1

Reconstructing4Q208–4Q209asanAstronomicalArtefact

HelenR.Jacobus

DepartmentofHebrewandJewishStudies

UniversityCollegeLondon

UpdatedJuly2018(original,June2015;corrected2017)

NowhereintheancientMesopotamianandMediterraneanworldshaveasmanyvariant

anddifferentcalendarsbeenfoundasatQumran.Thediversitywithinthe364-dayHebrew

calendarcorpusisacontinuingsubjectofresearch.Here,thefocusisontwoproposed

Aramaiczodiaccalendars:4Q318(4QZodiacCalendarand4QBrontologion,registeredas

4QZodiologyandBrontology)and4Q208–4Q209(4QAstronomicalEnocha-b).Itisargued

thatthesetextsarerelatedandthatbyadoptingthismodelitshouldbepossibletoplace

someofthehithertounplacedfragmentsfrom4Q208–4Q209.

ExpansionofHelenR.Jacobus,ZodiacCalendarsintheDeadSeaScrollsandTheirReception:AncientAstronomyandAstrologyinEarlyJudaism(Leiden:Brill,2014),pp.305–311

1. Background

TheproposedAramaiccalendarconcernedthatarguablyiscloselyrelatedto4Q208–4Q209

is4Q318whichiscomposedofazodiaccalendar,or“selenodromion”thatsituatesthe

moon’spositioninthezodiacforeachdayoftheyearineachmonth.Ithasaconnected

“brontologion,”azodiacalthunderomentextthatyieldsaMesopotamian-styleprediction

thatisbasedonthezodiacsignofthemoononthedayofthemonthwhenthunderoccurs.

Thetitleof4Q318isregisteredas4QZodiologyandBrontology(criticaledition:Greenfield

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andSokoloff1995,reproducedwithrevisionsin2000).Thetextsareallfragmentary(see

alsoWise,1994;Albani,1993,1994,1999;Jacobus2010,2011,2014a).

FollowingGezaVermeswhogave4Q318thetitle“AZodiacalCalendarwitha

Brontologion”(1997,361),Isuggestthat4QZodiacCalendarand4QBrontologionisamore

usefuldesignationbecausescholarsneedtobeabletodiscusseitherunitseparatelyina

clearway.Thisessayconcerns4QZodiacCalendarwithoutthebrontologioninrelationto

theextremelyfragmentaryAramaictexts4Q208–4Q209(4QAstronomicalEnocha-b)(critical

editions:Milik,1976;TigchelaarandGarcíaMartínez,2000;Drawnel,2011).

4Q208–4Q209compriseformulaicallywrittentextsthatarepartoftheso-called

AramaicAstronomicalBookofEnochfromQumran.Thefragmentsof4Q209

(4QAstronomicalEnochb)and4Q208(4QAstronomicalEnocha)asfarasisknowndonot

appearintheclassicalEthiopicGe’ezversionof1Enoch,althoughnotallofthemany

Ethiopicmanuscriptshavebeenexamined(fortheGe’ezmanuscripthistoryof1Enochsee

Knibb,1978,1–46;VanderKam,2012,335–352;ErhoandStuckenbruck,2013).

Neither4Q318nor4Q208–4Q209wereknownbeforethediscoveryoftheDeadSea

Scrolls.Ihavesuggestedthatinordertoreconstruct4Q208–4Q209bothmathematically

andmaterially(asfarasisreasonablypossible)thetextsshouldbeconsideredasbranches

fromthesamesourceas4QZodiacCalendar(Jacobus2011,2014a,andforthcoming).

2. 4Q318.4QZodiacCalendar

Thecalendarof4Q318statesthemoon’sschematicpositioninthezodiaconanydayofthe

yearaccordingtoacalendarof360dayyears,thatis,ayearcomposedof12months

consistingof30dayseach.Thisisawell-knownyear-lengthinMesopotamiandivinatory

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literature(Brown,2000,113-122;Heeßel2010;Oppenheim,1974;Williams,2002)andasan

ideal,administrativecalendarinthethirdmillenniumBCEinMesopotamia(Brack-Bernsen

2007;Steele,2011).

Ihavearguedthatitisaworkingluni-solarcalendar(Jacobus,2010;Jacobus,2011;

2014a);insuchacalendar,anextralunarmonthisadded(intercalated)atfixedintervals

becausethelunaryearof354daysfallsbehindthesolaryearof365¼daysby11¼days.A

30-daylunarmonth,a13thlunarmonth,isaddedontothestandardlunaryearof354days

—consistingof12months—atrepeatedtwoandthreeyearfrequencies(seeRochberg,

1995).Therefore,tohaveacalendarwithalunardatethatrecursinthesameseasonaleap

monthmustberegularlyintercalatedinafixedcycle.

