Culture and cultural differences

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What are the dialogues "Ludo", "You’re late again", "Exchange, ugh" and "Nothing’s Czech here " about?

All of these dialogues are small examples of situations in which a person can come up against cultural differences. At the same time, we must remember that cultural differences do not only occur between people coming from different countries, but also between people with different cultures all within the same country (Pavla and her right-wing tendencies, intellectual Magda, and Ali with his football will encounter cultural differences in the same way as Jami or Suong will). In these dialogues, we attempt to look in more detail at how culture influences us, how we can recognise cultural differences, and how we can deal with them.

Co je...?

Cultural differences and their manifestations: Cultural differences can generally relate to three levels of culture (creations, methods, and models of conduct and behaviour, ideals and values), specifically their creations, institutions, communication, lifestyle, customs, rituals, symbols, norms, values and conditions. Cultural differences must always be judged within the framework of a comparison of two specific cultures, since the way one culture differs from a second is not necessarily the way it differs from a third. The terms are relative. Cultures may differ in several aspects, and in others can be very similar. Cultural differences can manifest themselves thusly: - both cultures find different ways of doing things, e.g. communicating – they create their own separate languages, - the same way of behaving is applied to different causes and motives in both cultures (in certain countries, a smile is perceived as a sign of a good mood, while in others of a bad mood; in some countries, looking someone straight in the eye is the courteous thing to do, while in others it is highly discourteous; in some places the swastika is a symbol of fascism, in others of luck), - in both cultures different ways of behaving have the same cause and motives (when people want to eat, some use chopsticks, others cutlery, and others their hands; when they want to negotiate something with someone, some feel a need to get to know the other person over time, while others get straight to the point at the very first meeting; when they want to show their pleasure at a gift they have been given, some will immediately give the gift to someone else, while others will keep it for themselves). In certain situations, cultural differences can prevent effective communication and mutual understanding between two cultures: - when someone has not learned a foreign language, it is difficult to communicate with someone from another culture, - when someone does not recognise different ways of behaving and the different causes and motives of conduct in a given culture, they find it difficult to understand the people of this culture.

Causes of cultural differences: Most people grow up in a certain restricted environment (their natural environment, their family, town, country, etc.). The fact that a person reacts to their specific natural environment means they create specific daily habits, stereotypes, methods of satisfying their requirements, etc. Some people get up at five in the morning and go and water the rice crop, while others rise at nine and travel by tram to work. A person thus adapts to the environment, nature and society around them. In time, each society creates other methods for passing their cultural inheritance on to their children (or new members, e.g. foreigners), tried and tested methods of conduct in the environment and society in question. We call such processes a family upbringing, school training, socialisation, acculturation and globalisation. The family passes on to the child the basic emotional and knowledge potential, school offers them models of behaviour and the requisite knowledge and skills to live in society. Upbringing and other processes lead to the socialisation of the individual, while acculturation enables them to accept and understand the customs and norms of the society in question. Globalisation can also be understood in this light; it operates on the individual in such a way that they are able to live within their global environment.

When a person grows up in the environment of a single culture (learns to live in the local natural conditions, are brought up by their family and go to the local school, have experience with the local society, culture) they undergo a very intensive process of personality development. However, what they learn under specific conditions does not have to work under the conditions of another culture. This is why very often a person who has decided to travel to another country becomes a “small child” again in that country, who can’t speak the language (has not learned it and will never speak it as their native tongue), who hasn’t learned how to behave (is used to other norms of polite conduct which can differ in various cultures), and who lacks the requisite skills and knowledge (is used to catching fish, but has to travel to work by tram in the foreign country), etc.

Perception of cultural differences: We can perceive certain manifestations of cultural differences immediately (traditional costumes, special jewellery), while some we only perceive when a person starts speaking a different language, or when we hear their opinions and values, customs, etc. We should more frequently realise that people of various cultures do not have to have different folk costumes and a language, but rather an entire legal system, educational system, life values, experience, etc. If two members of different cultures meet, they may well be oblivious to their differences and fail to perceive them, so they are incapable of reacting to them, and do not know how to overcome them. And so we might speak for half an hour to a Polish person who looks like us but doesn’t know Czech. And we might feel sorry for someone because they don’t have money, while they themselves are proud of surviving without money. When a Chinese person sees a cross, they read the figure 10; when a Czech sees a cross, they might think of first aid, the Swiss flag, etc.

