Refining Topographic Line Maps for Use with Ground Based ...eprints.qut.edu.au/15877/1/Dave_Sapparth_Thesis.pdf · Refining Topographic Line Maps for Use with Ground Based Night Vision

Refining Topographic Line Maps

for Use with Ground Based Night Vision Systems

A thesis

submitted in fulfilment of

the requirement for

the Degree of Master of Applied Science (Research)

by

David James Sapparth,

Bachelor of Science (UNSW)

Queensland University of Technology

Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering

School of Design and Built Environment

December 2002

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Keywords

Night Vision Goggles, NVG, Topographic Line Map, TLM, military operations,

cartography, visual perception, contrast, and map design.

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Abstract

This study aims to refine the current cartographic standards and specifications used

by the Australian Defence Force to produce the 1:50 000 scale Topographic Line

Map (TLM) so that TLMs can be read with both normal chromatic vision and with

achromatic NVG vision.

The proliferation and integration of Night Vision Goggles (NVG) into the Australian

Army has increased the operating capacity of forces at night. The Australian Army

has incorporated NVG into standard operating procedures and training to the effect

that Australian military personnel do not operate, at night, without NVG. The

increased use of NVG in the Australian Army has required existing systems to be

modified or redesigned to be effective within the limitations of NVG.

The inability to read TLMs effectively with NVG is an identified problem within the

Australian Army. This research has investigated the problems associated with using

NVG and the information, which cannot be read on TLMs with NVG. This

information was compared to a survey of features on a TLM that are critical for

successful military operations. The combined information determined which

features on a TLM were to be refined to enable effective reading with NVG.

The scope of this research limited refinements to current or previous cartographic

standards and specifications used by the Australian Army to produce TLMs.

Refinements were limited to symbology, size, and colour and three critical

information features of contours, watercourses and vegetation. The problems of

cartographic design for a dual vision system (chromatic/achromatic) were

investigated and it was determined that the common factor of value contrast exhibits

the greatest effect on the refinement process.

Prototype TLMs were produced and tested with normal and NVG vision to

determine the best cartographic portrayal of the critical information features, without

compromising the Figure/ground relationship, balance and cognitive meanings of the

TLM. A final product was produced from the prototype experiment results providing

a TLM for use with both normal and NVG vision. The refined TLM has changed

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contours from brown to black without changes to symbology or size and

watercourses from 0.1mm width to 0.2mm width without changing colour or

symbology. Vegetation was retained at the current standard and specification.

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Table of Contents

KEYWORDS ..........................................................................................................................................I ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................................II TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ IV TABLES / FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ VII ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................... IX GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................................... X STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP .......................................................................................... XII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................................... XIII

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................2

1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................2 2. BACKGROUND ...........................................................................................................................3

2.1 NVG, the Military and TLMs...........................................................................................3 2.2 NVG Research and Cartography ....................................................................................4 2.3 Importance of Research ..................................................................................................5

3. RESEARCH APPROACH...............................................................................................................6 3.1 Aims of Research.............................................................................................................6 3.2 Scope of Research ...........................................................................................................6 3.3 Methodology....................................................................................................................7

4. OUTLINE OF THE THESIS ............................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH ELEMENTS.......................................10

1. NIGHT VISION GOGGLES .........................................................................................................10 1.1 Components...................................................................................................................10 1.2 Characteristics ..............................................................................................................12

2. LIMITATIONS ...........................................................................................................................13 2.1 Visual Acuity .................................................................................................................13 2.2 Scotopic/Monochromatic Vision ...................................................................................14 2.3 Spectral Sensitivity ........................................................................................................14 2.4 Stereopsis and Depth Perception ..................................................................................15 2.5 Reduced Field Of View..................................................................................................15

3. AUSTRALIAN ARMY NVG.......................................................................................................16 3.1 Technical Specifications................................................................................................19 3.2 Method of Operation .....................................................................................................21

4. THE TOPOGRAPHIC LINE MAP (TLM) .....................................................................................24 4.1 The 1:50 000 Scale TLM ...............................................................................................24 4.2 TLM Production Process ..............................................................................................27

5. SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................................31

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CHAPTER 3. DETERMINING THE VARIABLES ...................................................................33

1. SURVEYING THE ISSUES ...........................................................................................................34 1.1 Surveying All Users .......................................................................................................35 1.2 Surveying the Commanders...........................................................................................43 1.3 TLM Information Priority .............................................................................................47 1.4 Discussion of Survey Results .........................................................................................60

2. TLM SYMBOLOGY AND TONES ...............................................................................................62 2.1 Substantiating the Fundamental Variables and TLM Grid Information .......................62 2.2 Tone Assessment............................................................................................................70

3. SUMMARY ...............................................................................................................................77

CHAPTER 4. CARTOGRAPHIC SOLUTIONS FOR VARIABLES .......................................79

1. TLM DESIGN ...........................................................................................................................79 2. REFINING THE TLM.................................................................................................................86 3. PROTOTYPE SPECIFICATIONS AND CONSTRUCTION .................................................................93

3.1 Standards and Specifications ........................................................................................93 3.2 Prototype Production ....................................................................................................98

4. SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................102

CHAPTER 5. TESTING THE REFINEMENTS.......................................................................104

1. PROTOTYPE TESTING .............................................................................................................104 1.1 Aim and Methodology .................................................................................................104 1.2 Results .........................................................................................................................105

2. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .......................................................................................................111 3. FINAL PRODUCT ....................................................................................................................114 4. SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................115

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................117

1. SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................117 2. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................120 3. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.....................................................................121 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................122

APPENDIX A: CABOOLTURE 1971.............................................................................................125

APPENDIX B: MOUNT TAMBORINE 1988 ................................................................................126

APPENDIX C: WIDE BAY TRAINING AREA SPECIAL 1999. ................................................127

APPENDIX D: SURVEY - OPERATING WITH NVG ................................................................128

APPENDIX E: SURVEY QUESTIONS FOR PL COMD/PL SGT/ SECT COMD/SECT 2IC.134

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APPENDIX F: MAP INFORMATION PRIORITY......................................................................138

APPENDIX G: PROTOTYPE 1......................................................................................................143

APPENDIX H: PROTOTYPE 2......................................................................................................144

APPENDIX I: PROTOTYPE 3 .......................................................................................................145

APPENDIX J: PROTOTYPE 4.......................................................................................................146

APPENDIX K: TLM PROTOTYPE EXPERIMENT...................................................................147

APPENDIX L: FINAL TLM, MOUNT TAMBORINE ................................................................156

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Tables / Figures

FIGURE 2.1 NVG INTENSIFYING PROCESS .............................................................................................11 FIGURE 2.2 ITL MINI N/SEAS NVG .....................................................................................................16 FIGURE 2.3 MINI N/SEAS COMPONENTS ...............................................................................................17 FIGURE 2.4 MINI N/SEAS WITH HEAD HARNESS....................................................................................18 FIGURE 2.5 AUSTRALIAN SOLDIER WEARING MINI N/SEAS..................................................................18 FIGURE 2.6 EXTENDED RANGE LENS .....................................................................................................20 FIGURE 2.7 VIEW THROUGH NVG COMPASS .........................................................................................21 FIGURE 2.8 STIPPLE DESCRIPTORS .........................................................................................................28 FIGURE 3.1 EASE OF READING TLM INFORMATION WITH NVG .............................................................39 FIGURE 3.2 CULTURAL INFORMATION 1.................................................................................................49 FIGURE 3.3 CULTURAL INFORMATION ...................................................................................................50 FIGURE 3.4 HYDROGRAPHY INFORMATION 1 .........................................................................................52 FIGURE 3.5 HYDROGRAPHY INFORMATION 2 .........................................................................................53 FIGURE 3.6 HYPSOGRAPHY INFORMATION.............................................................................................55 FIGURE 3.7 VEGETATION INFORMATION ................................................................................................56 FIGURE 3.8 TLM INFORMATION / MARGINAL INFORMATION.................................................................58 FIGURE 3.9 CRITICAL INFORMATION......................................................................................................59 FIGURE 3.10 TONE TEST WHITE ............................................................................................................71 FIGURE 3.11 TONE TEST 25% GREY ......................................................................................................72 FIGURE 3.12 TONE TEST 50% GREY ......................................................................................................73 FIGURE 3.13 TONE TEST 75% GREY ......................................................................................................74 FIGURE 3.14 TONE TEST BLACK ............................................................................................................75 FIGURE 4.1 BASIC FORMULA FOR CONTRAST ........................................................................................83 FIGURE 4.2 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST .................................................................................................85

TABLE 2.1 MINI N/SEAS TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS .........................................................................19 TABLE 2.2 COLOURS AND STIPPLES USED FOR PRINTING 1:50 000 TLM................................................30 TABLE 3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFORMATION UNREADABLE WITH NVG AND INFORMATION

CRITICAL TO MILITARY OPERATIONS ............................................................................................61 TABLE 3.2 CRITICAL INFORMATION READABILITY ................................................................................65 TABLE 4.1 SYMBOLOGY FOR TLM REFINEMENT ...................................................................................88 TABLE 4.2 SYMBOL COMBINATIONS FOR TLM PROTOTYPES ................................................................89 TABLE 4.3 PROTOTYPE ONE...................................................................................................................94 TABLE 4.4 PROTOTYPE TWO ..................................................................................................................95 TABLE 4.5 PROTOTYPE THREE ...............................................................................................................96 TABLE 4.6 PROTOTYPE FOUR .................................................................................................................97 TABLE 5.1 READABILITY OF CRITICAL FEATURES ON PROTOTYPES.....................................................110 TABLE 5.2 RATING OF CRITICAL FEATURES ON PROTOTYPES ..............................................................111

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TABLE 3.3 BEST CARTOGRAPHIC PORTRAYAL FOR BOTH TYPES OF VISION........................................111

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Abbreviations

ABC Automatic Brightness Control

AHD Australian Height Datum

AGD 66 Australian Geodetic Datum 1966

BSP Bright Source Protection

BUA Built Up Areas

CIE International Commission on Illumination

DIGO Defence Intelligence and Geospatial Organisation

ESRI Earth Sciences Research Institute

FOV Field Of Vision

GIB Geospatial Intelligence Branch

GIS Geographic Information System

GPS Global Positioning System

IR Infra Red

JOG Joint Operation Graphic

MCP Micro Channel Plate

NVD Night Vision Device

NVG Night Vision Goggle

NVG ER Night Vision Goggle Extended Range

SOP Standard Operating Procedures or Standing Operating Procedures

SYMBAS SYMBolisation All Series

TLM Topographic Line Map

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Glossary

Achromatic An object that is free from colour, being made only of white or black.

Automap An automated digital system of map compilation used by the Australian

Army for production of mapping.

Automatic Brightness Control An electronic feature of NVG that automatically

reduces voltage to the MCP to keep the image intensifier’s brightness within optical

limits.

Automatic Shut Off Device An automatic system within NVG, which turns the

NVG off during periods of extreme bright conditions to avoid damage to the NVG.

Bright Source Protection An electronic feedback circuit that automatically shuts

down the NVG when a bright flash enters the scene.

Chromatic An object that has colour.

Compilation The production of a new or revised map or chart from existing maps,

aerial photographs, surveys or other source data.

Dioptre Unit of refractive power when this is expressed as reciprocal of focal length

in metres.

Field of View The diameter of the imaged area when viewed through NVG.

Hydrography Features both natural and human made of which water is the main

constituent, either permanently or intermittently.

Hypsography Features, which deal with the height of an object or relief.

Lithography Process of printing so that the treated area of the printing plate can be

inked but the remaining area rejects ink.

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Micro Channel Plate A metal coated glass disc that multiplies the electrons

produced by the photocathode within NVG.

Monochromatic Of a single colour or tones of a single colour.

Pantone Matching System A commercially recognised set of defined colours used

in the printing industry.

Photocathode A plate that converts photons into electrons through the process of

photoemission.

Photoemission The conversion of photons into electrons.

Repromat Material, generally in the form of positive or negative copies on film of

each colour plate, from which a map may be reprinted without redrafting.

Scintillation A faint, random sparkling effect throughout the NVG image.

Characteristic of MCP and more pronounced in low light conditions.

Stereopsis The perception of depth based on the slightly different view given by each

eye.

Stipple A photographically or mechanically prepared transparent plastic sheet

depicting map symbolisation over the whole area.

SYMBolisation All Series (SYMBAS) Australian Army Survey Corps Publication

defining, describing and listing all standards and specifications for production of

maps from 1:25 000 to 1:250 000 scale.

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Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief,

the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person

except where due reference is made.

Signed:______________________________________ Date:_____________

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Doctor John Hayes for his guidance throughout the year and his

persistence in helping me understand how academia works. I would like to thank the

Australian Army for giving me the chance to undertake this study and allowing Units

to participate and provide input to the study. Thanks especially to Major Bill

Thomson, Officer Commanding 1st Topographical Survey Squadron and the

members of the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron, specifically Warrant Officers

Steve Hill and Ian Read, Sergeant Brian Paul and Corporal Nick Vanderswan for all

their help over the course of this research.

Special thanks to Josh Andrews for his input, assistance and guidance through the

technical minefields of this research and keeping me in touch with reality.

Finally a big thanks to Lisa who put up with all the crazy discussions, late nights, lost

weekends and for her ability to feign interest in something she knew little about, but

best of all for sticking by me.

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Page 1

Chapter 1

Introduction

Page 2

Chapter 1. Introduction

1. Introduction

During the twentieth century warfare and the art of combat changed. Ground forces

were accorded the ability to operate effectively at night. The battlefield changed

from a dual system of night and day, where ground forces mainly operated during the

day and rested at night, to a twenty-four hour system.

The development of Night Vision Goggles (NVG) in the 1960’s provided the basis

for turning warfare into a twenty-four hour battlefield, without the need for pauses by

ground forces at night. This level of operability allowed soldiers to operate

effectively but at the same time increased training requirements, increased fatigue,

and increased the possibility of system fault. Whilst soldiers were better able to

operate at night, other systems used by soldiers to carry out their tasks were not

modified to suit the new environment.

The Topographic Line TLM (TLM) has always been used by military forces for

control and movement and is the main source of geographic information for the

soldier operating on the battlefield. TLMs are designed for use with normal colour

vision during daylight conditions. Since the inception of NVG, little research or

change to TLMs has been undertaken for them to be used effectively with NVG.