Inaschematic360-daycalendara30-daylunarmonthcouldhavebeenaddedevery

sixyears,asitwouldfallbehindthesolaryearby5¼dayseachyear,accordingto(Brack-

Bernsen,2007,89),althoughscholarsaredividedastohowthe360-daycalendarmayhave

beeninstitutedinpractice.Brittonstatesthatthe360-daycalendarwas“devoidof

intercalations”(2007,117).

Themoonin4QZodiacCalendarchangeszodiacsignsinafixedsequenceoftwo

days,twodays,andthenthreedaysinarecurringarrangement.Itpassesthroughall12

signsplustheonethatitstartedoutfrom(so,13signsinall)in30daysineachofits12

months(schematicsynodicmonths).Themonth-namesaretheAramaictranslationsofthe

Babylonianmonthsusedinthelatebiblicalbooks,andhaveremainedso-namedinthe

Jewishcalendar.

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Itisprobablethat4QZodiacCalendarmaybeaJewish-Aramaicdescendantofsimilar

lateBabylonianzodiacalcalendartextswithwhichitbearsclosestructuralsimilarities.

Thesecuneiformtextssubstitutemonthsandzodiacsignsforcorrespondingconsecutive

numbers;forexample,number1representstheMonthI,andthefirstzodiacsign,Aries

(Brack-BernsenandSteele,2004;Steele2015;188,209,210).Sincethemonth-namesin

4QZodiacCalendarareAramaicversionsoftheBabylonianmonths-namesitishighlylikely

thatthecalendariscloselyrelatedtoitsMesopotamiancousins.

3. 4Q208-4Q209asasecondAramaiczodiaccalendarintheDeadSeaScrollsa. Inrelationto1Enoch

Ihavealsoarguedthat4Q208–4Q209(4QAstronomicalEnocha-b)followsasimilarpattern

to4Q318:thatitisbasicallyaluni-solarcalendarwiththemajormodificationthatthe

cosmological‘gates’numbered1to6inthetextshouldbeidentifiedasthezodiacsigns.

Thisissimilartothesystemofnumber-month-signsubstitutioninlateBabylonian

astrologicaltexts(seeBrack-BernsenandSteele,2004;Jacobus,2011,2014a,2014b;Steele,

2015,opcit).

Thishypothesisisbasedondirectlyrelatingtheordinalnumbersoftheheavenly

gatesin1Enoch,Chapter72,thefirstchapteroftheEthiopicBookofLuminaries(1En.72–

82),notonlyasmonthsbuttocorrespondingzodiacsigns(athesisthatwasoriginally

suggestedbyLaurence,1821).1En.72isconcernedwiththedaylightlengthsoftwo“solar”

monthsoppositeeachotherina364-daycalendarbeginningwiththespringequinox.One

‘gate’representstwomonthsand,itisargued,thetwozodiacsignswithwhichtheyare

cognate.SeeTable1forthedescriptionofthesun’sjourneythroughouttheyearin1En.72

withthenumberedgates,themonthstowhichtheycorrespond,andthezodiacsignsthat

correspondwiththemonths.

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Table1.Abasicrepresentationjourneyofthesunin1En.72beginningwithsunriseatthe

SpringEquinoxinGate4,Month1,Aries(the1stsignofthezodiac);Gate4alsorepresents

theMonth6,Virgo(the6thsignofthezodiac)

Neugebauerdefinedtheheavenlygatesin1En.72asthesun’srisingandsetting

pointsonthehorizonduringtheyear:thesunrisesinGate4atthespringandautumn

equinoxes(Month1andMonth6),andsoon(Neugebauer1964,1981).Herejectedthe

interpretationsoftheearliertranslatorsandcommentatorsof1Enochthatthe‘gate’

numbersrepresentedsignsofthezodiaccorrespondingtothemonths(Neugebauer,1979,

156–161.ForthescholarlyhistoryofthezodiachypothesisintheBookofLuminariesin1

En,seeVanderKam,2012,371–373;Jacobus,2014a,263–268).Recentresearchinthe

developmentofMesopotamianzodiacalastronomyhasledtoaresurgenceofinterestin

thesubject(Ratzon,2015).