We can usually only understand cultural differences when we suddenly find ourselves in the environment of another culture. It seems obvious to us at home that you eat with cutlery and that you don’t eat with your mouth open. But this does not have to be the case

in other cultures, where food is eaten with one’s hands and everything is discussed and resolved over food – what has been going on, what has to be organised, how to conclude a contract, etc. Only when we are willing and able to look at our own (for us natural) culture as something which is not natural or better, are we able to better and more appropriately understand other cultures, with their own customs and values which have come into being under completely different conditions.

Results of cultural differences: Cultural differences (as in the case of all other differences between people) may give rise to misunderstandings and conflicts of the types already referred to. It is often the case that cultural differences are used as the pretext for starting a war, discrimination against certain nationalities and cultural groups, etc. In such a case, there is a combination of misunderstanding between cultures and a clear political, ideological or economic motive to the conflict. The results of cultural differences can be many and various in normal life, ranging from misunderstandings which can be laughed away, to threats to the very existence of a person.

Topic

Culture is a multi-layered concept which also has a great many definitions. In this text, we shall focus on the form of culture which we meet in everyday life, and attempt to chart this complex phenomenon in order to be able to deal with it more easily. To aid us in this endeavour, we shall take a combination of models of culture by Hofstede and Trompenaars.

Both scientists agree that when people from different cultures meet, they come up against differences on many different levels which they then more or less cope with.

Symbols and rituals are what we see on first glance or at a brief meeting. This includes clothes, food and habits revolving around food, methods of greeting, ways to behave when visiting someone (do I take off my shoes, will there be firm seating around the dinner table, etc.). These are situations which can confuse us. However, they are basically easily resolved, and it is not too difficult to communicate about them.

Heroes represent the second, deeper level, which we discover during conversation, for instance. Whom do I take as my model in the best sense of the word? Which behaviour do I regard as worth following? What properties in these people are interesting to me? Do I tend to like shyer people or more outgoing types? The answers to these and other such questions are a signal of what is important for me.

It is not only everyday life which is involved here. We come up against cultural differences on the level of heroes in fairytales, myths and folk stories. Let us take, for example, the status of the devil. While Czech fairytales have the devil as the embodiment of evil, as Satan, who leads a person into temptation and often to hell, we also have the good devil, the little devil. This is usually a being who was banished from hell, a little elf who is jolly and good fun to be with.

This second variant on the devil does not exist in German fairytales. The devil is the embodiment of evil, full stop. And if someone has grown up with this idea of the devil, try telling them in a playful way during conversation that they’re the devil; the response might not be exactly enthusiastic.

Norms and values are another, deeper level which we can come up against. They involve a deeply rooted feeling of how things are done, what is good and what is bad. For instance, putting questions into conversations. In a Dutch context, a person can be considered something of a bumpkin if they don’t ask questions, because this is taken to be a sign of disinterest. However, the questions which a Dutch interlocutor would expect during a conversation would, within a Czech context, be regarded as too personal.

In these cases, it is not a question of courteous conduct but simply the fact that in another cultural group, things are done differently and norms and values can be displaced. This level can seem relatively complex, but it is still possible to speak of it as long as there exists an awareness of the fact that another might see a situation differently than me.

Basic pre-assumptions: “Grundannahmen” is a term for which it is very difficult to find an English equivalent. It is the attempt to describe the fact that there exist situations which are so unambiguous that it does not occur to us that another might perceive them differently than us. Expressed in the form of an image, it involves a situation in which I open a door and take a step forward without checking whether the floor continues behind the door. My experience has shown me that the floor continues.

The problem when meeting people from different cultures is often that this type of pre-assumption does not apply and that, for them, behind the doors there may be a chasm. People from different cultures have a different pre-assumption, caused by repeated (and different) life experience. If I regularly fell into a chasm upon walking through doors, I might be more careful.