This research aims to investigate the operating parameters between Australian Army

ground forces, NVG and TLMs in order to make the TLM more functional when

used with NVG.

Chapter 1: Introduction Page 3

2. Background

2.1 NVG, the Military and TLMs

Since their inception in the 1960’s, night vision devices have been utilised by the

military to increase efficiency and increase work rates during reduced light

conditions and at night. The initial NVG were cumbersome and provided poor visual

acuity. Increases in technology and vision systems allowed NVG to develop through

three generations (I, II and III), each generation reducing system size and improving

visual acuity. NVG were initially developed for weapon scopes and allowed weapon

operators to deliver accurate firepower on the battlefield at night. As acuity

improved and size reduced, NVG were extended to other areas of military operations

such as surveillance, aircraft operations and general use for all soldiers.

The Australian Army first used NVG during the Vietnam conflict.1 After Vietnam,

NVG were continued in use by the Australian Army, primarily by Special Forces,

Infantry and Aviation assets. In the late 1990’s, with the development of NVG

Generation III, the system was introduced for use with all Army units. The

introduction to all units improved the ability to operate effectively at night, increased

efficiency at night and reduced casualties on the battlefield. Whilst NVG has

increased operating tempos and accorded the Australian soldier a technological edge,

NVG has not been combined effectively with other Army systems.

The Topographic Line Map (TLM) is the basis for all geographical information for

the soldier operating in the field. TLMs have been fundamental to warfare

throughout history. Without TLMs military forces cannot conduct operations,

boundaries cannot be described or visualised and munitions and artillery cannot be

delivered effectively. The 1:50 000 TLM, first introduced in the late 1950’s2, is the

standard TLM by which the majority of Australian Army units conduct training and

operations. The standards and specifications by which the TLM is produced, were

developed for normal daytime vision. The standards and specifications do not take

1 Rowe (1987). Vietnam, The Australian Experience. Sydney, Time-Life Books

2 Coulthard-Clark (2000). Australia's Military Map Makers. Melbourne, Oxford University Press. 145

Page 4 Chapter 1: Introduction

into account the organic limitations of NVG, making the two systems (NVG / TLM)

incompatible.

The Australian Army has identified a problem of incompatibility between the two

systems (NVG / TLM) through operational experience, post operation reports, NVG

training and navigation training.3 The need for research into this area has increased

since the introduction of NVG to all ground forces within the Australian Army and

the increasing amount of operations in which the Australian Army is involved.

2.2 NVG Research and Cartography

NVG research has concentrated on two main areas: technological development of

NVG and the limitations of NVG. The technological development of NVG is not

relevant to this research and will not be further discussed. Of relevance to this

research are studies undertaken into the limitations of NVG.

Research into NVG limitations has focused on four specific areas. These are visual

acuity, depth perception, spectral performance and system focus. Relevant to this

research are visual acuity and spectral performance studies. Studies of visual acuity

with NVG have investigated the degradation of visual image when using NVG.

Tests have been undertaken with eye charts, lettering systems and symbology to

determine visual thresholds that are generally less than normal unaided vision. The

spectral sensitivity of NVG is much higher than normal vision and focused towards

the near infrared of the light spectrum. The difference in sensitivity changes the way

in which objects are seen and may affect the ability to accurately comprehend

information.

3 The general problems associated with reading TLMs with NVG is well known within the Australian Army. Specific reference to reading TLMs with NVG can be found in some post operation and exercise reports, the detailing of which here, would limit the distribution of this research.


The majority of NVG research undertaken is focused on NVG limitations that affect

aircraft and helicopter operations. Only a small minority focus on the limitations of

ground based NVG systems. No previous NVG research has incorporated a TLM

into a study.

During the course of this study, no previous research on the relationship between

NVG and TLMs or cartography was discovered. The lack of prior research does not

allow this study to draw on previous experience or past conclusions. There is no

reference frame for this study to build upon, except those gathered anecdotally by the

author.

2.3 Importance of Research

This research is important for the following reasons:

• To solve a problem, identified by the Australian Army.

• To improve efficiency of military operations and reduce reliance on other, more

cumbersome or tactically inefficient, methods for reading TLMs at night.

• To improve the survivability chances of a soldier on the battlefield. If soldiers

are able to accurately read a TLM with NVG, they will be able to make better

decisions and reduce risk.

• No studies have been previously undertaken on the direct relationship between

NVG and TLMs. This research will identify areas for future research and

improvement of NVG and TLM relationships.

• The findings of this research may be applied to any NVG and TLM relationship

regardless of individual characteristics of either the NVG system or TLM

standards and specifications.


3. Research Approach

3.1 Aims of Research

The aims of this research are to refine Australian Army TLM standards and

specifications and to produce a TLM that can be read and used effectively with both

normal vision and NVG.

Other secondary aims of this research are:

• Identification of problems associated with using Australian Army NVG.

• Identification of cartographic theory and design techniques, that are applicable to

NVG use.

• Identification of TLM information and features that are critical to the successful

conduct of military operations.

• Identification of future research areas on NVG and TLM relationships.

3.2 Scope of Research

In order to meet the research aim, and avoid duplication, limitations placed on this

research are:

• The TLM must be able to be used both with normal vision and NVG vision.

• Any refinements made to the current standard for 1:50 000 TLMs will be

derived, where possible, from previous and current cartographic standards and

specifications as used by the Australian Army. The use of previous and current

standards and specifications to facilitate change within the TLM, will reduce any

qualitative or perception issues arising during the research.


• Refinements to the TLM will be undertaken for use with passive NVG only.

Infra red light and active night imaging systems and applications will not be

addressed.

• The research is centred on ground based NVG as is currently used by the

Australian Army. It makes no attempt to test, research or investigate NVG

systems used by Australian Army Pilots or Aircrew.

3.3 Methodology

To achieve the aim of this research, the methodology will involve use of qualitative

and quantitative techniques. To identify initial problems with NVG and TLMs,

surveys will be undertaken of experienced NVG users within the Australian Army.

Surveys will focus the research and identify key components for further

investigation. In conjunction with the surveys, a qualitative assessment of TLM

information priorities will be conducted. This will further refine the research and

identify those information features on a TLM that are critical to the effective conduct

of military operations. Experiments will be conducted to determine readability of

critical information features with NVG.

After the surveys and experiments are complete and the data analysed, cartographic

design techniques will be investigated to determine the best method of resolving

identified problems with the TLM. The principles of TLM design, colour use,

contrast, symbology and size will all be investigated with regard to data previously

gained in this study, NVG and the current TLM standards and specifications.

Solutions will be proposed to rectify faults within the NVG / TLM system with the

aim of developing prototype TLMs.

To test hypothesis developed throughout the research, prototype TLMs will be

produced. The prototypes will be tested for their usability, clarity and acuity under

both normal and NVG viewing conditions. The results of testing will be analysed

and discussed with respect to the primary aim of this research.


4. Outline of the Thesis

This thesis consists of six chapters.

• Chapter One introduces the context of the research. It outlines NVG and TLMs

and discusses links between NVG and cartography. The research aims, scope

and methodology are detailed.

• Chapter Two details the characteristics of the research elements. It discusses and

describes in detail NVG and its limitations; the NVG used by the Australian

Army and the methods by which it is used. The TLM, its standards and

specifications and production methods are also discussed.

• Chapter Three determines the variables involved with NVG and TLM. It details

and discusses surveys undertaken during the research to identify problems

between the systems. Experiments undertaken with NVG to determine TLM

readability and tone identification are also discussed.

• Chapter Four discusses and presents cartographic options for correction of faults

within the NVG / TLM system. Cartographic theory is reviewed to determine

critical factors for TLM refinement. Standards and specifications are detailed for

the prototype TLMs.

• Chapter Five presents and discusses the results of the experiments conducted on

the prototype TLMs.

• Chapter Six summarises research contributions and findings and draws

conclusions from the research. Recommendations are made for further research.

Page 9

Chapter 2

Characteristics of Research Elements

Page 10

Chapter 2. Characteristics of Research Elements

In this research, there are two major elements: NVG and TLMs. This chapter

describes NVG, their limitations and the current model used by the Australian Army.

It then describes how the Australian Army uses NVG. Finally, the chapter will

describe the TLM and TLM production process used by the Australian Army.

1. Night Vision Goggles

1.1 Components

NVG are image intensification devices that work by taking a small amount of

photons, converting them into electrons, multiplying them, then converting the

electrons into photons to form a picture the human eye can recognise.

The amount of photons entering the device is dependent on illuminant levels from

environmental surrounds. The photons are collected and focused onto a

photocathode surface where photoemission occurs and photons are converted to

electrons. The electrons are multiplied by passing through a Micro Channel Plate

(MCP). A MCP is a metal coated glass disc that multiplies electrons produced by the

photocathode. Once multiplied the electrons are projected onto a phosphor

luminescent screen. The luminescent screen releases photons allowing an amplified

image to be detected by the human eye. There are four main components of a NVG.

These are displayed in Figure 2.1, with the light intensification process.

• Lens. The collection and focusing of available photons is achieved by an

objective lens. The lens differs in size depending on the type of NVG and the

visual distance the NVG is intended to perform at.

• Photocathode. The purpose of the photocathode is to convert photons into

electrons through photoemission.

Chapter2: Characteristics of Research Elements Page 11

• Microchannel Plate (MCP). The purpose of the MCP is to multiply electrons.

The MCP is made of millions of hollow glass tubes and is electrified, so that as

an electron collides with the MCP more electrons are generated, increasing the

amount of electrons available in the system.

• Phosphor Screen. The phosphor screen converts electrons into photons and

provides an image for viewing by the human eye.

Figure 2.1 NVG Intensifying Process

Photons

Electrons

Focusing

Lens

Photocathode MCP Phosphor

Screen

Page 12 Chapter 2: Characteristics of Research Elements

1.2 Characteristics

NVG are primarily characterised by their generation, which relates to their

technological chronology and performance.

• Generation I tubes. Developed around the 1960’s with low intensifying

properties, high distortion rates and a short tube life.

• Generation II tubes. Were the first NVG to utilise MCPs. This improved image

quality and increased tube life. The MCP allowed NVG to be reduced in size,

allowing development of goggles and hand-held systems.

• Generation III tubes. Generation III NVG were developed in the late 1970’s and

are characterised by two increases in technology. Firstly, introduction of a

gallium arsenide photocathode increased performance, allowing detection of

objects at greater distances and allowing NVG to work at very low illumination

levels. Secondly, the construction of an ion-barrier film on the MCP increased

the overall tube life. Generation III tubes are also characterised by automatic

brightness control which provides for a steady state of scene brightness under

varying light conditions, including conditions normally too bright for previous

generation NVG.4

NVG are also characterised by their intended use; binoculars, scopes and camera

tubes and whether they are a monocular, binocular or biocular. NVG have improved

operations at night, but have generic limitations that must be taken into

consideration.

4 Australian Army (2000). User Handbook - Individual Night Fighting Equipment. Puckapunyal, Combined Arms Doctrine and Development Section, Army Combat Arms Training Centre. 11

Chapter 2: Characteristics of Research Elements Page 13

2. Limitations

2.1 Visual Acuity

The quality of an image formed by NVG, visual acuity, is relational to the amount of

available ambient illumination.5 If too much light is present, for example a street

light, the image presented will flare or ‘whiteout’. If enough light is not available,

for example a darkened room, the image will be unreadable by the human eye.

Visual acuity is mostly determined by ambient illumination, however the system

components of NVG can affect visual acuity. The factors that predominately affect

visual acuity are the MCP and system focus.

The MCP affects visual acuity in two ways. Firstly, the spacing of elements within

the MCP affects visual acuity. The smaller the distance between elements, the better

visual acuity is. Secondly, the MCP affects visual acuity through scintillation.

Scintillation is a faint, random sparkling effect throughout the visual image produced

which affects visual acuity and image definition. It is a normal characteristic of all

MCP and is more pronounced under low light conditions. Under optimal ambient

illumination conditions and taking MCP element spacing and scintillation into

account, Generation III MCP allows for visual acuity of about 20/40.6

The direct relationship between ambient illumination and image quality has an effect

on the ability to read TLMs and limits design parameters for TLM production. As

image quality is reduced, definition, readability and perception are lost, posing

difficulties to design a single TLM for all conditions.

5 Kotulak and Rash C (1992). Visual Acuity with Second and Third Generation Night Vision Goggles Obtained from a New Method of Night Sky Simulation Across a Wide Range of Target. Fort Rucker, Alabama, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory;Rabin (1994). Vernier Acuity Through Night Vision Goggles. Fort Rucker, Alabama, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory;Wiley (1989). Visual Acuity and Stereopsis with Night Vision Goggles. Fort Rucker, Alabama, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory

6 Rabin (1996). Image Contrast and Visual Acuity Through Night Vision Goggles. Fort Rucker, Alabama, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory: 3


2.2 Scotopic/Monochromatic Vision

NVG are designed for use at night, when scotopic vision is greatest. Scotopic vision

uses the rods in the human eye, which do not differentiate colours. The rods provide

a monochromatic view which is accentuated by the green phosphor lens within NVG.

The green monochromatic view seen through NVG greatly impacts on the ability to

read TLM products. TLM products are designed for use during daytime when colour

discrimination is greatest. NVG reduces colour discrimination to contrast and colour

value. This will be discussed further in Chapter 4.

2.3 Spectral Sensitivity

The human eye has a normal spectral response of approximately 380 to 780 nm,

designed for optimum daytime use. Scotopic vision is approximately 380-620 nm.

Generation III NVG have a spectral response of approximately 625 to 930 nm. The

higher spectral response allows NVG to make best use of ambient light from the

night sky, which approximately peaks at 700 to 900 nm7, in the infrared region of the

spectrum. Spectral responses cannot be used alone to judge vision as when we look

at an object we are seeing the reflected light not pure light. Spectral reflectivity

differs with scotopic and photopic vision and within different regions of the

spectrum. This results in some objects having a different appearance and at times

colour value, with NVG compared to unaided vision.