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3b.4Q208-4Q209asacalendar

MilikdescribedtheastronomicalschemeintheseAramaicfragmentsasa“synchronistic

calendar,”maintainingthatthematerialrelatedtothesunandthemooninthetextwere

relatedtoasingleyearoftheluni-solarcalendarofathree-yearcycle,atriennialcycle(Milik

1976,274–275).1

Hecontendedthatthesynchronisticcalendarof4Q208–4Q209wastheequivalent

mathematicallyto364daysofthree(‘solar’)yearsequallingthreelunaryearsof354days,

eachconsistingofalternate29and30daymonths,withtheadditionofanintercalarylunar

monthof30days(364daysx3=354daysx3+30days).

Milikreasonedthatthemanuscriptof4Q209consistedofone354-daylunaryearof

thiscyclethatwas10daysshorterthantheschematic‘solar’year.(Theterm‘solaryear’for

the364-dayyearismisleadingsincethesolaryearisabout365.24daysbutitisusedto

distinguishitfromthelunaryear).

Somelaterscholarshavearguedthatthesynchronisedschematic‘solar’yearwould

be360days,asitisinthezodiaccalendarof4Q318andintheMesopotamianbackground

oftheBookofLuminaries(Albani1993,27–35;1994,82–83;seealsoJacobus2014a,334–

340).Others,thatalthoughthesynchronisedyearof360dayshadbeenexpandedto364

daysatanunspecifiedveryearlystageinitsredaction(BenDov,2008,37,282),4Q209

cannotsupportatriennialcyclemathematically(BenDov2008,129–132).Unlikethe

calendarintheBookofJubilees,thecalendarof4Q208–4Q209doesnotmentionSabbaths,

daysoftheweek,orfestivalsasdosomeofthe364-dayHebrewcalendarsofthepriestly

coursesatQumran.

DrawnelrejectsMilik’smodeloftheluni-solarsynchronisticcalendar,proposing

insteadthat4Q208–4Q209isalunartabledenotingthevaryingtimeperiodsoflunar

visibilityduringthedayandnight(Drawnel,2011,237-259).Hearguesthatthesun’s

presenceinthetextconstitutesscribalinsertionsthatrefertothesun’smovementsduring1Milik’stheoryisfollowedbyEshbalRatzon(2107),whoarguesthatfragmentsof4Q209comefromthetriennialcycleratherthanfromasingleyearofit,asMilikhadcontended.MycounterargumenttoRatzonisforthcoming.

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thenight,ratherthantoacalendricalcomponent(Drawnel2011,297–300).Milik’sdata

havebeenacceptedbyTigchelaarandGarcíaMartínez(2000);DukeandGoffhave

suggestedmodificationstothesynchronisticcalendarschemetoincorporateDrawnel’s

thesis(2014).

4Q208–4Q209containthedayofthelunarmonthandproportionsofthemoon’s

“shining”and“darkness”and“concealment”andothertermstodescribethemoon’sdaily

phasesinincrementalfractionsofhalf-seventhsinthetext.Therearealsodifferentverbs

thatdescribeitswaxingandwaningday-by-day(Drawnel2011,237–301).Drawnel’s

reconstructionofthefractionsofthemoon’slightinallthefragments,asfaraspossible,

andhiscontextualisingthisinformationwithina29-dayor30-daymonthscheme,often

fromextremelyscantytext,isavaluableassistancetoscholars.

Theleft-handcolumnofthelargestfragment(4Q209,frg7columniiiinthecritical

editions,renumberedasFragment1intheLeonLevyDeadSeaScrollsDigitalLibrary

website)isakeytextualunit.Itarguablysupportstheinterpretationthatthenumbered

‘gates’intheformulaicstructureoftheAramaictextthroughwhichthesunandmoonrise

andsetcorrespondtothezodiacsigns.

Thedatain4Q209fragment7,columniiibeginwiththesun’smovementsinGate1,

coincidingwithNights8-9ofalunarmonth.Milikcalculatedfromthefractionsinthetext

thatthemonthwasMonthXandhereferredtothedateasthe8thdayofthe10thlunar

month,as“the8thTebeth”usingtheAramaicmonthnameforthe10thmonthintheluni-

solar-triennialcycle,whichhearguedexistedinthetext,isnotrelevanttotheBabylonian

calendarwhichusesa19-yearluni-solarcycle(Neugebauer,1975;Rochberg,1992)].