And this is where the problems begin. It is difficult to speak of such deeply-embedded assumptions, and this often causes the most serious misunderstandings brought about by cultural differences. This involves the concept of time, space, taboo, the ability to endure insecurity, perceptions of the environment, etc.

In light of what has been said so far, let us try to think about how we recognise that we are face to face with cultural differences in a given situation. It is often only when both parties have the will to agree on something and yet cannot for some reason. They come up against the fact that for each party, something different is important, something so essential that it is not easy to communicate about. In addition, each of the parties perceives their own point of view so automatically that it doesn’t occur to them that the other is understanding and perceiving things differently. Let’s look at the individual situations in our dialogues:

Dialogue Exchange, ugh Magda finds herself in a complex situation. She has made every effort, she feels she has

done everything she could and maybe even more, she expects some kind of recognition or praise, more contact. Instead of this, she gets a cold shoulder in the form of pointed questions regarding when she will have the leaflets ready.In this kind of situation, the problem arises as to how we perceive the concept of cooperation. Does cooperation mean that we do a professional job at work, that we don’t expect any great friendship to develop from contact with our colleagues, and there is therefore no real reason to make an effort to develop a relationship? Or on the contrary, within the framework of cooperation do we expect friendly chats, do we like to get on a personal level, go to the pub with our colleagues, and spend free time with them?If our idea of cooperation fundamentally differs from someone else’s, we are faced with a cultural difference. We have different expectations, and because culture is embedded so deeply, it does not occur to us that the other person expects something diametrically opposite. If we do not clarify these divergent expectations, it can easily happen that both parties regard their view of the situation as the automatically correct one, and misunderstandings or even upset is just around the corner.

Dialgoue You’re late againWe face a very similar situation in this dialogue. The perception of time is a traditional sphere of cultural difference, not only in terms of precision, but the entire perception of the flow of time which we have delineated. There are people who live the present very intensively. Meeting a friend then means that past, present and future merge into one moment, which is important. The future ceases to exist, because only the here and now exists at any given moment. This applies to Jami in the dialogue. In his eyes, he hasn’t forgotten Magda. In short, his perception of time does not allow him to let a friend pass by with a quick “Hi, can’t stop, I’m in a hurry.”And this is completely incomprehensible for Magda, who perceives time differently. Magda knows exactly what time she has a meeting arranged, and whatever happens she will be there at that time. And when she is subjected to the upsetting experience of waiting, she’s angry, sad and explains Jami’s behaviour within her own frame of reference. Jami is showing her that she means nothing to him, because it is clear that otherwise he would be on time.

Dialogue Ludo In this dialogue, we again come up against one example of such a culturally-conditioned disharmony. In the sphere of teaching, we come across cultural aspects of games. Each game has a reason why we play it – it ritualises or processes some kind of content which is important in life. There exist four basic aspects to games which are represented to varying degrees in various social games; however, one will always predominate.Chance – ensures the equality of opportunity (e.g. dice games, team-picking, etc.).Competition – winning is important, the winner is visible, everyone speaks about them.Repetitive mimicry – e.g. mimicry. This is about the truth. For instance, when acting out the character of a particular person, I can get at some truth of that person.Vertigo – this involves rotation, merry-go-rounds and games involving trust.

In the case of Ludo, the game revolves around chance. A certain number will appear on the dice which will represent either victory or loss. Everything is determined by chance,

by the swing towards good fortune or hard luck. One cannot influence anything, one can only wait and see what happens to them. In some cultures, this aspect of a game is important and desirable, and without this aspect the game is not in itself interesting.Diplomacy or some such strategic game offers a completely different kind of experience. This mainly involves a duel, competitiveness and victory. I win by virtue of my craft, cleverness, the fact that I know how to trick my opponent. And again, there are cultures which need this aspect in their games.When people are deciding what game to play and each needs their own experience, and each experience is diametrically opposed, it can be pretty difficult to agree on a game which is going to amuse everyone.