7 Gamma Scientific (1999). Measuring Spectral Performance of Night Vision Devices. San Diego, Gamma Scientific: 2


2.4 Stereopsis and Depth Perception

Stereopsis is the perception of depth based on the slightly different view given by

each eye. With NVG the stereopsis threshold is about four times greater than with

normal viewing.8 Numerous studies have been undertaken on the effect of NVG on

stereopsis and depth perception.9 The studies have shown that depth perception

varies greatly with NVG type and mostly affects operators of moving vehicles. Most

studies were undertaken in a laboratory environment using Snellen Charts, computer

displays or discrimination of objects at different distances. These studies, whilst not

accounting for the real time representation of flying an aircraft or driving a vehicle,

have proved that NVG effects distance judgement. Most participants within the

studies underestimated distances and had difficulty with discriminating object

sizes.10 Anecdotal evidence has also related depth perception and the use of NVG as

a factor in some rotary wing aircraft accidents.11

2.5 Reduced Field Of View

As an optical instrument, NVG reduces the observer’s Field Of View (FOV). NVG

reduces the FOV to approximately 40 degrees and thereby limits the ability of an

observer to integrate and compare different areas of the visual scene.12 When using

8 Zalevski, et al (2001). Size Estimation with Night Vision Goggles. Melbourne, Defence Science and Technology Organisation: 6

9 Kotulak and Rash C (1992) Visual Acuity with Second and Third Generation Night Vision Goggles Obtained from a New Method of Night Sky Simulation Across a Wide Range of Target;Niall, et al (1999). "Distance estimation with night vision goggles: A little feedback goes a long way." Human Factors 41(3);Rabin (1994). Optical Defocus: Differential Effects on Size and Contrast Letter Recognition Thresholds. Fort Rucker, Alabama, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory

10 Crowley (1991). Human factors of night vision devices: Anecdotes from the field concerning visual illusions and other effects. Fort Rucker, AL, US Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory;DeLucia (1999). "Critique of "distance estimation with night vision goggles: A little feedback goes a long way"." Human Factors 41(3).

11 Crowley Human factors of night vision devices: Anecdotes from the field concerning visual illusions and other effects;Essock, Sinai, McCarley, Krebs and DeFord (1999). "Perceptual ability with real-world nighttime scenes: Image-intensified, infrared and fused colour imagery." Human Factors 41(3);Hatley (2001). "NVGs: Don't fly at night without them." Flying Safety 57(9);Niall (1999). "The art of descrying distance." Human Factors 41(3);

12 Zalevski, et al (2001) Size Estimation with Night Vision Goggles: 6


NVG, more scanning of the visual scene is required than with normal viewing,

possibly leading to disorientation.13 The effect of the reduced FOV on TLM viewing

and comprehension will be further investigated in Chapters 3 and 4.

3. Australian Army NVG

The Australian Army has used image intensification devices since the early 1960’s.

The focus of this research and the model used throughout testing is the current NVG

used by Australian Defence Force ground forces. In 1999 the Australian Defence

Force acquired the International Technologies (Lasers) Limited Mini N/SEAS single-

eye acquisition sight, for use with all ground based forces in the Australian Army and

selected elements of the Australian Air Force and Navy. The MINI N/SEAS is a

night vision monocular system in a single eye configuration, pictured at Figure 2.2.

A diagram showing main components of the NVG is at Figure 2.3; technical

specifications are at Table 2-1.

Figure 2.2 ITL Mini N/SEAS NVG14

13 Wells and M. Venturio (1990). "Performance and head movements using a helmet mounted display with different sized fields of view." Optical Engineering 29: 876

14 International Lasers Technology Ltd (2002). www.itlasers.com. 2002

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This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library


Figure 2.3 Mini N/SEAS Components15

One eye is equipped with the NVG while the other remains free and retains normal

vision.16 The Australian system is equipped with a Generation III tube and can be

used as a hand held scope, mounted on a head harness or attached to weapons with

the aid of a mount. The usual configuration for military personnel is to use the NVG

mounted on a head harness, as seen in Figures 2.4 and 2.5. The head harness allows

the operator to rotate the NVG, by means of a swivel mount, away from the viewing

eye to clear the field of view.

15 Australian Army (2000) User Handbook - Individual Night Fighting Equipment. 1-5

16 Unknown (2002). Janes Electro-Optical Devices, Janes. 337

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Figure 2.4 Mini N/SEAS with head harness17

Figure 2.5 Australian Soldier wearing Mini N/SEAS18

17 Australian Army (1999). Training Information Bulletin 79 - Project NINOX - Night Fighting Equipment. 2.

18 Australian Army (2002). www.army.gov.au.

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3.1 Technical Specifications

Table 2.1 Mini N/SEAS Technical Specifications19

19 Australian Army (2000) User Handbook - Individual Night Fighting Equipment. 11-2

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This table is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library


The Mini N/SEAS includes the following characteristics:20

• Automatic Brightness Control (ABC). Power is increased to the NVG when

light levels are low to maintain constant scene brightness.

• Bright Source Protection (BSP). A sensor built into the NVG detects bright

light sources, such as daylight, and automatically shuts the system off for

protection and to avoid damage.

• Infra Red (IR) Light. The NVG is equipped with an IR light that provides

additional close range illumination when ambient light is insufficient.

• Automatic Shut Off Device. When used on the head harness, the NVG shuts

down when rotated away from the viewing eye.

The Mini N/SEAS can be fitted with the following attachments:21

• Extended Range Lens. Provides the user with 3x magnification but reduces the

FOV to 13.30. It is attached to the front of the NVG and used mainly for

surveillance and target acquisition.

Figure 2.6 Extended Range Lens22

20 Ibid. 3-4

21 Ibid. 5

22 Australian Army (2002) www.army.gov.au

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• Compass. The NVG can be fitted with a compass to the front of the system to

assist navigation. When looking through the NVG a small graduated compass

dial is displayed in the scene. When used whilst wearing the NVG with the head

harness an error of + 150 may occur.

Figure 2.7 View through NVG Compass23

3.2 Method of Operation

NVG has increased soldiers’ ability to operate on the battlefield at night and hence

increased the operational tempo of warfare. NVG accords soldiers a greater ability

for movement at night, for easier detection, recognition and suppression of targets

and for greater control of personnel and units on the battlefield. The NVG, whilst

enhancing operations at night, has required changes to operating procedures,

generally because of system limitations.

23 Australian Army (2000) User Handbook - Individual Night Fighting Equipment. 2.6

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The NVG is primarily used mounted to the head harness on the non-master eye of the

soldier. This is to allow the soldier free movement with their hands and to allow

their master eye free to sight their weapon.24 Each member of an infantry section25

wears NVG when conducting night operations. By each member wearing NVG, the

section's ability to communicate and work on visual cues is increased. Soldiers are

trained to operate the NVG with both eyes open. Whilst difficult to master and

requiring extensive training it allows soldiers to limit the effects of a reduced FOV

and other limitations inherent to NVG. It also allows scotopic vision to be retained

in one eye should the NVG system fail. When ambient illumination is greatest and

terrain is non-restrictive, NVG is used as secondary visual aid and kept on the head

harness but rotated away from the viewing eye. This is undertaken to reduce fatigue.

The weight of the NVG when worn on the head harness (557g) causes soldiers to

experience fatigue more quickly than usual. Rest periods are more frequently

required to minimise fatigue. Neck strengthening exercises are conducted to combat

fatigue and to reduce the tendency of the soldier wearing NVG to lean forward with

the added weight.26 All soldiers undertake an extensive initial training course on

NVG. Once qualified, continuity training is undertaken through exercises and

activities planned by units within the Army. Specialist training may also be

undertaken to concentrate on unit specific tasks, surveillance or navigation using

NVG.

24 It is common practice that all soldiers are taught to shoot with their master eye to improve efficiency and accuracy. Weapons are fitted with an NVG Night Weapon Sight, similar to the Mini N/SEAS and a Night Aiming Device that emits an infrared laser, which is calibrated to the weapon aim point.

25 An infantry section is the smallest fighting unit of the Australian Army. It comprises nine soldiers and is commanded by a corporal. Three sections make a platoon, three platoons make a company, and five companies (4 general, 1 support) comprise a battalion.

26 Australian Army (1999) Training Information Bulletin 79 - Project NINOX - Night Fighting Equipment. 6.1-6.5


NVG has increased the ability to navigate at night. The ability of a soldier to view

and select objects at greater distance negates the need to continually halt and check

bearings. The NVG compass allows soldiers to quickly find and maintain their

bearing whilst patrolling. It is intended only to assist navigation not to be the

principal means of navigation. 27

When reading TLMs or other printed material, soldiers are trained to compensate for

focus range, which begins at 25cm for the Mini N/SEAS NVG. To ensure the best

visual acuity and focus, soldiers are taught to place their extended hand between the

NVG and the TLM. The thumb should touch the end of the NVG and the little finger

should touch the TLM. This gives the soldier a quick approximation of 25cm and

allows them to accurately focus on the TLM. Though this method works reasonably

well for the majority of personnel, those already with inherent eye conditions may

have difficulty focusing the NVG for TLM reading. To assist reading of close

objects, the IR light can be used. Army doctrine recommends using the IR sparingly

to avoid detection by an enemy with IR capabilities.28

The primary navigation tool of the soldier remains the prismatic compass and TLM.

Increasingly soldiers use GPS to assist navigation, increase their accuracy and track

patrol routes. Whilst different technological advances aid navigation, the reliance of

the soldier on TLMs as the foundation for navigation remains unchanged.

27 Ibid. 3.5

28 Ibid. 3.


4. The Topographic Line Map (TLM)

TLMs have been fundamental to warfare throughout history. Without TLMs military

forces cannot conduct operations, boundaries cannot be described or visualised and

munitions cannot be delivered effectively. All TLMs used by the Australian Army

are produced to standards and specifications developed in consultation with

Australian agencies and international agencies. The TLM is produced as a standard

product at large and medium scales of 1:25 000, 1:50 000 and 1:100 000. In the

Australian Army, the most commonly used TLM for conducting tactical operations is

the 1:50 000 scale TLM.

4.1 The 1:50 000 Scale TLM

The Australian Army first produced the 1:50 000 scale TLM in the 1950’s. The

change from the imperial one mile to one inch scale to the metric 1:50 000 was

adopted by Australia to comply with standardisation agreements reached following

the creation of the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO).29 The new 1:50

000 TLM contained the same cartographic presentation as used in previous TLMs.

The standards and specifications were detailed in the “Manual of TLM

Specifications” produced by the Royal Australian Survey Corps in 1960.30 An

example of a TLM produced with these specifications is Caboolture, printed 1971,

which is included at Appendix A. In the late 1970’s, the introduction of digital TLM

production methods through ‘Automap’ required revision of cartographic standards

and specifications. A new document titled “Symbolisation – All Series” or

“SYMBAS” was produced in 197831 to detail new digital standards for cartographic

portrayal of most geographic features. SYMBAS Edition 2 was produced in 198432,

detailing cartographic changes to align with new ‘Automap 2’ software which

29 Coulthard-Clark (2000) Australia's Military Map Makers. 145

30 Australian Army (1960). Manual of Map Specifications Large and Medium Scale Series, Royal Australian Survey Corps

31 Royal Australian Survey Corps (1984). Symbolization - All Series (SYMBAS) Ed 2, Royal Australian Survey Corps

32 Ibid.


enhanced the digital TLM production process. SYMBAS Edition 2 detailed the

cartographic standards by which most of the current 1:50 000 TLMs have been

produced. An example is MT Tamborine, printed 1988, included at Appendix B.

Since its inception, SYMBAS Edition 2 has undergone minor revision but remains

the foundation on which Australian Army TLMs are produced. Changes were made

to vegetation portrayal in the late 1990’s, however few TLMs have been produced

using the new vegetation specifications. An example of the current 1:50 000 TLM

standards and specifications is included at Appendix C, on the TLM Wide Bay

Training Area Special, printed 1999.

Throughout its history, the 1:50 000 TLM has undergone some changes, most

notably concerning vegetation portrayal, horizontal datum and cultural portrayal.

These changes have been to reflect new international and national standards and to

incorporate new digital TLM making technologies into the TLM production process.

The fundamental principles of cartographic design and theory have not differed with

each new 1:50 000 edition. Vegetation has remained green in colour, roads have

remained red/brown, hydrography features remained blue and contours have

remained brown. These colours are standard throughout cartography and are

maintained to ensure the best cognitive appraisal by users of TLMs. To ensure the

best results for this research a SYMBAS Edition 2 TLM was chosen to best reflect

the cartographic diversity of TLMs and represent the most frequently used TLM.


As stated previously, the majority of Australian 1:50 000 TLMs have been produced

under the SYMBAS Edition 2 specifications. For this reason, the TLM chosen for

research was 95423 Mt Tamborine Ed 2 1:50 000 scale, printed 1998. This TLM

best reflects the type of TLM used by the Australian Army even though it does not

reflect the current standards. It provides a diverse amount of cartographic features

such as:

• Representation of all types of vegetation: rain forest, dense, medium, scattered,

orchard and pine.

• Representation of most cultural features, including Built Up Areas (BUA).

• Diverse representation of hydrography features.

• Good representation of relief, including cliffs and conglomerated contours.

• The TLM is one of the most detailed and information laden TLMs printed. This

will allow any refinements to be tested in a ‘worst case’ scenario.

Other TLMs used within the research in order to test the scoped specifications are:

• 94431 Caboolture Ed 1 1:50 000 scale (initial 1:50 000 specifications), printed

1971, included as Appendix A.

• AUSPEC 0205 Wide Bay Training Area Special Ed 5 1:50 000 scale (current

SYMBAS specifications), printed 1999, included as Appendix C.

Cartographic portrayal of the 1:50 000 TLM has changed minimally since inception.

The standards and specifications have changed to remain abreast with digital

cartographic techniques and to comply with national and international agreements.

What has significantly changed is the method of TLM production, knowledge of

which is important to this research.


4.2 TLM Production Process

The TLM production process involves three general stages: acquisition, compilation

and printing. This research deals predominantly with compilation and printing.

Compilation is constrained by technology and standards and specifications. Initial

compilation of TLMs was undertaken through hand based or ‘scribing’ methods that

were time consuming and labour intensive. In the late 1960’s, scribing was

superceded by the digital methods of Automap 1 and Automap 2 where data was

registered digitally in simple CAD programs. The primary focus of compilation,

with scribing and Automap, was to produce a hardcopy TLM. The simple methods of

compilation meant cartographic features were produced independently of each other,

not spatially referenced or topologically correct and difficult to use within a

Geographic Information System (GIS). This was reflective of general trends in

cartography at the time, as GIS was in its infancy and most digital programs were

digital mapping tools rather than spatial data management tools.