ThewaxingmoonrisesinGate5forthefirsttimeduringday9ofthelunarmonth

(4Q209,frg7col.iii,lines7-8)andsetsinGate5onNight10(aftersunset,lines8-9),see

Figure1.2

2ThetextforNight9isinterruptedbythepassageofthesun.Themoonappearstosettwice:onceimmediatelybeforetheentryofthesunwithoutagivengatenumber(line5)andthenimmediatelyaftertheentryofthesun,whenitstatesthatthemoonsetsinGate5(line6).Thisseemstobeaduplicationofthepositioninthetextualformulaforthemoonset.Comparetheformulain4Q2093:themoonshines,setsandrisesinGate3onNightandDay4(lines6-8)andwillsetinGate3forthefirsttimeafterithasriseninGate3,onNight5(line8,recon,Drawnel,2011,150-151).MyreconstructioninFigure1andTables2and3,isbasedonasunset-to-sunsetcalendarandassignsthemoon’sgatenumbertothegateinwhichitfirstrose.In4Q208frg24coli.thegatenumberinwhichthemoonrisesisnoted,butnotthegatenumberinwhichitsets(textandtranslation:Drawnel2011,118-120).

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Figure1:Basicdiagramtoillustratemoon’sdata(reconstructed)in4Q209frg7columniii:

showingdaysofthemonth,‘gates,’correspondingzodiacsigns,lunarphasesandlunar

fractionsinhalf-sevenths

Convertingthegatenumbersintotheircognatezodiacsigns,andtakingintoaccountthe

lunarfractionsinhalf-seventhsinthetext(fromwhichonecanidentifythephaseofthe

moon,eitherintermsoftimerelations[Drawnel],orvisually,bylinearprogressionsoflight

anddarknessonthemoon’ssurface[Milik,1976;TigchelaarandGarcíaMartínez,2000])

wouldmean,accordingtothehypothesis,thatthesun,whichtakesamonthtotravel

throughonezodiacsign,movesfromSagittarius(Gate1)intoCapricorn(Gate1)thewinter

solstice.

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ThemoonsetsinGate5(Taurus)aftersunsetonNight9(however,themoonsetis

duplicatedinthetext,andtheformulaisproblematicatthispoint,asnotedabove),risingin

Gate5onthesamedayforthefirsttime.AsthemoonsetsonNight10,inasunset-to-

sunsetcalendarGate5isassignedtoNight10,notNight9inMonthX,(seeTable1for

correspondingmonthsandzodiacsigns).

UsingMilik’sillustrativeassignation,thefirstnightinquestion,“8thTevet”(4Q209,

fragment7columniii,line1)coincideswiththewintersolsticeinsomeyearsinthe

BabylonianhoroscopesintheMesopotamiancalendar(Rochberg1998,44,78;Jacobus

2011,100,194–200;2014a291–311).Accordingly,thecalendarof4Q208–4Q208maywell

followa19-yearluni-solarcycleknownfromlateBabyloniantexts(Rochberg,1998;Steele

2007)andfromtheGreekMetoniccycledatedto432BCE(PritchettandNeugebauer,1947,

1–14;Neugebauer,1975,622-624;Hannah,2005,55–58).

4. Findings

Itispossibletosubstitutetheexistingnumericaldataofthe‘gates’inthefragments

inthesynchronisticcalendarof4Q208–4Q209withtheircorrespondingzodiacsigns.Ifwe

alsofollowedaschematictwoandthree-dayarrangementofthemoon’sstayineachzodiac

signbasedonasimilararrangementin4QZodiacCalendarandtheincrementsofhalf-

seventhsofthemoon’swaxingandwaningfor29and30-daymonthsreconstructedby

Drawnel,wecouldtheoreticallyreproducethelunaryearin4Q208–4Q209fromthelarger

extantandreconstructedfragments,seeTable2.InTable3,thezodiacsignsandthegate

numbersareplacedtogetherusingtheexistingandrestoredtextinordertoillustratethe

reconstructionfully.Ascanbeseenfromthetables,thesuggestedmodelbeginsonDay1,

MonthI:moonriseinAries,Gate4,a30-daymonth,inacalendarinwhichthedaysbeginat

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sunset.Thesignsofthezodiacfollowintheirconsecutiveorderaccordingtotheschematic

arrangementdescribed.Notwonightsintheyearcanhavethesamedata.

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I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 29 301 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i .5 2 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i 1 .53 _ ` a b c d e f g h i ^ 1.5 14 _ ` a b c d e f g h i ^ 2 1.55 ` a b c d e f g h i ^ _ 2.5 26 ` a b c d e f g h i ^ _ 3 2.57 a b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` 3.5 38 a b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` 4 3.59 a b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` 4.5 410 b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a 5 4.511 b c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a 5.5 512 c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b 6 5.513 c d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b 6.5 614 d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c (7) 6.515 d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c 6.5 (7)16 d e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c 6 6.517 e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d 5.5 618 e f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d 5 5.519 f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e 4.5 520 f g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e 4 4.521 g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f 3.5 422 g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f 3 3.523 g h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f 2.5 324 h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g 2 2.525 h i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g 1.5 226 i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h 1 1.527 i ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h .5 128 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i .529 ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i 30 ^ ` b d f h