So what can we do? Naturally, we find ourselves faced with a very pragmatic question – what should I do in such situations? The key to resolution is two steps. On the one hand, I have to admit that I find myself in a situation in which there is no bad faith but simply a cultural difference. This can happen not only in the examples cited above, but on various other levels. From the relationship with power, via the degree to which we reach a decision in accordance to the wishes of the group or our own individual wants, all the way to what is important for us in the sphere of veracity, freedom, our relationship to the boss, etc., it would be difficult to find a situation in life in which we couldn’t come up against cultural differences.The remedy in such a situation is not only to admit that one is facing a cultural difference. It is often necessary to clarify what each of the two people expect, how they perceive the situation, and what it means for them. The ability to master these situations is not, however, natural, and it is necessary to train over time. This text should serve as an invitation not to fear such situations, but to begin to resolve them.

Dialogue Nothing’s Czech hereHowever, in the sphere of culture we still have one very important aspect which we come up against in this dialogue, above all. This is the dynamic aspect of culture. Given the speed of life, the possibilities of fast transportation, travel, the Internet, and other technical devices, we more and more frequently find ourselves face-to-face with the Other. We have to concede that an encounter with the Other will provoke a change in us. Culture is not a bell glass in which we are born and in which we remain. Culture is more an open, dynamic concept which changes during our life and is reorganised.. Ali’s request, expressed in the dialogue, is the ordinary wish of a person seeking security and orientation. Our permanently-changing world is constantly confronting us with something new, and innovations and otherness always bring insecurity. This is natural.At the same time, we live in a world which does not offer us many opportunities to make the most of our security. Otherness is all around us, and it is necessary to concede that this Otherness changes our culture. The ability to reflect and to be self-reflexive can help us find a moderate route between the extremes of a conservative and excessively open lifestyle – so that we always retain our integrity.

Sources

References:

Bittl, K. (2001). 3x3 ist neunmal klug. Nürenberg: Fränkisches Bildungswerk für Friedensarbeit (FBF).

Caillois, R. (1998). Hry a lidé: maska a závrať (Games and people: mask and vertigo). Praha: Nakladatelství Studia Ypsilon.

Hall, E., T. (1976). Beyond Culture. New York.

Hall, E., T. (1959). The silent language. New York.

Hofstede, G (1991). Allemaal Andersdenkenden., Amsterdam.

Trompenaars, F. (1989). Riding the waves of culture. Fairfield.

How to Understand and Admire Cultural Differenceshttp://www.wikihow.com/Understand-and-Admire-Cultural-Differences

Steps 1.

1

Understand. Realise that all people are different. Some are meaner, wiser, or nicer than others, but that shouldn't change how you treat people: fairly and kindly.

Ad

2.

2

Observe. Start conversations with people who are from different cultures, different places of the world, or who like certain hobbies and find out what makes them love it so much.

o Find out some history on that person's hobby/culture/home place. That way you'll be able to appreciate it more than you do now with your limited exposure.

o Go and have a talk with people you don't know. Remember there are only 6 degrees of separation between all of us.

3.

3

Experience a new place. Go somewhere outside of your state, country or even your comfort zone, and experience how other people live.

4.

4

Mix-up your own life with another culture for a few days. Make a study of it and try food that has been made famous by a certain culture. Explain to your family the roots of the culture so you can get some feelings and tastes of it.

5.

5

Study some history and traditions of other peoples of the earth, your country, or your home town. Be proud of your own culture, but also smile and admire other ways of life as examples of the diversity of the nations and regions of interest to you.

6.

6 Accept these differences. Understand we are all human, and we all have our own opinions, habits and ways of life.

Miscommunication: how to deal with it?http://www.booki.cc/miscommunication-how-to-deal-with-it/reason-3-cultural-differences/

Cultural Differences

This chapter is about cultural differences and why cultural differences can lead to miscommunication if not takeninto considerationwhen communicating. Cultural differences are very important topic in business life because nowadays almost every organization has people from different countries with different backgrounds. In business life, it is not always easy to communicate with people that are from different countries. However, in business, communicating is a must so somehow all people have to come together and make serious decision in their businesses. This is way cultural differences

have to be taken into consideration in order to successfully run an organization where people are from different countries.