Current digital compilation methods treat the hardcopy TLM as a secondary product

and compile the topographic information predominantly for use within a GIS. This

new method of compilation uses technology that can produce standard TLMs and

specific or special purpose TLMs if required. Throughout this research, modern

compilation methods were used and are detailed in Chapter 4.

Printing of TLMs has changed minimally when compared to the changes of TLM

compilation, since the inception of the 1:50 000 TLM. TLMs have been and

continue to be made through the process of lithography. Standard TLMs are printed

using a colour process printing technique where a plate is made for each feature of

the TLM. Each plate is a different colour. The 1:50 000 TLM is a five colour TLM

requiring production of five lithographic plates for printing. Each printing plate

corresponds to a specific colour and specific cartographic features as detailed in

SYMBAS Edition 2. The five colours are derived from the Pantone Matching

System that is a commercially recognised set of printing industry standards. The

Pantone Matching System contains over 500 standard colours that are produced by


blending eight basic colours plus black and transparent white.33 The five standard

colours used on a 1:50 000 TLM are Process Black, Process Blue, Brown 152,

Red/Brown 202 and Green 367.34 To induce tones within the colours, a dot stipple is

introduced to reduce the density of colour on the TLM. Stipples are primarily used

to indicate differences in vegetation types, hydrographic types and some cultural

features such as roads. Table 2.2 details each cartographic feature and the different

stipple types used on the base TLM for this research, Mt Tamborine 1:50 000 scale.

For stipples, three descriptors are used and explained in Figure 2.12. Further

discussion of colours and stipples and the effect on this research is described in

Chapter 4.

Figure 2.8 Stipple Descriptors

TLM compilation and printing have changed since the inception of the 1:50 000

TLM mostly due to technology advances but also to adhere to new international and

national standards and agreements. This research, whilst using current TLM

compilation and printing techniques, is focused on the standards and specifications

used to display features that are fundamental to all TLM production.

33 Robinson, et al (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York, John Wiley & Sons, INC. 581

34 Royal Australian Survey Corps (1984) Symbolization - All Series (SYMBAS) Ed 2. 5.2-5.3

D48 10% 750

Dots per centimeter or Specific stipple design

Dot/ink percentage i.e. 10% = 10% ink & 90% clear

Dot angle relative to base of TLM and angle moving anti-clockwise


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Table 2.2 Colours and Stipples used for printing 1:50 000 TLM35

35 Ibid.

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5. Summary

This chapter has detailed the two major elements of this research: NVG and the

TLM. Characteristics of NVG and limitations of NVG such as visual acuity,

scotopic vision, reduced field of view and depth perception were detailed and have

been researched extensively since NVG were invented. Operating methods of the

Australian Army, with NVG, were explained and the limitations impacting on this

research were detailed. A description and examples of the different 1:50 000 TLM

were given and the colours, stipples and processes used to make TLMs were detailed.

Of importance to this research is:

• NVG have organic limitations, which has an effect on this research.

• The primary tool for navigation and spatial understanding within the Australian

Army is the TLM.

• TLM standards and specifications have changed, since their inception, to reflect

changes in compilation and printing techniques.

• The average 1:50 000 TLM used by the Australian Army is derived from

SYMBAS Edition 2 specifications, the same specifications and standards used to

produce Mt Tamborine.

• The current standards and specifications for producing 1:50 000 TLMs differ

only from SYMBAS Edition 2 in vegetation portrayal. The standards and

specifications are shown on the Wide Bay Training Area Special TLM.

Page 32

Chapter 3

Determining the Variables

Page 33

Chapter 3. Determining the Variables

The previous chapter detailed the two major elements within this research: the NVG

and TLM. Within this research, investigation into human interaction with NVG and

TLM was identified as also required. The initial step was to determine the NVG

limitations that impact on soldiers and their ability to operate effectively. The

resultant information was built upon to determine problems with reading TLMs with

NVG. Required information was gained through the conduct of surveys and NVG

experiments.

Three surveys were undertaken to identify and reduce the variables within the scope

of this research and to determine:

• The general problems with NVG, as understood by soldiers.

• NVG limitations that impact on the soldier.

• The problems that exist between NVG and TLMs.

• Current methods of reading TLMs for navigation at night.

• Information that can and can’t be read on TLMs with NVG.

• An operational priority for TLM information.

A further two experiments, based on the results from the surveys, were undertaken.

One experiment involved participants using NVG to view TLMs whilst indicating

their ability to read cartographic features. The second experiment involved

participants viewing grey scales to ascertain the importance of contrast within the

research.

This chapter details and discusses the results of the five tests and provides a

summary of pertinent factors to this research.

Page 34 Chapter 3: Determining the Variables

1. Surveying the Issues

Three surveys were conducted on personnel within the Australian Army, to

accurately determine problems, current practices and understanding of NVG. The

surveys were:

• All Users.

• Commanders.

• TLM Information Priority.

Users were identified from groups within the Army who have a high level of NVG

knowledge and extensive experience both in training and operational contexts. It

was determined through discussions with senior military personnel that high level

users primarily resided in the Infantry, Armour and Artillery Corps. The use of

military personnel, experienced in NVG use, assisted in reducing the risk of

abnormal or skewed results. The experienced users could also assist the study by

providing relevant feedback and appropriate levels of input.

All surveys were conducted at Gallipoli Barracks, Enoggera Queensland over a

period of four weeks. The surveys were conducted under supervision, in a classroom

environment and within an allotted timeframe. The surveys required both

quantitative and qualitative responses through writing answers, circling graduated

responses or circling defined answers. The survey questionnaire forms are contained

as Appendixes D, E and F.

Chapter 3: Determining the Variables Page 35

1.1 Surveying All Users

The first questionnaire (Appendix D) was designed for all personnel who use NVG

to conduct their operational duties and roles. The questionnaire consisted of 19

questions and was designed to test users understanding of NVG, the limitations

associated with using NVG and to identify problems they encountered when using

NVG and reading TLMs. 62 participants from Armour, Artillery, Infantry and

Engineer Corps undertook the survey.

The aim of the survey was to gain base information from all NVG users on problems

associated with NVG by drawing on their experiences and lessons learnt from

training and operations. The base information could then be used to further refine

and guide the research in a specific direction.

The initial questions asked participants to describe limitations of using and wearing

NVG. The majority of users responded with the limitations known to be already

inherent in the system such as depth perception, FOV limitations, loss of colour

recognition and the general discomfort and fatigue associated with wearing the NVG.

These limitations are well documented and are easily identified. Other limitations

described in the survey included sore eyes from using the NVG for extended periods

and the constant requirement to change focus whilst using the NVG. Of significance

to this research was the identification of focus as a problem with the NVG.

Participants identified that when using the NVG, focus has to be constantly adjusted

to accommodate for viewing objects at different distances. This may affect the

ability to recognise features when reading TLMs if focus is not correctly applied.

Users were asked to identify extra considerations taken into account when planning

and conducting night missions. Their responses ranged from knowing the ambient

light conditions and canopy cover in order to have effective use of their NVG,

through to designating more rests, defining IR policies and knowing whether the

enemy has an NVG/IR capability. These considerations helped prove the differences

between day and night missions and identified that soldiers recognise the limitations

of NVG and try to minimise the limitations by gaining an understanding of the

terrain they will be operating in and the likely ambient light levels. A TLM readable

with NVG would allow operators to identify different vegetation types and thereby


avoid areas where light conditions, such as rain forest, are not suitable for NVG.

The next question of the survey asked users to identify how they currently read

TLMs at night. All respondents replied that they read TLMs with a filtered torch,

usually red. These responses prove that soldiers do not undertake reading TLMs

with NVG. If soldiers can use NVG to read TLMs at night, it will increase their

efficiency and possibly their survival rates. They would not have to stop, turn off

their NVG, allow their eyes to adjust, ensure they have adequate cover, turn on their

red filtered torch, allow their eyes to adjust again and then determine the required

information from the TLM. The responses have identified that a problem exists with

reading TLMs with NVG.

Question 5 asked soldiers to determine how much of their planning for night

missions is undertaken with white light, other light or NVG. No respondent stated

they conduct planning with NVG. The majority, approximately 70% conduct

planning under white light with the remainder, 30%, under red filtered light. The

responses again show that NVG is not used as the principle source of illumination

when other choices are available. This helps to reinforce the aim of this research that

any refinements to the TLM must ensure its usability with normal and NVG

conditions.

Questions 6 asked respondents if any changes were made to their Standard Operating

Procedures (SOPs) to be able to read TLMs and navigate successfully at night. Most

respondents replied that they navigated mainly with bearings and paces, took longer

halts for navigation checks and conducted more frequent navigation checks. These

answers imply that NVG is not used for navigation or TLM reading at night. The

longer halts and more frequent checking is related to use of red filtered torches, as

previously discussed, and the inherent general difficulties of navigating at night.

Bearing and paces, whilst comparatively accurate, requires little appreciation of

surrounding terrain NVG can provide an appreciation of the surrounding terrain and

assist navigation, yet soldiers responded that they do not use it. The responses do not

clearly state whether the reliance on bearing and paces is a result of the limitations

with NVG or the users’ inability to integrate NVG into navigation. As this survey

was conducted with experienced personnel it is extrapolated that limitations with

NVG inhibit its use for navigation at night.


Respondents replied in Question 7 that compensating for the limitations of NVG

during night missions is difficult. Most stated that they try to use NVG during good

ambient light conditions to reduce the effects of poor visual acuity. A minority of

respondents also stated that they try to have personnel without NVG to increase their

overall effectiveness. These responses detail that the limitations of NVG cannot be

greatly altered and must be worked with to ensure effective operations.

Questions 8 - 15 asked respondents on their general knowledge of reading TLMs

with NVG.

Question 8 and 9 asked simple questions whether colours could be seen at night with

NVG. Nearly all respondents stated that colours could not be seen and that only

various tones of green were distinguishable. The lack of colour definition whilst

using NVG will play a major role in the development of cartographic solutions to the

overall problem. Further tests on colours and tones are described and analysed later

within this chapter. The minority of respondents who stated that colours could be

seen were perhaps relying on their cognitive appreciation of colours and their

knowledge of objects and colours under normal daylight conditions. Though their

responses can be discounted, the cognitive aspects of reading and understanding

TLMs cannot be discounted. Further discussion on the cognitive aspect of TLMs is

undertaken in Chapter 4.

Question 10 asked personnel whether dark or light tones stand out best with NVG.

The survey displayed a graduated grey scale and asked respondents to circle the

easiest tone to read with NVG. Most respondents stated dark tones stood out well

against the white background of the survey paper. If the background had been black,

the easiest tones to read would be those near the white end of the scale. The subject

of tones and contrast and their further investigation is undertaken later in this

chapter.


Question 11 asked personnel to identify what information on a TLM is most critical

for successful conduct of missions. Five major information types were identified as

critical. These were:

• Contours.

• Vegetation.

• Watercourses and river courses (hydrology).

• Roads and tracks, including bridges.

• The ability to read grids and give grid references.

These identified types are important to this research as the scope of research is

defined as ‘refining TLMs’ not designing TLMs. Identification of critical

information requirements for the conduct of military operations will limit the number

of variables requiring investigation or possible change, thereby limiting changes to

the standards and specifications already developed for production of TLMs. Further

investigation and discussion on TLM information priorities is contained later in this

chapter.


Figure 3.1 Ease of reading TLM information with NVG

Figure 3.1 displays graphically the results of Question 12 that sought responses on

the ease or difficulty of reading information on a TLM with NVG. The ease of

readability is indicated with a score from 1-10 with 1 being the hardest to read and

10 being the easiest to read. The score for each feature is the average of responses

from each of the 62 survey participants. Of note is the difficulty with which

participants rated the readability of contours, creeks/rivers and vegetation. This

directly relates to the previous question where contours, creeks/rivers and vegetation

were critical information sources on a TLM. The identification of these three

variables helps to reduce the number of TLM refinements required to achieve the aim

of this research.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Con

tour

s

Text

Grid

Ref

Roa

ds

Cre

eks/

Riv

ers

Veg

etat

ion

Poi

nt F

eatu

res

Line

Fea

ture

s

Feature

Rea

dabi

lity


To validate the responses from Question 12 and to ensure participants were

providing accurate responses, Question 13 and 14 were similar to Question 12.

Participants were asked to list what information is unreadable, Question 13, and what

information is easily readable, Question 14, on a 1:50 000 TLM with NVG. The

majority of responses again listed contours, creeks/rivers and vegetation as

unreadable on a TLM and text, grids and cultural information as easily readable.

This validates previous responses and directs the research to investigate the reasons

behind why certain features are easily read and some are unreadable.

Question 15 asked participants how they added information to their TLMs at night.

The basis of this question was to determine if a certain type or colour of marker is

preferred and direct the research towards a specific colour. About half of the

participants stated they used a black pen to mark TLMs, as it was the easiest to read.

Other responses varied from brown pen to pencil, whilst approximately a quarter of

all respondents stated they do not mark their TLMs for operational reasons and to

maintain security. Of note to this research is the fact that approximately 80% of

respondents who stated they used a black pen used red filtered light to illuminate

their TLM whilst marking. No participant responded that they used NVG to see the

TLM whilst marking. This emphasised the wasted efficiency of using red filtered

torches and does not provide any evidence for best colour use with NVG.

Questions 16 - 19 investigated navigation with NVG to determine factors that may

influence the research.

Question 16 asked participants to approximate how far they can see under good

ambient light conditions with NVG. Good ambient light conditions were not

explained in the survey but many respondents, after completing the survey stated

they imagined good ambient light as that light which is provided by a full moon.

Responses varied greatly from 150m to 600m with the average being 310m. Many

respondents also stated that different terrain has an effect on the range of vision

provided by NVG and hence the ability to use NVG to enhance night navigation.

Soldiers, to gain a greater understanding of their surrounding terrain and hence

comprehend their TLM easier, could use the range and improved acuity which NVG

offers. If a TLM can be developed to be fully readable with NVG, soldiers may also

utilise the range of NVG to assist their TLM comprehension and terrain appreciation,


thereby improving overall efficiency.

