athttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata /

Appendix 3 - NAEP Reading Average Scale Scores,4 Grade 12:Selected Years, 1992-2013

1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2005 2009 2013No AccommodationsPermitted1

AccommodationsPermitted1

Total 292 287 291 290 287 286 288 288Gender

Male 287 280 283 282 279 279 282 284Female 297 294 298 298 295 292 294 293

Race/Hispanic Origin2

White 297 293 297 297 292 293 296 297Black 273 265 271 269 267 267 269 268Hispanic 279 270 276 275 273 272 274 276Asian/Pacific Islander 290 278 288 287 285 287 298 296American Indian - 274 - - 294 279 283 277Other - - - - 287 283 298 291

Free/Reduced-Price SchoolLunch Program Eligibility

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Eligible - - 271 270 273 271 273 274Not eligible - - 293 293 289 290 294 296Information not available - - 296 295 294 295 296 302

English Language LearnerStatus

ELL Â - - - 244 245 247 240 237Not ELL - - - 291 288 288 290 290

Type of SchoolPublic 290 286 289 289 285 285 287 287Nonpublic 308 301 303 303 304 - - -

1992 1994 1998 1998 2002 2005 2009 2013No AccommodationsPermitted1

AccommodationsPermitted1

Parent's EducationDid not finish high school 275 266 268 268 268 268 269 270Graduated high school 283 277 280 279 278 274 276 276Some education after highschool 294 289 292 291 289 287 287 288

Graduated college 301 298 301 300 296 297 299 299Unknown 258 248 250 248 247 255 256 257

RegionNortheast - - - - - 288 291 292Midwest - - - - - 293 294 291South - - - - - 282 284 286West - - - - - 283 287 287

Type of Location4 - -City - - - - - - 286 285Suburb - - - - - - 292 291Town - - - - - - 287 288Rural - - - - - - 286 289

Percentile Score10th 249 239 242 240 237 235 238 239

25th 271 264 268 267 263 262 264 264

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50th 294 290 293 293 289 288 291 290

75th 315 313 317 317 312 313 315 315

90th 333 332 337 336 332 333 335 335"-" Indicates no data available.

1In 1996, NAEP began transitioning toward allowing testing accommodations forstudents with disabilities and for limited English proficient students. Between 1996 and2002, scores were reported for samples with and without testing accommodations, whilea new baseline was being established. Beginning in 2002, all NAEP assessments allowaccommodations. Accommodations may include extra time, one-on-one administration,use of magnifying equipment, translation of assessments, or the use of bilingualdictionaries and are determined by state and district policies.

2Note that none of the race groups include Hispanics of those races.

3Special analyses by the NCES of the 12th grade American Indian and Alaska Nativedata raised concerns about accuracy so these results should be interpreted with greatcaution.

4Scale Scores range from 0 to 500, with a standard deviation of 100.

Source: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Centerfor Education Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress ReadingAssessments (NAEP), 2013, 2009, 2005, 2003, 2000, 1996, and 1992, ReadingAssessments. Accessed through the NAEP Data Explorer athttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/

Endnotes

[1] Hyde, A. (2007). Mathematics and cognition. Education Leadership. 65(3), 43-47.Jordan, W. J., and Nettles, S. M. (1999). How students invest their time out of school:Effects on school engagement, perceptions of life chances, and achievement (Report No.29). Washington, D.C.: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk.Available at: http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report29.pdf

[2] Carnine, L., and Carnine, D. (2004). The interaction of reading skills and sciencecontent knowledge when teaching struggling secondary students. Reading and Writing

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Quarterly, 20(2), 203-218.

[3] Myers, L., and Botting, N. (2008). Literacy in the mainstream inner-city school: Itsrelationship to spoken language. Child Language Teaching & Therapy, 24(1), 95-114.

[4] Guthrie, J. T. and Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M. L.Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, and Barr, R. (Eds.). Handbook of ReadingResearch, volume III. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

[5] Christie, K. (2007) Mission possible: States take on adolescent literacy. Phi DeltaKappan, 88( 6), 421-422.

[6] Zaff, J. F., Moore, K.A., Papillo, A. R., & Williams, S. (2003). Implications ofextracurricular activity participation during adolescence on positive outcomes. Journal ofAdolescent Research, 18(06). Ludwig, J. (1999). Information and inner city educationalattainment. Economics of Education Review, 18(1), 17-30

[7] Study: 11 Million U.S. Adults Are Not Literate in English. (2006). Diverse Issues inHigher Education, 22(1). Kirsch, I., Jungeblut, A., Jenkins, L. & Kolstad, A. (1993). AdultLiteracy in America: A First Look at the Findings of the National Adult Literacy Survey.Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. [On-line]. Availablehttp://nces.ed.gov/pubs93/93275.pdf Humboldt Literacy Project. N.D. Fast facts onliteracy. Eureka, CA. Author. [On-line]. Available:http://www.eurekawebs.com/humlit/fast_facts.htm

[8] Caspi, A., Wright, B.E., Moffit, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1998). Childhood predictors ofunemployment in early adulthood. American Sociological Review, 63(3), 424-451.

[9] Blau, F. & Kahn, L. (2000). Do cognitive test scores explain US wage inequality?National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc (RePEc:nbr:nberwo:8210).

[10] Moore, K., Glei, D., Driscoll, A., Zaslow, M., and Redd, Z. (2002). Poverty and welfarepatterns: implications for children. Journal of Social Policy, 31(2), 207-227.

[11] Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Program for InternationalStudent Assessment (PISA). (2011). Do students today read for pleasure? PISA In Focus,No. 8. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisainfocus/48624701.pdf

[12] Note that none of the race groups include Hispanics of those races. Special analysesby the NCES of the 12th grade American Indian and Alaska Native data raised concernsabout accuracy so these results are not discussed in this paper.

© Copyright 2014 Child Trends - All Rights Reserved 16

[13] Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Program for InternationalStudent Assessment (PISA). (2011). What can parents do to help their children succeedin school? PISA In Focus, No. 10. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/49012097.pdf

Suggested Citation:

Child Trends Databank. (2015). Reading proficiency . Available at:http://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=reading-proficiency

Last updated: November 2015

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