In business life cultural differences can be a great advantage but also a disadvantage. Consider a business meeting where there are group of businessmen and all of them are from different countries. They all have their own core beliefs and national traits that effect on communication. Of course all the people in the meeting have different expectations, attitudes and reactions so it is easy to say that in a situation like this miscommunication is more a rule than an exception. However, miscommunication in cross-cultural communication can also be avoided.

-Germans are very accurate and punctual. So don’t be hasty if you are waiting an offer Germans won’t wing it, instead it will be well calculated also they don’t necessarily speak English. Also there are a lot of men in decision making positions.

-Americans which I have met are well speaking, writing and sales oriented. My feeling is that they bend the truth a little bit I am not saying that they are lying, but make it sound like better that is it by not saying the bad things at all.

-British are my opinion pretty relaxed concerning the email writing and other behaving.

These are only “thoughts” of people from different countries. Similarly, usually when we go to different countries we have only certain thoughts and perceptions on how to communicate with people. This clearly illustrates the problem of miscommunication because if we would now local habits and beliefs and so there probably wouldn’t be any miscommunication. However, usually we only have thoughts about other people from different countries but we don’t really know how to communicate with them.

We are living in a world where intercultural encounters are becoming more and more common, especially in business. This also means that miscommunication will occur more and more often in business life. I want to illustrate this problem by telling you about a situation that took place in Singapore where there were people from different countries in a business meeting. Two special guests from Finland where eating business dinner with Singaporean employees. They left the table immediately after eating which surprised the person who witnessed the situation. Later on, she found out that it is a local habit to leave the table immediately after eating whereas in Finland acting like that would be rude. In here, cultural differences where the reason why this miscommunication occurred. If the Finns wouldn’t lead the table immediately after eating they would have considered as being rude. In conclusion, to avoid miscommunication in foreign cultures people should educate local habits and manners before business trip or other journey to foreign countries. This example also show us how easy it is to miscommunicate because differences between cultures are so huge and we all use to think that our way to do things is the only way to do things.

So how we could prevent what happened to Mr. and Mrs. Tarkka. If you are in a foreign and unfamiliar country you should be open minded and observe how locals act in

different situations and learn from those. If you are abroad there always happen something what you have not been ready for and you have to go with a flow.

Mr. and Mrs. Tarkka´s situation when they was carried out from the dinner table they would prevent this to happened if they have read more about Singapore’s culture and how to act in a business dinner party specially, because they were guest of honor. If they have eaten a little bit faster this conflict wouldn’t happen. Also there are special customs and habits which don’t necessarily are able to read anywhere instead you might just have known these things and with experience you will learn these habits and know how to act.

Cultural Differences?Or, are we really that different?

Gregorio BillikopfUniversity of California

http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/ucce50/ag-labor/7article/article01.htm

To all who took the proxemics survey (between December 2007 and June 2009) a warm thank you! We are in the process of analyzing the data. Also, the best copy of this paper on cultural differences may be found as a PDF (Appendix I) under my new book, Party-Directed Mediation: Helping Others Resolve Differences, which you may download free here.--Gregorio

In 1993, I had my first opportunity to visit Russia as a representative of the University of California. I was there to provide some technical assistance in the area of agricultural labor management. "Russians are a very polite people," I had been tutored before my arrival. One of my interpreters, once I was there, explained that a gentleman will pour the limonad (type of juice) for the ladies and show other courtesies.

Toward the end of my three week trip I was invited by my young Russian host and friend Nicolai Vasilevich and his lovely wife Yulya out to dinner. At the end of a wonderful meal Yulya asked if I would like a banana. I politely declined and thanked her, and explained I was most satisfied with the meal. But the whole while my mind was racing: "What do I do? Do I offer her a banana even though they are as close to her as they are to me? What is the polite thing to do?"

"Would you like a banana?" I asked Yulya.

"Yes," she smiled, but made no attempt to take any of the three bananas in the fruit basket. "What now?" I thought.

"Which one would you like?" I fumbled.

"That one," she pointed at one of the bananas. So all the while thinking about Russian politeness I picked the banana Yulya had pointed at and peeled it half way and handed it to her. Smiles in Yulya and Nicolai's faces told me I had done the right thing. After this experience I spent much time letting the world know that in Russia, the polite thing is to peel the bananas for the ladies. Sometime during my third trip I was politely disabused of my notion.