Questions 17 and 18 posed queries about the effect of reduced FOV on a soldier’s

ability to read TLMs and navigate. Two major responses were provided. The first

concerned the requirement to focus NVG for close use (with a TLM) and then

refocus the NVG when viewing in the distance. The second being that disorientation

sometimes occurs when trying to read TLMs, as the reduced FOV does not allow a

user to fully assimilate the entire TLM area and scanning is constantly required.

NVG focus is a constant problem for soldiers as it restricts their ability to accurately

assimilate visual information quickly. It also poses efficiency problems as adjusting

the NVG to the required focal length can be difficult and focus may not be accurately

achieved. This could lead to TLM discrimination and reading problems, which in

turn may affect the ability to complete a mission effectively and safely. As

mentioned in the previous chapter, a rough guide for focusing the NVG to best read

TLMs is by using the outstretched hand. Though this method works reasonably well

for the majority of personnel, those already with inherent eye conditions may have

difficulty focusing the NVG for TLM reading. Incorrect focus by participants may

affect the outcomes of this research. To negate this effect, experienced users were

utilised for testing and a simple TLM reading test undertaken to ensure correct focus

has been applied.

The effect of reduced field of view was described in paragraph 2.2.5 and has been

well researched concerning visual scanning of scenes. By not being able to

comprehend the entire TLM scene, soldiers are at a disadvantage when using NVG.

The requirement to continually scan a TLM for information can lead to disorientation

and increase the possibility of making navigation or mission errors. Whilst it is

accepted that the reduced FOV has an impact on TLM reading, it is not the intention

of this research to develop a TLM which can counter the effects. The scope of this

research is to refine the standard TLM for use with NVG. Any changes to the TLM

to counter the effects of reduced field of view may require significant and major

changes to nearly all standards and specifications currently used.


The final question of the survey, Question 19, asked participants if there were any

other issues concerning NVG, TLMs and navigation that had been overlooked.

There were few responses to this question and most concerned the development of an

automatic focus for NVG, which is well outside the scope of this research.

In summary, the survey of all users proved useful in identifying the following

characteristics and providing guidance to the research:

• Soldiers recognise, understand and work within most limitations of NVG.

• Currently TLMs are read inefficiently with a red filtered torch at night.

• NVG is seldom the principle source of illumination for reading TLMs.

• NVG is not utilised well for navigation.

• Colours cannot be identified with NVG, only tones of green.

• There are five critical types of TLM information required for conducting

missions: contours, vegetation, roads watercourses and river courses

(hydrology), roads and tracks (including bridges) and the ability to read grids

and give grid references.

• There are three types of information that are unreadable; contours, vegetation

and creeks/rivers.

• There are three types of information that are easily readable, text, grids and

cultural information.

• Focus affects the ability to recognise visual cues and comprehend TLMs, if not

correctly applied.


1.2 Surveying the Commanders

To build further on information provided in the survey of all users, a survey was

undertaken of commanders. Commanders were deemed as soldiers who had attained

the rank of corporal or greater and were responsible for leading units on the

battlefield.36 They possess high levels of expertise and have a good understanding of

training, military tactics, operational planning and conducting operations. The

survey (Appendix E) comprised fourteen questions and was structured to identify

possible avenues for TLM refinement and to gain a greater understanding of military

operations with NVG. It was also used to ascertain if any of the special NVG

attachments (NVG ER or NVG compass) would influence this research. 31

personnel participated in this survey which was conducted immediately after the

survey of all users.

The first four questions asked participants to describe how much NVG and TLM

reading / navigation training was undertaken. Respondents replied that training on

both NVG and TLM reading/navigation was mostly undertaken during field

exercises conducted by their unit. These exercises were generally held about four

times per year. Some respondents stated that some training was undertaken whilst in

barracks, but only rarely, due to the amount of alternate tasking and the requirement

to maintain equipment. Theory training was conducted a few times each year and

some training was undertaken as a concurrent activity during range days or as part of

a military skills competition. Generally training on NVG and TLM reading /

navigation was conducted at least four to five times a year and was an integral part of

field exercises. The responses indicate that NVG is incorporated into normal training

regimes and soldiers are familiar and experienced in the use of NVG and TLM

reading / navigation. Therefore, inexperience and operator errors should have

minimal impact during further tests and not impact on providing accurate results.

36 A corporal commands a section, the smallest fighting element, within the Australian Army.


Question 5 asked participants to approximate how much training they conduct at

night. The majority response was that nearly all training at night was conducted

during field exercises and little night training was conducted when in barracks. This

response helped to reinforce the fact that Army units conduct night training and this

would reduce any possible errors during further experiments.

The response to Question 6 was unanimous. Since the introduction of NVG into the

Australian Army, night mission training is never conducted without the assistance of

NVG. This response indicates that NVG has become an integral operating system

for Army elements and is relied upon during night activities. Of relevance to this

research is the fact that TLMs have always been an integral system of Army units

and that NVG is now an integral system. Effective operation between the two

systems will see an increase in efficiency.

Generally, commanders have the responsibility of navigating and TLM reading

during their missions and exercises. Question 7 asked participants if they marked

their TLMs in any special way for use during the night. The basis behind this

question was to ascertain if there were any common factors or specific graphic

variables that commanders relied upon. This information could then be used to

further guide the research. Just over half of respondents stated they did not mark

their TLMs for operational and security reasons. Those that stated they did mark

their TLMs used black pens or black TLM marking pens and avoided red colours.

Red was avoided because the primary method of TLM reading / navigation at night

is by using a red filtered torch. The responses substantiate previous answers given in

the survey of all users. It also re-emphasises the non-use of NVG for reading TLMs.

Questions 9, 10 and 11 concerned the use of the NVG ER and compass attachment

for navigation purposes. All respondents stated they did not use the NVG ER for

navigation and that only a few had used it for surveillance or reconnaissance. No

respondent stated they used the NVG compass for navigation. The primary reason

being that the compass has too great an error for accurate navigation. The responses

allow this study to discount any impact that the NVG ER and compass may have on

navigation and TLM reading and the refinement of TLMs for use with NVG.


Question 12 investigated the possibilities of any other navigation or TLM reading

equipment that is used by commanders that may impact on this research. The

majority response was that commanders use red filtered torches to help them read

TLMs and navigate at night. Red filtered torches have been addressed in previous

questions. Important to this research is that commanders to navigate or read TLMs

use no other equipment.

Question 13 sought to determine how commanders operate at night with their

navigation equipment and NVG and if there were any factors that could influence

this research. Respondents stated they generally used NVG whilst moving. When

stopped, they used red filtered light to read TLMs. Most respondents used GPS to

check their location intermittently, when stopped. These responses again show that

presently commanders do not use NVG to read TLMs. The relationship between

NVG and GPS was not fully detailed by respondents within this question. Whilst

GPS use is increasing throughout the Army, it is assessed that its use has little impact

on TLM / NVG interaction and will not be discussed further in this research.

The final question of the commanders’ survey, Question 14, asked if there were any

other problems or issues not previously mentioned. No respondents provided

information that was of benefit to this research.


The survey of commanders produced little information towards this research that was

not previously detailed in the survey of all users. Most responses substantiated

already known facts and some response helped eliminate factors from the research.

The most significant points to be carried forward from this survey were:

• Soldiers and units conduct regular training and are competent in using NVG,

TLM reading and in navigation.

• NVG is an integral system operating system for soldiers and heavily relied upon

to conduct night missions.

• Commanders do not use the NVG ER or NVG compass for navigation. They can

be discounted from this research.

• Apart from the NVG and the TLM, there are no other equipment factors which

impact on this research.

• The relationship between NVG and GPS has no identified impact on this

research.


1.3 TLM Information Priority

The two surveys conducted provided information on the operating characteristics of

NVG and how soldiers and commanders use NVG to read TLMs and navigate. The

survey of all users also provided a basis on which TLM features were rated against

their operational necessity.

To build on the initial surveys, an additional survey was undertaken of all personnel

who participated in the survey of all users. The aim of the survey was to identify

information critical to military operations, so that this information could be tested for

its readability with NVG. In total, 66 personnel participated in the survey, shown at

Appendix F. The survey listed all cartographic elements on a TLM and asked

respondents to weight each element against the following criteria:

• Critical. You cannot complete your mission if this information is not available.

• Important. You may complete your mission with limitations or difficulties if this

information is not available.

• Not Important. Inclusion of this information is not required to complete your

mission.

• Irrelevant. You have never needed this information to complete your mission.

The criteria were developed to replicate criteria used by the Australian Army to

categorise information sources. This was to ensure that participants were familiar

with the criteria and negate any problems that may arise from developing and

learning new criteria. The survey was also broken into five distinct information

areas – cultural, hydrography, hypsography / physiography, vegetation and marginal

information / TLM information – to facilitate ease of analysis.

Of primary concern to this study were responses that deemed a cartographic feature

to be critical. These responses were used to narrow the number of cartographic

refinements required on a TLM.


Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3 show the results of how participants rated cultural

information on a standard TLM. Figure 3.2, Cultural Information 1, lists road and

road related features. Figure 3.3, Cultural Information 2, lists railway and general

cultural features. The most significant outcomes to be derived from both Figures are

that the majority rated no feature as critical. The highest critical ratings were foot

track, vehicle track and mine, which all rated at 45.5%. Roads and foot tracks are

important for movement, navigation and lines of communication within a military

context and it is understandable that some elements of the Army see them as critical

for movement i.e. Armoured and Engineer Corps.

It is assessed that “mine” rated highly as participants confused the general meaning

of mine and the military meaning. On a TLM, a mine represents either an open cut

or underground engineering business designed to remove valuable minerals from the

earth. In the military, the term mine refers to an explosive device usually placed in

the ground to harm or destroy personnel or vehicles. This assessment was supported

when the participants were questioned after completing the survey, many stating they

had used the military definition of mine to answer the question.

Overall, cultural information was rated as important, but not critical to military

operations and of minimal impact to the future of this research.

0 %

1 0 %

2 0 %

3 0 %

4 0 %

5 0 %

6 0 %

7 0 %

8 0 %

9 0 %

1 0 0 %

Causeway

Culvert

Cutting

D ivided H

ighway

Embankm

entFoot b

ridge

Foot tra

ck

Gate

National r

oute m

arker

Metro

politan ro

ute m

arker

Road brid

ge

Stock

grid

Sealed ro

ad two o

r more

lanes

Unseale

d road tw

o or m

ore la

nes

Unseale

d road o

ne lane

Underpass

Vehicle tr

ack

C a r t o g r a p h ic V a r ia b le s

C r it ic a lIm p o r ta n tN o t Im p o r ta n tI r r e le v a n t

Figure 3.2 Cultural Information 1

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0 %

1 0 %

2 0 %

3 0 %

4 0 %

5 0 %

6 0 %

7 0 %

8 0 %

9 0 %

1 0 0 %

Light

railw

ay

Multipl

e tra

ck ra

ilway

Railway

bridg

eRail

way tu

nnel

Railway

unde

rpas

s

Single

track

railw

ay

Siding

Station

Admini

strati

ve bo

unda

ry

Built U

p Are

a (BUA)

Buildin

g

Church

Drive i

n the

atre

Fence

Mine

Power

tran

smiss

ion lin

e

Quarry

/Pit

Recre

ation

rese

rve RuinW

indpu

mp

Yard

C a rto g ra p h ic V a ria b le s

C rit ica lIm p ortan tN ot Im p ortan tIrre levan t

Figure 3.3 Cultural Information

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Figures 3.4 and 3.5 detail the weighting of hydrography information. Figure 3.4,

Hydrography Information 1, listed all features associated with oceans and coastlines.

Figure 3.5, Hydrography Information 2, listed features associated to inland

watercourses and constructed water amenities. The majority of features were rated

as important with four features rated as critical.

On Figure 3.4 coastline is rated as critical by an average of 54.5% of respondents.

On Figure 3.5 intermittent watercourse, mainly dry watercourse and perennial

watercourse were all listed as critical information requirements, each with an average

of 81.8% of responses. The majority rating of the four features as “critical”

identifies them as critical to military operations and will be tested further in this

research. The rating of watercourses as critical was initially identified at Question 11

during the survey of all users.

Of note is that hydrography such as lakes, dams and waterholes were rated only as

“important”, although they are generally accepted as key military information37. The

reason identified for the important rating, and not critical, is that the survey

participants came from tactical units who are generally concerned with small

geographical areas on the battlefield. Their approach to the survey would be mainly

from an experience base, not a theoretical or military planning base. By conducting

the survey with soldiers, the results have differed slightly from training manuals and

accepted texts that are generally not written by soldiers. The results thereby reflect

the ‘majority users’ perspective of TLM information.

37 American, British, Canadian, Australian and Armies Standarisation Programme (1993). Terrain Analysis - QSTAG 1038. Washington, ABCA Program;Australian Defence Force Academy (1988). Geographic Information in the Defence of Australia. Geographic Information in the Defence of Australia, Canberra;Bateman and Riley (1987). The Geography of Defence. Kent, Croom Helm Ltd;Conolly (2001). "GIS in Defence." GIS User 45;Metzger (1992). "Terrain Analysis for Desert Storm." Engineer 22(February 1992).

0 .0 %

1 0 .0 %

2 0 .0 %

3 0 .0 %

4 0 .0 %

5 0 .0 %

6 0 .0 %

7 0 .0 %

8 0 .0 %

9 0 .0 %

1 0 0 .0 %

Beach

Coastl

ineExp

osed

wre

ck

Harbo

urInt

ertid

al fla

t

Inter

tidal

ledge

or re

efNav

igatio

n Ligh

t

Pier/W

harf/

Jetty

/Qua

yRoc

k bar

e or a

wash

Saline

coas

tal fla

tSub

merge

d ree

fSub

merge

d roc

kSub

merge

d wre

ck

Aqued

uct

C a r to g ra p h ic V a r ia b le s

C rit ic a lIm p o rta n tN o t Im p o rta n tI rre le va n t

Figure 3.4 Hydrography Information 1

Page 52 Chapter 3: D

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0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

Area s

ubjec

t to in

unda

tion

Chann

el

Dam Ford

Inter

mittent

lake

Inter

mittent

waterco

urse

Mainly

dry l

ake

Mainly

dry w

aterco

urse

Peren

nial la

ke

Peren

nial w

aterco

urse

Swamp

Tank o

r small

dam

Wate

rcour

se w

ith flo

od lim

its

Wate

rhole

C artographic V ariab les

C ritica lIm portan tN ot Im portan tIrre levant

Figure 3.5 Hydrography Information 2

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Height information, as identified in the survey of all users, is essential for military

units to conduct effective operations. Priorities for hypsography information are

contained at Figure 3.6. Of the twelve features listed, the majority of respondents

rated six as “critical”. These were contour line, escarpment, depression contour, high

cliff, index contour and spot elevation. The remaining six features were rated as

“important”. This result was expected and supports information gathered at Question

11 on the survey of all users where contours were rated as a critical information

source.