Table2:Reconstructionof4Q209lunaryearsubstitutinggatenumbersforzodiacsigns

Toprow:months;leftcolumn:daysofmonth.Themoon’sfractionsinhalf-seventhsofwaxingandwaningfor29and30-daymonthsareinthetwofar-righthandcolumns.Theshadedareasaretheexistingorreconstructedfragmentswith‘gate’numbersKey:Aries^:Gate4;Taurus_:Gate5;Gemini`:Gate6;Cancera:Gate6;Leob:Gate5;Virgoc:Gate4;Librad:Gate3;Scorpioe:Gate2;Sagittariusf:Gate1;Capricorng:Gate1;Aquariush:Gate2;Piscesi:Gate3

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I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 29 30

1 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i .5

2 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 1 .5

3 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 1.5 1

4 5_ ` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 33i 4^ 2 1.5

5 6` 4a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 2.5 2

6 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 3 2.5

7 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 3.5 3

8 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 4 3.5

9 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 4.5 4

10 6b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5 4.5

11 6b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5.5 5

12 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 6 5.5

13 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 6.5 6

14 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c (7) 6.5

15 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 6.5 (7)

16 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 6 6.5

17 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 5.5 6

18 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 5 5.5

19 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 4.5 5

20 1f 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 4 4.5

21 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 3.5 4

22 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 3 3.5

23 1g 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 2.5 3

24 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2 2.5

25 2h 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 1.5 2

26 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 1 1.5

27 3i 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h .5 1

28 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i .5

29 4^ 5_ 6` 6a 5b 4c 3d 2e 1f 1g 2h 3i

30 4^ 6` 5b 3d 1f 2h

Table3.Reconstructionof4Q208-4Q209lunaryear,withzodiacsignscorrespondingto

the‘gate’numbers(extantgatenumbersinbold).

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Theshadedareasdescribedbelowrepresentfragmentswithexistingorreconstructedgate

numbersbasedontextualdata.ThesemaybeidentifiedasdescribingdatesinMonth1,

Month9,Month10,andMonth12.Theselected,abbreviateddatafortheshadedareasare

asfollows(seeDrawnel2011forthefragmentnumberingtranscription,translation,and

restoration).

Month1,4Q209fragment16.Night25:themoonishiddenfor5/7ths;itshinesfor

2/7ths.Night26:themoonishiddenfor5.5/7ths(basedonthefractions,itisa30-day

month).ThemoonisinGate3(Pisces)(line2).

Month9,4Q209fragment7,columnii:Nights23[themoonsetsandentersGate3

(Libra)]toNight27,Gate2(Scorpio).ThemoonsetsinGate2onNight25,andriseson

Night26[inthemorning,sinceitisawaningmoon](lines8,10)(a30-daymonth).

Month10,4Q209fragment3:Night4,themoonis5/7thsdark,andonNight5[the

moonleavesAquarius]themoonsetsandentersGate3(Pisces)(line7);itislightfor

2.5/7thsanditrisesonthesameday[indaylight](line8,restored)(a29-daymonth).

Month10,4Q209fragment7,columniii:Nights8toDay10.ThesunrisesinGate1

(SagittariustoCapricorn);themoonsetsinanunnumberedgateonNight9(lines4-5)and

appearstosetagaininGate5onNight9(line6),risinginGate5onthesameday(lines6-8),

andsetsonDay10(lines8-9)(a29-daymonth).

Month12,4Q208fragment24,columni:Night2toDay6;Night3:themoonis

1.5/7thslightanddarkfor5.5/7ths.ThemoonrisesfromGate4(line3)forthefirsttime

duringDay2(lines1-4),andsetsduringNight3[inGate4](Aries)(lines4-5,reconstructed)

(a29-daymonth).

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Usingthistheoreticalsystem,itmaybepossibleeventuallytoreconstructthe

calendricalcyclesoftheAramaiczodiacalcalendarsfromQumranwithmoreprecision.The

implicationofthisresearchisthatitislikelythatinSecondTempleJudaismgroupsusedthe

AramaicandHebrewcalendarsforseparatepurposes.Thereisnoevidencetosuggestthat

theAramaiccalendarswereoflessimportancethantheHebrew364-daycalendarsinthe

Qumrancorpus.Theymayhavebeentaughtwithinthepedagogicframeworkofangelic

mythologyknownfrom1Enoch,andassuchrepresentedanotherformofcalendrical

knowledgethathadbeenmodifiedfromitsMesopotamianrootsforusewithinthecomplex

cultureofearlyJudaism.

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