"Oh no, Grigorii Davidovich," a Russian graciously corrected me. "In Russia, when a man peels a banana for a lady it means he has a romantic interest in her." How embarrassed I felt. And here I had been proudly telling everyone about this tidbit of cultural understanding.

Certain lessons have to be learned the hard way. Some well meaning articles and presentations on cultural differences have a potential to do more harm than good and may not be as amusing. They present, like my bananas, too many generalizations or quite a distorted view.

Some often-heard generalizations about the Hispanic culture include: Hispanics need less personal space, make less eye contact, touch each other more in normal conversation, and are less likely to participate in a meeting. Generalizations are often dangerous, and especially when accompanied by recommendations such as: move closer when talking to Hispanics, make more physical contact, don't expect participation, and so on.

Here is an attempt to sort out a couple of thoughts on cultural differences. My perspective is that of a foreign born-and-raised Hispanic who has now lived over two decades in the United States and has had much opportunity for international travel and exchange.

Commonality of humankind

Differences between people within any given nation or culture are much greater than differences between groups. Education, social standing, religion, personality, belief structure, past experience, affection shown in the home, and a myriad of other factors will affect human behavior and culture.

Sure there are differences in approach as to what is considered polite and appropriate behavior both on and off the job. In some cultures "yes" means, "I hear you" more than "I agree." Length of pleasantries and greetings before getting down to business; level of tolerance for being around someone speaking a foreign (not-understood) language;

politeness measured in terms of gallantry or etiquette (e.g., standing up for a woman who approaches a table, yielding a seat on the bus to an older person, etc.); and manner of expected dress are all examples of possible cultural differences and traditions.

In México it is customary for the arriving person to greet the others. For instance, someone who walks into a group of persons eating would say provecho (enjoy your meal). In Chile, women often greet both other women and men with a kiss on the cheek. In Russia women often walk arm in arm with their female friends. Paying attention to customs and cultural differences can give someone outside that culture a better chance of assimilation or acceptance. Ignoring these can get an unsuspecting person into trouble.

There are cultural and ideological differences and it is good to have an understanding about a culture's customs and ways. Aaron Pun, a Canadian ODCnet correspondent, wrote: "In studying cross cultural differences, we are not looking at individuals but a comparison of one ethnic group against others. Hence, we are comparing two bell curves and generalization cannot be avoided." Another correspondent explained the human need to categorize. True and true, but the danger comes when we act on some of these generalizations, especially when they are based on faulty observation. Acting on generalizations about such matters as eye contact, personal space, touch, and interest in participation can have serious negative consequences.

Cross-cultural and status barriers

Sometimes, observations about cultural differences are based on scientific observation (see, for instance, Argyle, Michael, Bodily Communication, 2nd ed., Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1988). Argyle cites several studies on non-verbal communications and culture (see pp. 57-61). According to the studies cited, Latin Americans make more eye contact, face each other more, and touch more (p. 58) when they speak. Strong eye contact used by Hispanics goes along with my observations. If Hispanics face each other more, it is probably because of the need for eye contact. I do not believe that Hispanics touch more, with the exception of some very specific social contexts, one of them being between dating or married couples. One of the studies cited more contact among Latin American couples (p. 60). Another study showed that Latin Americans stand closer than North Americans (something that goes contrary to my observations) but that there are regional variations among countries (p.60). Argyle asserts that there are few genuine cross-cultural studies in the area of spatial behavior. Interestingly, yet another study (p. 60) showed that "middle-class

Americans actually touched quite a lot" and that the USA is more of a contact culture than people think.

Much of the differences in culture have to do with food preparation, music, and what each culture considers politeness. Food preparation, for instance, can be quite different in various cultures. One farmer could not understand why his workers did not attend a specially prepared end-of-season meal. The meal was being prepared by the farm owners. Instead, when the farm operators provide the beef, pork or other meat but delegate the actual preparation to the workers who can spice up their own way, such a celebration meal can be a great success. Similarly, a diary farmer found out that his Mexican employees were not too excited about getting ground beef as a perk. Instead, they would have preferred the cow's head, tongue, brains, as well as other cuts of meat that were not ground up. With world globalization, even tastes in food and music are rapidly changing, however.