Of note is the rating of depression contours as “critical”. Rarely seen on a TLM,

respondents were questioned after the survey on why they had rated depression

contours as critical. The overwhelming response was that the feature title,

depression contour, contained the word ‘contour’ and thus must be important. Using

this logic, survey participants were questioned as to why they did not rate

supplementary contours as critical because it too contained the word ‘contour’. They

responded that they were generally unsure of the difference between contour, contour

with value and supplementary contour. This lack of knowledge does not impact on

the research, as the general trend given by all survey participants is that contours and

height information are critical to military operations.

In the survey of all users, at question eleven, vegetation types were rated as a critical

information requirement for successful conduct of operations. Figure 3.7 supports

the results form the survey of all users, with five of the seven vegetation features

being rated as critical. These features were dense, medium and scattered vegetation,

line of trees / windbreak, mangrove swamp and rain forest.

Vegetation is very important for military operations and especially to units who have

to move on the battlefield. Vegetation provides cover, concealment and protection

and allows soldiers to appreciate other information such as: movement times and

movement difficulties, available ambient light at night, possible food and water

sources and possible resting areas. Vegetation is a critical information feature on a

TLM that allows military operations to be conducted effectively.

0 %

1 0 %

2 0 %

3 0 %

4 0 %

5 0 %

6 0 %

7 0 %

8 0 %

9 0 %

1 0 0 %

Contou

r line

Escar

pmen

tDep

ress

ion co

ntour

Distor

ted su

rface

High cl

iff

Horizo

ntal c

ontro

l poin

t

Index

conto

ur

Leve

e

Sand

Sand r

idge

Spot e

levati

on

Supple

mentar

y con

tour

C a rto g ra p h ic V a r ia b le s

C rit ic a lIm p o rta n tN o t Im p o rta n tIr re le va n t

Figure 3.6 Hypsography Information

Chapter 3: D

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0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Dense

Line o

f tree

s/wind

brea

k

Mangr

ove s

wamp

Medium

Orchar

d/vine

yard

Pine

Rain fo

rest

Scatte

red

C artog rap h ic V ariab les


Figure 3.7 Vegetation Information

Chapter 3: D

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The final information prioritised by survey participants’ concerned general TLM

information and marginal information. The results are displayed at Figure 3.8 and

support the results from the survey of all users. Four information features were rated

as “critical”: index to adjoining TLMs, grid lines, grid numbers inside the TLM

neatline and magnetic variance. The rating of these features as “critical” displays

their necessity for military operations and the emphasis with which soldiers rely on

them. Without grids or grid numbers locations could not be established effectively

and control of elements would be very difficult. Adjoining maps are necessary for

movement and magnetic variation is required for navigation.

Figure 3.9 combines all critically weighted information features into one graph. The

identification of twenty cartographic features can be sorted into four distinct groups:

contours, watercourses, vegetation and TLM grid information. The critical features

are the basis for further testing as they have been identified in both the survey of all

users and the TLM information priority survey.

0%

1 0%

2 0%

3 0%

4 0%

5 0%

6 0%

7 0%

8 0%

9 0%

1 0 0%

Index

to ad

joinin

g map

s

Grid lin

es

Grid nu

mbers

outsi

de m

ap

Grid nu

mbers

inside

map

Latitu

de / L

ongit

ude

Magne

tic va

rianc

e

Map na

me Mea

n rain

fall

Mean T

empe

ratur

ePro

ducti

on In

formati

on

Scale

BarW

aterco

urse

guide

C a rto gra ph ic V a r ia b les


Figure 3.8 TLM Information / Marginal Information

Chapter 3: D

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C ritic a l In fo rm a tio n F e a tu re s > 5 0 %

0 %

1 0 %

2 0 %

3 0 %

4 0 %

5 0 %

6 0 %

7 0 %

8 0 %

9 0 %

1 0 0 %

Coastl

ine

Inter

mittent

waterco

urse

Mainly

dry w

aterco

urse

Perenn

ial w

aterco

urse

Contou

r line

Escarp

ment

Depre

ssion

conto

ur

High cl

iffInd

ex co

ntour

Spot e

levati

on

Dense

Line o

f tree

s/wind

brea

kMan

grov

e swam

p

Medium

Rain fo

rest

Scatte

redInd

ex to

adjoi

ning m

aps

Grid lin

es

Grid nu

mbers

inside

map

Magne

tic va

rianc

e

Figure 3.9 Critical Information

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1.4 Discussion of Survey Results

The three surveys were designed to identify and reduce the variables within the scope

of this research to determine the following:

• General problems with NVG, as understood by soldiers,

• NVG limitations impacting on the soldier,

• problems existing with the use of NVG for TLM reading / navigation,

• current methods of reading TLMs at night,

• knowledge of readable and non-readable information on TLMs with NVG, and

• operational priority for TLM information.

The surveys achieved their aims and provided good input into the research and a

basis for further experimentation. The use of personnel experienced in NVG and

military operations reduced skewed results and insignificant outcomes.

The key findings, from the three surveys, applicable to this research, were:

• NVG has become an integral part of a soldier’s operating system and is relied

upon heavily during night training, operations and activities. Though NVG has

become an integral system, it is not used to read TLMs at night.

• NVG is not used to read TLMs as certain critical cartographic features cannot be

read when viewing a standard TLM with NVG. Instead, red filtered light is

used, creating inefficient operations and reliance on a third system.


• Information which cannot be read on TLMs with NVG, can be grouped as:

contours, watercourses / rivers and vegetation.

• TLM information, which is critical to the effective conduct of military

operations, can be simplified into four distinct groups: contours, watercourses,

vegetation and TLM grid information.

The link between information, which cannot be read, and information that is critical

to military operations, is the foundation of this research. Table 3-1 simplifies the

similarities between the survey responses.

Information which cannot

be read on TLMs with NVG

Information which is critical to

military operations

Contours Contours

Watercourses Watercourses

Vegetation Vegetation

TLM Grid Information

Table 3.1 Relationship between information unreadable with NVG and

information critical to military operations


2. TLM Symbology and Tones

Two separate experiments were developed incorporating the use of NVG and TLMs,

to test results of the surveys and to further investigate the readability of critical

information,. The first experiment was designed to have participants’ rate how well

they could identify the fundamental variables, using NVG, on three different TLM

editions. The second experiment was designed to test the relationship between grey

scales and different tones. The following paragraphs describe and discuss these

experiments.

2.1 Substantiating the Fundamental Variables and TLM Grid Information

The scope of this research is limited to refining TLMs. Refinements must stem from

previous or current TLM specifications and standards used by the Australian Army.

Detailed identification of possible refinements required testing of each fundamental

variable and TLM grid information. These features were stated as unreadable38 and

critical to military operations during the surveys.

The aim of the experiment was to determine accurately which features, from Table

3-1 could be read on three different TLMs. Each TLM has different standards and

specifications for cartographic portrayal and represented a chronological iteration of

the 1:50 000 TLM produced by the Australian Army. The TLMs used were:

• TLM A - 94431 Caboolture Ed 1 (Appendix A), 1971.

• TLM B – 95423 Mt Tamborine Ed 2 (Appendix B), 1988.

• TLM C - AUSPEC 0205 Wide Bay Training Area Special Ed 5 (Appendix

C), 1999.

38 Refer Table 3-1. TLM grid information was not reported as unreadable, however its ability to be read under NVG requires testing, as it is the only difference between the two lists of Table 3-1.


It was planned initially to use three TLM editions that depicted the same geographic

area. This strategy was abandoned as extensive searching and checking of records

disclosed that there existed only a limited number of TLMs produced with the new

cartographic standards and specifications, the same as TLM B.

TLM A depicts the cartographic standards used by the Australian Army when the

1:50 000 TLM was first produced. TLM B depicts the cartographic standards used

on the majority of 1:50 000 TLMs produced by the Australian Army. TLM C

depicts the current cartographic standards of all new TLMs printed by the Australian

Army. The major differences between each TLM, concerning the critical information

features, are:

• Each TLM is of a different geographic location.

• Each TLM does not contain all critical information features.

• Vegetation classes and portrayal are different on each TLM.

• TLM A uses a 20 metre contour interval while TLM B & C use a 10 metre

contour interval.

• Cartographic portrayal of watercourses on TLM A is different to TLM B & C.

• There are slight differences between the hues on each TLM, although the same

general colours are used.

The major similarities between each TLM, concerning the critical information

features, are:

• Each TLM is at a scale of 1:50 000.

• Each TLM has the same standards and specifications for portrayal of grid lines /

grid numbers and marginal information.

• On each TLM similar colours are used: vegetation is printed green, contours

brown, grids black and watercourses / rivers blue.


The first experiment was undertaken with nineteen personnel who had participated in

the previous three surveys. They were experienced NVG users, fourteen of the

participants having operational experience. The remaining five personnel had NVG

experience only in training and exercise scenarios. The experiment was conducted in

a military weapon training facility that has the ability to replicate night light

ambience. The level of light selected was equivalent to that available during a half

moon. Half moonlight was chosen as the timeframe for the experiment was minimal

and the difference between full moonlight and no moonlight could be extrapolated if

necessary.

Participants used did not undertake acuity tests prior to the experiment.39 Participants

were asked to focus their NVG and then read the two lines of text printed under the

scale bar of TLM C. This was chosen as the best form of ensuring accurate focus

without the assistance of a Snellen chart.40 All participants were able to accurately

read the two lines of text before proceeding with the next phase of the experiment.

The next phase of the experiment involved participants viewing each of the three

TLMs in their own time and completing a simple Table of questions. The Table

asked each participant to place an ‘X’ in the box corresponding to a critical

information feature they could read. This was to be repeated for each TLM in the

experiment. Where a critical information feature was not depicted on a TLM, they

were asked to leave the answer box empty. A copy of the question Table, including

results is displayed at Table 3-1. The percentages relate to the total of participants in

the experiment who could read the critical features. Where a box is coloured grey, it

denotes that the critical information feature was not portrayed on the TLM.

39Niall, et al (1999) "Distance estimation with night vision goggles: A little feedback goes a long way.";Zalevski, et al (2001) Size Estimation with Night Vision Goggles used participants only with 20/20 or 6/6 photopic eyesight. As not all soldiers have 20/20 eyesight it was decided that any error resulting from imperfect vision would be acceptable. It was also thought to better replicate a real world environment.

40 In research conducted by Niall, Reising and Martin (1998). "Night Vision Goggles In Focus: Revised Procedures Improve Visual Acuity by 25%." Human Factors 41(3). Snellen charts were used to determine visual acuity of experiment participants prior to using NVG and then again post using NVG to determine if they had achieved the best focus.


1.1.1Feature TLM A

Caboolture

1971

TLM B

Mt Tamborine

1988

TLM C

Wide Bay

1999

Coastline 100%

Intermittent watercourse 95% 47% 63%

Mainly dry watercourse

Perennial watercourse 95% 53% 74%

Contour line 95% 5% 0%

Index contour 95% 32% 26%

Escarpment 11%

Depression contour

High cliff 11%

Spot elevation 100% 100% 100%

Dense 89% 74% 89%

Line of trees/windbreak

Mangrove swamp 89%

Medium 89% 32% 84%

Rain forest 79%

Scattered 11% 79%

Index to adjoining TLMs 100% 100% 100%

Grid lines 100% 100% 100%

Grid numbers inside TLM 100% 100% 100%

Magnetic variance 100% 100% 100%

Table 3.2 Critical Information Readability


The results of the critical information readability experiment were varied. The first

discussion factor is the inability of the chosen TLMs to depict all critical information

features. Three critical information features were not on any of the TLMs and were

unable to be tested. These were: mainly dry watercourse, depression contour and

line of trees/ windbreak. The lack of portrayal of these information features on the

test TLMs was not considered detrimental to the research.

On the majority of 1:50 000 TLMs, represented by TLM B, mainly dry watercourse

is portrayed as a blue outline with brown dot stippling fill. The blue outline is the

same as intermittent and perennial watercourses and the brown dot stipple is the

same as sand.41 The frequency with which mainly dry watercourse is depicted on

TLMs was considered very low.42 The similarity between mainly dry watercourse

symbology and sand symbology will allow for further testing if required. Depression

contours are similar in symbology to contours and their lack of portrayal is again not

considered to impact upon this research.43 Line of trees / windbreak, whilst not as

rarely depicted as mainly dry watercourse and depression contour, does not have the

same frequency of depiction as the other types of vegetation found on a TLM. In

order to remain within the scope of this research and to ensure that refinements are

applied to the highest frequency features, it was decided that line of trees / windbreak

be omitted from further refinements as it was not a common feature on most TLMs.

41 The dot stipple is DW2 within SYMBAS Edition 2.

42 Senior staff members at the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron were questioned about the use of mainly dry watercourse and its frequency of depiction on TLMs. Most stated that it was only found on some TLMs produced of the arid regions of Australia. After further research it was found that most TLMs of arid regions in Australia have only been produced at 1:100 000 scale and were produced in the early 1960’s. On nine modern 1:50 000 TLMs of arid regions, only 3 ‘mainly dry watercourses’, on two TLMs were found. The two TLMs were unacceptable for use in the research as they depicted fewer fundamental variables than the TLMs chosen.

43 Senior staff members at the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron were questioned about the frequency of depression contour depiction on TLMs. All staff questioned were unable to either state they had either seen or used a depression contour on a 1:50 000 TLM. Further investigation within the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron Mapstore, which contains approximately 2 million TLMs, found no TLMs depicting a depression contour.


Five critical information features were found on only one TLM in the experiment.

These were coastline and mangrove swamp on TLM C and escarpment, high cliff

and rain forest on TLM B. Coastline and mangrove swamp, as depicted on TLM C,

are the same cartographic standards as depicted on TLM B and hence represent the

average 1:50 000 TLM. Escarpment and high cliff, as depicted on TLM B, are the

same cartographic standards as on TLM C and differ only in colour from TLM A.

Again they represent the average 1:50 000 TLM. Rain forest is a different

cartographic standard on each TLM.44 Scattered vegetation was not depicted on

TLM A as the cartographic specifications and standards allow only medium and

dense vegetation to be shown.

Many of the features tested were seen on each TLM at 100%. These features were

coastline, spot elevations and all features concerning TLM grid information. The

features were rated 100% by experiment participants, and require no change to their

colour, symbology or size so that they can be read with normal vision and NVG.

They require no further investigation within this research.

Proving that TLM grid information can be easily read (100%) reduces the categories

of information that are critical to military operations from four to three. The ability

to read features that are black, as shown in this experiment and as detailed during the

surveys, assists in identifying contrast as a factor in the recognition of TLM features.

NVG vision is monochromatic, thus the recognisable difference between colours is

their tone and value contrast, not their hue as with normal vision. Contrast was

tested further within the second experiment.

The TLM on which watercourses were read best was TLM A, by a combined average

of 95% of all experiment participants.45 TLM B had only a combined average rating

of 50% while TLM C had a combined average of 69%. TLM A uses different

symbology, a dashed line to represent watercourses, but uses the same colour as

TLMs B and C. It is concluded from these results that watercourses are well read by

44 On TLM A, it is solid green, TLM B solid green with blue line stipple overlaid and TLM C has no cartographic standard for rain forest portrayal.

45 The combined average was taken by adding the percentages for intermittent watercourse and perennial watercourse and dividing by two.


NVG on TLM A as the symbology of the line is different from the symbology used

for contours, allowing easy differentiation between the two features. Watercourses

also were easier to read on TLM A, as the vegetation specification allows a large

amount of white background within the TLM. The contrast provided between the

blue streams and the white background was significant enough to be above the

minimum contrast threshold of NVG. This identified that contrast and symbology

are cartographic design parameters important to this research.

Many experiment participants stated that watercourses on TLMs B and C were

difficult to read, as they were easily confused with contour lines. The participants

stated that watercourses running perpendicular to contours could be sometimes read,

but difficulty was encountered reading watercourses that ran nearly parallel to

contours. It was also reported that differentiating between contours and watercourses

was difficult where contours were spaced widely apart. Of significant note is that the

same symbology is used to depict watercourses on TLMs B and C. The different

results are due to the background contrasts available within each TLM, provided by

different vegetation stipples. This change of contrast appeared to be the logical

determinant in watercourse readability, as the different types of vegetation stipples

provide different levels of contrast.

Vegetation was best seen on TLM A, combined average 89%, but this only reflected

two vegetation types, dense and medium. Participants also stated they had difficulty

discerning the boundaries between dense and medium, as the stipple used to depict

these vegetation types is very similar. Of the two TLMs that have specifications for

depiction of all vegetation types, TLM C with a combined average of 85% was easier

to read than TLM B with a combined average of 49%. Participants had difficulty

defining scattered vegetation and medium vegetation on TLM B. This was probably

because the tones of scattered and medium are very similar and both are similar to

white. Participants in the experiment were mostly able to read dense and rainforest

on TLM B as their tones are closer to black and contrast well against the surrounding

colours. Some participants had difficulty determining dense vegetation from rain


forest in areas where the two vegetation types bordered each other. TLM C allowed

for good reading of all depicted vegetation types. The stipple patterns used for

scattered and medium vegetation and the solid fill of the dense vegetation type allow

good contrast definition.

TLM A allowed for the greatest definition of contours. This is due to the contour

interval of 20 metres allowing good definition between individual contours, the

darker colour of contours, as compared to TLMs B and C, and the contrast of the

contours against a mainly white background provided by the vegetation specification.

The intermediate contours on TLM A are portrayed at 0.1mm. On TLM B and C,

intermediate contours are also 0.1mm. Although the contours on TLMs B and C are

the same size as TLM A, they were unreadable. It is considered this is most likely

due to the contrast of contours against their background.

Both TLMs B and C have the same portrayal specifications for contours. On TLM B

only one participant was able to identify intermediate contours, yet six participants

were able to read the index contours. On TLM C, no participants were able to see

intermediate contours, but five participants were able to read some of the index

contours. The reason why some participants could read index contours is possibly a

factor of symbology size. Intermediate contours on TLMs B and C are 0.1mm in

width and index contours are 0.2mm. The change of size provides greater symbol

area, which in turn provides greater contrast against the background. This would

require further investigation, however it is surmised that the reason why intermediate

contours on TLMs B and C cannot be seen is that their size does not allow sufficient

contrast against the TLM background for visual acuity.

The identification of contours as being unreadable was a major factor within this

research that required further investigation and identification of solutions. Why

contours are unreadable is a combination of two linked factors. Firstly, the contrast

between contours and TLM background is not sufficient for NVG to differentiate

contours. Secondly the lineweight, or line size of the contours provides insufficient

contrast, against the background, for contours to be seen. Both of these factors relate

directly to contrast. This problem and other problems with reading the critical

information features were investigated further in Chapter 4.


2.2 Tone Assessment

The results gained during readability of critical information features showed that

certain TLM features are more easily read than others. This is a factor of contrast /

tone and symbology. In order to test contrast / tone a second, simple experiment was

constructed to refine a basic hypothesis developed by the author, during this

research: when contrast is at its maximum, the maximum distance possible

separating two tones on a grey scale, the best contrast is achieved for NVG vision

recognition.

This experiment was designed to test the recognition of basic grey scales with NVG.

A grey scale of sixteen tones ranging from pure white through to pure black was

superimposed on five different toned sheets. The sheets used were toned white,

25% grey, 50% grey, 75% grey and black. An example sheet used is displayed at

Figure 3.10 to Figure 3.14 respectively. Nineteen personnel, the same as used in

the previous experiment participated. Each participant was asked to look at the

toned sheets and provide verbal feedback on which tones were easiest read with

NVG. The responses within the experiment did not vary between participants and

are summarised below:

• White background sheet (Figure 3.10) – white tone and those close to white are

difficult to read. The easiest tones to read are black and those closest to black.

• Grey 25% sheet (Figure 3.11) – the semi-medium grey tones (those closest to

white) are hardest to read whilst the black tones and those closest to black are

easiest to read.

• Grey 50% sheet (Figure 3.12) - the medium grey tones are hardest to read whilst

black and white and those tones closest to black and white are the easiest to read.

• Grey 75% sheet (Figure 3.13) - the semi-medium black tones (those closest to

black) are hardest to read whilst the white tones and those closest to white are

easiest to read.

• Black background sheet (Figure 3.14) - black tone and those close to black are

difficult to read. The easiest tones to read are white and those closest to white.


Figure 3.10 Tone Test White


Figure 3.11 Tone Test 25% Grey






Figure 3.14 Tone Test Black


Though simultaneous and successive contrasts were encountered within this

experiment, the effect did not alter the results. The results prove that, with NVG, the

further two tones are apart on a grey scale the greater contrast they provide. This is

the same for normal unaided vision. It is also supported in cartography by image

enhancement processes used to clarify remotely sensed images and by the simple

rule that the greater the value contrast among symbols the greater the clarity and

legibility.46 On the white background sheet, black is the best tone seen and is the

furthest away from white on scale. The same is true for the reverse, where white has

the greatest contrast on the black background. On the grey 50% background both

white and black have the same contrast as they are equidistant on the scale from the

mid point.

These results have been well documented and researched within both the colour and

cartography communities for both colour and grey contrast using normal vision.

What had not been researched was whether the same held true for vision with NVG.

This second experiment helped the research to narrow the reasons why certain TLM

features are unable to be read effectively with NVG.

46 Dent (1996). Cartography Thematic Map Design. Sydney, Wm. C. Brown Publishers. 296;


3. Summary

This chapter reported on the surveys and experiments undertaken to determine the

variables fundamental to advancing this research for refining TLMs. The major

findings are:

• NVG is a system integral to soldiers operating effectively at night, yet it is not

used for reading TLMs.

• TLM features that cannot be read effectively with NVG are contours,

watercourses and vegetation.

• TLM features that are critical to military operations are contours, watercourses,

vegetation and TLM grid information.

• Contrast is a major factor why TLM features are unable to be read on a TLM

with NVG.

Page 78

Chapter 4

Cartographic Solutions for Variables

Cartographic Solutions for Variables Page 79

Chapter 4. Cartographic Solutions for Variables

The previous chapter identified critical features that are unreadable on a TLM with

NVG: contours, watercourses and vegetation. To achieve the aims of this research

the critical features need to be read with both NVG and normal vision. The scope of

this research limits any changes to TLMs be taken from previous or current

specifications and standards used by the Australian Army to produce a TLM. This

limits the options for changes to the cartographic portrayal of the critical features.

Investigation was required into which standards and specifications would best fulfil

the aims of the research. This chapter investigates and discusses Australian Army

standards and specifications and cartographic methods. The subject of TLM design

and colour is examined in detail during the first half of this chapter. The second half

discusses the appropriate standards and specifications for the production of a TLM

prototype on which critical features are readable with both NVG and normal vision.

1. TLM Design

In order to make refinements to the TLM, an understanding of cartographic design

principles and their applicability to this research is necessary. Refining the TLM is

problematic, as the TLM has to be used in both chromatic and achromatic conditions.

Generally, cartographic research and design only has to deal with either chromatic or

achromatic conditions. This problem will be addressed through an examination of

the normal cartographic factors considered when designing a TLM and applying

these factors to the research as necessary. There are six factors to consider when

studying the visual variables on a TLM – balance, shape, size and three aspects of

colour (hue, chroma and value).47 Each of these factors is discussed below.

47 Robinson, et al (1995) Elements of Cartography. 476

Page 80 Cartographic Solutions for Variables

TLMs have a basic distinction between the primary level, usually that describing the

cultural features emphasised as being in the foreground, and a secondary level,

mainly the physical features, usually treated as the background.48

On a TLM the background comprises vegetation, watercourses, BUA, contours and

ocean. The foreground comprises roads, powerlines, text, spot heights and grid

information. This is known within cartography as the levels of visual prominence49

and provides the TLM with a figure / ground relationship according the user

qualitative conventions by which they can interpret TLM information. A TLM is a

well defined, easily recognisable representation of the geographical world. It’s

figure / ground relationship is well defined and its symbology orientation is well

accepted. The TLM has set specifications and standards that have developed in

parallel with cartographic theory and conventions. Some of these conventions are as

simple as showing vegetation as green, grids black and that the name of the TLM

always at the top. Users are accustomed to and expect these facets and features with

a TLM, therefore any refinements to the TLM must make allowances to retain the

overall figure / ground relationship, qualitative conventions and alter the orientation

minimally. By limiting the scope to using previous or current TLM standards and

specifications, any problems resulting from refinements will be negated. It is

intended to change only the fundamental variables through shape, size and colour.

Shape is often referred to as symbology or as the graphic characteristics provided by

the form of a graphic mark.50 On TLMs, shape symbology is grouped into point (e.g.

spot height), line (e.g. contour) and area features (e.g. vegetation). Of the critical

information within this research, there are two line features - watercourses and

contours - and one area feature - vegetation. It is not the intention of this research to

invent new symbology to represent the critical features. The symbology, as defined

in the research scope, will be derived from preset standards and specifications. Of

most importance is the combination of available symbology and its effect on NVG

48 Keats (1989). Cartographic Design and production. New York, Longman Scientific & Technical. 33


50 Bertin (1983). The Semiology of Graphics. Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin Press


acuity. By retaining the preset symbology, any effect on balance, orientation and

associated cognitive aspects will be reduced. Combinations of symbology, not new

symbology, with changes to size and colour, will be used to achieve the research aim.

The size chosen for TLM symbology and TLM features is dependent on visual

acuity. It is an easily definable quantitative aspect of TLM design, based on the

acuity of the human eye. For a human eye with 20/20 vision the absolute thresholds

for the recognition of a symmetrical point symbol is slightly less than 0.1mm, whilst

for a line symbol it is 0.06mm.51 A line symbol is able to be smaller as its

perceptible length offers a greater target. On a TLM, the smallest symbols are

0.5mm in diameter e.g. spot heights and symbolised buildings. The smallest line

width used is 0.1mm e.g. contours and grid lines. The critical information features

are easily seen with the naked eye under daylight conditions and previous

experimentation, within this research, has proved that some can also be read with

NVG. NVG acuity is affected by the generation of device used and ambient light

conditions and is generally less than normal vision.52 The previous experiments

conducted during this research proven that TLM grids, grid numbers and spot

elevations could be easily read with NVG. This proves that whilst acuity is different

for NVG and normal vision, the smallest features on a TLM can be read when size is

the only factor considered. Size cannot be considered by itself within TLM design

and refinement, as it affects symbology and colour, which in turn, affects contrast.

It is first necessary to understand the basic principles of colour in order to understand

contrast. Colour theory divides colours into two classes, chromatic and achromatic.

Chromatic colours are those that have colour (or hue) and achromatic colours are

those that are white, grey or black.53 The difference between chromatic and

achromatic is important because a TLM is viewed as chromatic under daylight

conditions and achromatic under NVG conditions. Chromatic colours have three

51 Keats (1989) Cartographic Design and production. 34

52 Kotulak and Rash C (1992) Visual Acuity with Second and Third Generation Night Vision Goggles Obtained from a New Method of Night Sky Simulation Across a Wide Range of Target; Alabama.

53 Dent (1996) Cartography Thematic Map Design. 295


variables being hue, chroma and value. Achromatic colours are able only to be

described by their value. Value, the only common variable between chromatic and

achromatic, provides for the lightness or darkness of an object or feature54 and is a

major influence through value contrast. Hue refers to the different colours of an

object e.g. blue, red, brown etc. Chroma, also called saturation, refers to the purity

of a colour. Though both hue and chroma are import to this research, they are of

lesser importance than value.

Value and value contrast are a major variable within TLM design and refinement and

it is extremely difficult to measure on a TLM and difficult to use in practice. Value,

providing for the lightness or darkness of a colour, is rarely used by itself in

cartography.55 Cartographers usually stipulate individual colour to use on TLMs,

each which has its own value. The challenge arises when colour combinations are

used on TLMs and the best colours to provide contrast are chosen. This use of

different colours to complement each other and bring legibility and clarity to the

TLM is called value contrast.