When I came to the US, for a long time I was also guilty of broad generalizations about those born in the US. While I have not conquered this disagreeable human inclination, I feel I am beginning to see the way. Often, observations on cultural differences are based on our own weakness and reflect our inability to connect with that culture. As a young man I found myself in an almost entirely Anglo-Saxon community in New Canaan, Connecticut. I remember that on several occasions I felt my personal space was being invaded and wondered how Anglo-Saxon men could stand being so close to each other. After all these years, I still feel uncomfortable sitting as close to other men as often dictated by chair arrangements in the US. I am not the exception that proves the rule. Other foreign-born immigrants from México and Iran have mentioned feeling the same way.

Jill Heiken, an HRnet correspondent, explained her learning process this way: "I've taught ESL to many many different nationalities and lived in rooming situations with people from all nations and lived in Japan and Cambodia... it took me a long time not to generalize and now when I hear others doing so... I know they are just beginning to 'wade in the river,' so to speak, of intercultural relations."

I now live in California and have been married for over 20 years to a Californian (of Northern European descent). It is sort of funny because my wife now realizes that I need to have eye contact while we talk. If she is reading, she has learned that I stop talking if I don't have eye contact with her. I have had several people tell me, when I stop talking because I no longer have eye contact, "Keep talking, I'm listening." My kids still give me a bad time about the year my mother came to visit

and we drove to Yosemite National Park. They were all panicked because I kept looking at my mother as I drove. They felt I was not looking at the road enough and thought we would drive off the mountain. I have a very high need for eye contact.

Besides being a native Chilean, I have met, taught, been taught, roomed with, studied with, worked for, worked with, been supervised by, supervised, and been friends with Hispanics from almost every Spanish-speaking country in the world. I have interviewed and done research among hundreds of Hispanic farm workers and have noticed no difficulties with poor eye contact or invasion of personal space. Nor have I ever had difficulties in these areas with people from other nations or cultures.

Strong eye contact is partially a factor of shyness; partly a measure of how safe a person feels around another. If those who have written about poor eye contact on the part of Hispanics would walk down a mostly minority neighborhood at dusk, they may also find themselves looking at the ground and making less eye contact.

Cross-cultural observations can easily be tainted and contaminated by other factors. Perceived status differences can create barriers between cultures and even within organizations.

For instance, farm managers, instructors, and foreign volunteers (through universities, peace corps, farmer-to-farmer programs, etc.) may appear to have a status differential with those farm workers, students, and technical assistance recipients they are working with. A person with this status differential will have to show, by word and action, that she values the potential contributions of those she works with. Until this happens she will only obtain compliance but never commitment.

At times, then, it may appear that some workers or students, especially when there are social or ethnic differences, do not participate as easily. This is not because they do not have ideas to contribute, but rather, because they may need a little convincing that their ideas would be valued. Once this floodgate of ideas is opened, it will be difficult to stop it. In some sub-cultures, once a person has given an opinion, others are unlikely to contradict it. That is why some organizations ask their least senior employees to give an opinion first, as few will want to contradict the more season employees. Setting up the discussion from the beginning as one where one desires to hear all sort of different opinions, can be very fruitful both in the workplace and in the classroom.

Americans have been historically welcome in most of Hispanic America. With a few exceptions they are looked up to, resulting in deferential treatment. This deferential and polite treatment should not be confused for weakness, lack of interest, and the like. Studies conducted some years ago showed African American children preferred White dolls. This has been changing as African Americans are less likely to discount their own contributions (for an excellent discussion on contributions see Roger Brown's Social Psychology: The Second Edition, Free Press, 1986). I believe Hispanics are also valuing their contributions more than in the past, and less subservient behaviors will be observed. Only through equality of respect between races and nations can we reach positive international relations in this global economy (as well as peace at home). Cultural and ethnic stereotypes do little to foster this type of equality.

Breaking through status barriers can take time and effort. The amount of exertion will depend on many factors, including the skill of the manager (teacher, volunteer) on the one hand, and how alienated and disenfranchised from the main stream the person he is trying to reach feels.

For example, in East Africa, a non-Black manager speaks to the Black African accountant and the accountant makes little eye contact and responds with submissive "Yes, Sirs" regardless of what he hears. When the manager exits, this same accountant makes plenty of eye contact and is full of ideas and creativity when dealing with those of his same and different race.

In another example, an adult class of Hispanic farm workers says nothing to their Anglo-Saxon instructor over a three day period--even though they do not understand what is being taught. This same group of farm workers, when given a chance to be active participants in the learning process, become, in the words of a second Anglo-Saxon instructor at the same junior college, "the best class of students I have ever taught."

In yet another case, an Anglo-Saxon adult educator finds that Hispanics are apt to listen politely but not ask questions. He advises others not to expect much participation from Hispanics. A female Hispanic elsewhere wonders if those Hispanic farm workers she teaches don't participate because she is a woman. The first perceives that the lack of participation is somewhat inherent in the Hispanic population; the latter assumes her gender is the cause.

Meanwhile, other Hispanic instructors create so much enthusiasm and active participation from the Hispanic audiences they work with, that

those who walk by wonder what is going--and why participants seem to be having so much fun. It is not a cultural difference if someone can totally involve a group into a discussion, within minutes, even when that group has had little experience with a more participatory method in the past.

Conclusions

Stereotyping can have intense negative effects, especially when educators or managers make fewer attempts to involve those of other cultures because they have been taught not to expect participation! Or do not realize there may be something wrong when a student or employee of a different ethnicity makes little eye contact with them. Faye Lee, a concerned Japanese-American wrote: "How anyone can try to make generalizations about an entire continent of people, plus all the Asian Americans and the infinite permutations of people's differing experiences, is beyond me."

As we interact with others of different cultures, there is no good substitute for receptiveness to interpersonal feedback, good observation skills, effective questions, and some horse sense. There is much to be gained by observing how people of the same culture interact with each other. Don't be afraid to ask questions as most people respond very positively to inquiries about their culture. Ask a variety of people so you can get a balanced view.

Making a genuine effort to find the positive historical, literary, and cultural contributions of a society; learning a few polite expressions in another person's language; and showing appreciation for the food and music of another culture can have especially positive effects.

My contention, then, is not that there are no cultural differences. These differences between cultures and peoples are real and can add richness (and humor) to the fabric of life. My assertion is that people everywhere have much in common, such as a need for affiliation and love, participation, and contribution. When the exterior is peeled off, there are not so many differences after all.

© 1999 by The Regents of the University of California and Gregorio BillikopfAgricultural Extension, Stanislaus County. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher and the author. Printing this electronic Web page is permitted

for personal, non-commercial use as long as the author and the University of California are credited.

Cultural differences in the workplace

Most Australian workplaces today employ people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Some workers may have specific cultural needs or requirements which should be taken into account.

Dress - Some cultures have specific clothing such as headscarves or turbans that are worn at all times.

Religious practices - Some religions require time during work each day for prayer or time off for special religious days.

Customs - Some cultures can or can't have specific foods and drinks, or may have rules about how food is prepared.

Social values - Ideas about appropriate social and sexual behaviour, work ethics, wealth and personal growth vary between cultures.

Family obligations - Some cultures have high family priorities which may sometimes conflict with work.

Non-verbal behaviour – Eye contact, facial expressions, hand gestures and how people interpret them vary between cultures.

Employers are responsible for their workers' physical and psychological health and well-being and should encourage tolerance and respect for cultural differences in the workplace.

Religious dress

You are entitled to wear your religious dress at work, unless it creates a safety hazard. If you religious dress covers your face, you can be asked to show your face for reasonable identification purposes.

What your employer can do

Employers can:

train staff make use of staff cultural skills promote cultural celebrations be flexible not discriminate against workers because of the employer's own cultural

background.

Workers and employers should also consider cultural differences as possible reasons for problems or misunderstandings in the workplace.

Treating people unfairly at work because of their cultural difference may be unlawful under equal opportunity laws. If you think you have been discriminated against because of your culture, contact us for advice.