Value contrast is important to this research, as it is the basis behind good figure /

ground relationships56 and influences discrimination of TLM features and

symbology.57 In mathematical terms and as defined by the International Commission

on Illumination (CIE), contrast of a target is the measure of the difference in

luminance between the target and its immediate surround or background58 and can be

defined by the basic formula at Figure 4-1.

Another contrast formula is used for enhancement of remotely sensed images. It

enhances contrast in remotely sensed images by rescaling the original reflectance

value range to match the numerical range used in the recording device. This is called

54 Ibid. 296

55 Ibid. 297


57 Keats (1989) Cartographic Design and production. 22

58 International Commission on Illumination (CIE) (1992). Contrast and Visibility. Vienna, Central Bureau of the CIE. 3


a percentage contrast stretch.59 It is generally used only on achromatic images, but

can be used on chromatic images, by stretching each hue individually.

It is difficult to apply these formulae to a TLM as target and background size vary,

process printing produces individual nuances specific to each print run and the

different light conditions under which TLMs are read are numerous. The variable

parameters of individual eyes and NVG also preclude the formulas from providing a

contrast solution.

Figure 4.1 Basic Formula for Contrast60

The application of a mathematical formula alone will not provide an accurate

solution to this problem. Its application may result in a product that works well for

daylight conditions but not for NVG conditions; in turn affecting figure / ground

relationship and balance of the TLM. Whilst a mathematical formula may work for

targets other than TLMs or for remotely sensed images, both formulae ignore the

psychological variances of human interaction and vision. A TLM has five basic

colours that, through stippling, produce many hues. By changing illumination

sources, many more hues are produced. Fundamentally, the different colours and

contrast perceived on a TLM are a psychological function based on a person’s

perception.61 What one person perceives as blue another may perceive as blue-grey.

When the achromatic factors of NVG are introduced, perception is again altered.


60 International Commission on Illumination (CIE) (1992) Contrast and Visibility. 3


halla



The psychological factors of contrast are affected by two contrast variables. These

variables alter psychological perception of chromatic and achromatic colours and are

termed successive contrast and simultaneous contrast. Successive contrast results

when a colour is viewed in one environment and then in another in quick succession.

The colour will be modified relative to these new surroundings.62 Simultaneous

contrast is when two different colours, each of different value, are placed side by side

and the edge of each colour is affected by the other and a different value is

perceived.63 This is shown at Figure 4.2 where the grey tone object and line are of

equal value within each of the three backgrounds, but are perceived to be darker as

the background becomes darker. This is also called induction. It becomes a problem

in TLM design when several different values of the same colour are juxtaposed on

the TLM.64 Within this research it is a problem with vegetation as the greens used

are all the same colour but have different values based on their stipple specification.

The lack of contrast between each of the vegetation types is a contributing factor as

to why they cannot be read with NVG in an achromatic environment in TLM B.

For contours and streams, simultaneous contrast is not a major contributing factor as

to why they cannot be seen. The thin lineweight of both contours and streams,

0.1mm, allows little simultaneous contrast against the various backgrounds of a

TLM.

62 Ibid. 297

63 Green and Horbach (1998). "Colour-Difficult to Both Choose and Use in Practice." The Cartographic Journal 35(2): 171



Figure 4.2 Simultaneous Contrast

Contrast, whilst primarily a function of hue, symbology, size and value, can also be

altered by patterns. On achromatic maps, patterns are the main way of differentiating

between area features. This is achieved by line patterns or dot patterns, similar to

stippling but producing different effects. On the Wide Bay Training Area Special

TLM (TLM C), a dot stipple pattern is used to represent scattered and medium

vegetation. Though primarily a stipple, the dots of the stipple are large enough to be

recognised with normal vision and could be construed as a form of dot pattern. It is

posed that this ‘crossover’ of chromatic and achromatic technique is why this type of

vegetation was best seen under NVG during the previous tests.

Cartographic research and principles are best used when designing a new TLM.

This research is not being undertaken to develop a new TLM, but to refine the

existing TLM. The research scope allows the TLM to be altered only by using the

previous or current TLM standards and specifications. The standards and

specifications denote orientation, shape, size and three aspects of colour (hue,

chroma and value). What can be altered is the contrast of the TLM by using the best

contrasting standards and specifications, whether based on symbology, size or

colour. Contrast, as proven by surveys and experiments conducted in this research,

is the primary reason why features on a TLM cannot be read with NVG.


2. Refining the TLM

The use of the cartographic variables described above were needed to define what

affects the visual acuity of a TLM and what needs to be considered during TLM

design and refinement. Of all of the cartographic variables discussed, contrast has

the greatest affect on this research. To change the contrast of a TLM, the variables

must be defined and discussed in relation to contrast and the previous experiments.

The least difficult variable to change on a TLM is colour. Colours that will be used

in this research are defined in SYMBAS Edition 2, which sets hue, value and chroma

by denoting the Pantone print colours for each cartographic feature (shown in Table

2-2 for 1:50 000 scale TLM). SYMBAS Edition 2 details two other colours for use

when TLM printing. These colours are Process Yellow and Electric Blue 266, also

Pantone colours. The two colours are used only on Joint Operation Graphic (JOG)

TLMs that are produced at 1:500 000 scale.65 The two colours will be included

within this research to increase refinement variables and provide maximum

alternatives within the research scope. Major changes of colour e.g. vegetation from

green to brown, will not be undertaken within this study. It is beyond the scope of

this research to change the qualitative and cognitive aspects of the TLM that users

are accustomed to, and if major changes of colour are undertaken, the ground / figure

relationship, balance and usability of the TLM would be jeopardised. A prototype

was developed to test the effects of colour on contrast within the TLM by changing

the colour of contours and streams. It was considered possible to achieve good

contrast for acuity by changing colours to those that provide a greater contrast,

without changing their connotative meaning.

65 Royal Australian Survey Corps (1994) Symbolization - All Series (SYMBAS) Ed 2


In the first experiment, readability of critical information, it was discovered that all

text and grid information, printed black, could be easily read with NVG. Black is the

darkest colour used to print TLMs, the second darkest colour is Electric Blue 266. If

the colour of contours and streams are changed to those colours which are known to

be seen with NVG, they may provide a solution within the scope of this research.

Black is known to be seen, so it is theoretically correct to predict that contours

printed black should be seen with NVG. This is supported by the fact that TLM

grids, printed black and 0.05mm in size can be read with NVG. Using this line of

reasoning, it is surmised that changing the colour of watercourses from Process Blue

to Electric Blue 266, which is a darker hue, should provide greater contrast. It

should also not affect comprehension of the TLM as the watercourses would still be

printed blue. However, changing the colours may affect TLM balance and may

reduce the overall TLM legibility. The use of colour only to produce a prototype

TLM was of benefit to this research as it may have provided a simple solution

without the need for changing symbology.

The second variable for use when developing the prototypes was symbology. The

different types of symbology tested previously within this research are detailed in

Table 4-1. The Table shows each of the fundamental variable symbols used on each

edition of the 1:50 000 TLMs. It was determined not to differ from Table 4-1 in the

use of symbology to refine the TLM. Each symbol was given a unique letter

identifier e.g. for contours used on TLMs A and B - C1 and for the vegetation

symbols used on TLM B - V2. These unique letters were used to simplify the use of

each symbol and to best determine combinations of symbols for use on prototypes.


Symbol Name TLM sheet Experiment TLM

Colour Appendix ID

Contour Mt Tamborine & Wide Bay Training Area Special

B & C Brown 152 B & C C1

Contour Caboolture A Brown A C2 Vegetation Mt Tamborine B Green 367 B V1 Vegetation Wide Bay Training

Area Special C Green 367 C V2 Vegetation Caboolture A Green 367 A V3 Watercourses Mt Tamborine &

Wide Bay Training Area Special

B & C Process Blue B & C H1

Watercourses Caboolture A Process Blue A H2

Table 4.1 Symbology for TLM Refinement

The different symbology for each of the critical information features, as depicted in

Table 4-1, was used to guide the production of prototype TLMs. There are twelve

prototypes that may be produced using the determined critical information features’

symbology. This is shown in Table 4-2. The number of different prototypes that

could be produced was nine, as three of the combinations represent the three TLMs

used throughout this research. The Table gives combinations of the symbology for

use, but fails to take into account some of the characteristics discovered earlier in the

research, which limited symbol usability. The symbol C1 was unable to be read on a

TLM; symbol V1 does not differentiate between vegetation classes sufficiently and

symbol H1 is difficult to read on TLMs. It was considered unrealistic and a waste of

resources to simply build all TLM prototypes based on the combinations available

within Table 4-1. Whilst the combinations were not discarded, a further discussion

of alterations to symbology follows to test findings within this research and facilitate

the achievement of the overall aims.


Variable Variable Variable

C1 (contours on Mt Tamborine

& Wide Bay Training Area

Special)

V1 (vegetation on Mt

Tamborine)

H1 (watercourses on Mt

Tamborine & Wide Bay

Training Area Special)

C2 (contours on Caboolture) V2 (vegetation on Wide Bay

Training Area Special)

H2 (watercourses on

Caboolture)

V3 (vegetation on Caboolture)

Combinations Available Notes

C1 – V1 – H1 This equates to the symbology already on Mt Tamborine TLM.

C1 – V2 – H1 This equates to the symbology already on Wide Bay Training Area

Special TLM.

C1 – V3 – H1 Vegetation classes need development.

C1 – V1 – H2 Contours will not be seen, vegetation difficult to interpret.

C1 – V2 – H2 Contours will not be seen.


C2 – V1 – H1 Contours will not be seen, hydro difficult to read, vegetation

difficult to interpret.

C2 – V2 – H1 Contours will not be seen, hydro difficult to read.


C2 – V1 – H2 Contours will not be seen, vegetation difficult to interpret.

C2 – V2 – H2 Contours will not be seen.

C2 – V3 – H2 This equates to the symbology already on Caboolture TLM.

Table 4.2 Symbol Combinations for TLM Prototypes


The combinations, C1 –V3 – H1, C1 –V3 – H2 and C2 –V3 – H1 provide the best

prospect of achieving a useable product. All of these combinations are similar to the

Caboolture TLM (TLM A) and all use the vegetation specification as depicted on the

Caboolture TLM. Theoretically, they should all have the best overall contrast as the

Caboolture TLM was surveyed as having the best levels of acuity during the

fundamental variable reading experiment.

The one fault with the Caboolture TLM vegetation specification was that it lacked

the ability to portray different vegetation classes such as scattered forest and rain

forest. This presented a problem within the research as its scope prevented the use,

where possible, of standards and specifications outside that used to produce

Australian Army TLMs. To keep as close as possible to TLM specifications used to

produce the Caboolture TLM, scattered and rain forest vegetation classes were

developed based on existing specifications. Scattered vegetation was depicted

exactly as medium vegetation but symbol density per square centimetre was reduced.

In experimentation, users stated they had difficulty determining boundaries between

the two vegetation types on the Caboolture TLM. The introduction of a third

vegetation type would further exasperate this problem. Rain forest was depicted

using the same symbol as used on Mt Tamborine TLM (TLM B). The Mt

Tamborine specifications were the first time that rain forest was introduced as a

separate vegetation class.

Whilst the development of new specifications stepped outside the intended scope, it

was considered a good method of testing contrast theories and was considered an

appropriate basis for one prototype, which will be discussed later in this Chapter

when standards and specifications for prototypes are listed.


Apart from the need to increase the vegetation classes within the Caboolture TLM

specification, all other vegetation symbology was kept within each edition

specification and not broken into individual symbols. As an example, the vegetation

types used on the Wide Bay Training Area Special TLM (TLM C) were not broken

into individual components (scattered, medium, dense forests and rain forest) and

combined with other vegetation symbology from different TLM editions. This

strategy was adopted to preserve the overall balance of the TLM and to reduce any

impact on the psychological and cognitive aspects of the TLM.

The symbology depicting watercourses on the Caboolture TLM was surveyed as the

easiest to read with NVG. This is due to the lighter background of the TLM and the

symbology, which is a dashed line, rather than the continuous lines of Mt Tamborine

and Wide Bay Training Area Special. On Mt Tamborine and Wide Bay Training

Area Special, watercourses were sometimes read but often confused with contours.

Apart from using the best watercourse symbology (Caboolture) and changing the

colour, as discussed previously, the other option available was to change the size of

the symbol.

It was reported in Chapter Three that the only contours able to be read with NVG are

those on the Caboolture TLM. It was surmised that the contours could be read

because contrast of the contours against the background was sufficient for visual

acuity. Therefore, it would seem logical to change all contour specifications to those

on the Caboolture TLM. However there are problems with this approach:

• The contours are of 0.1mm size and proved unreadable against the vegetation

symbols of Mt Tamborine (V1) and Wide Bay Training Area Special (V2).

• The contours are at 20m intervals. On Mt Tamborine and Wide Bay Training

Area Special, they are at 10m intervals. It was assessed that a change of contour

interval would affect the accuracy and usability of a TLM and diverge too far

from the standards and specifications to which the majority of users are

accustomed.


The issue of contour acuity is difficult. If the background was changed to a lighter,

different symbology (such as the Caboolture vegetation specification), there would

be difficulty differentiating between vegetation classes. If the symbology was

changed to a dashed or dotted line it would conflict with the best symbology for

portrayal of watercourses and could affect the cognitive meaning of the TLM, as

contours have always been represented by solid lines. One option, already proposed,

was to change the colour of contours to a known visible colour. The final option

adopted was to change the size of contour lines.

Both watercourses and contours were constrained by the limits of the standards and

specifications adopted in this research, which prevented a more comprehensive

solution to the problem of contrast. The final option left within the scope of this

research, to improve acuity with NVG, was to change the size of the symbol. During

the experiment to determine the readability of the fundamental variables, some

participants stated they were able to see some of the index contours, which are

0.2mm in width. If colour and symbol type were to remain the same, then increasing

the size of contours and watercourses from 0.1mm to 0.2mm in width was considered

as having the potential to increase their acuity. It may also cause conglomeration

problems where contours are closely spaced, reducing their acuity and obscuring

other features. It was proposed that the larger size of contours and watercourses

would provide a larger target for acuity and provide for greater contrast against the

background. This was trialed on a prototype to ascertain whether a larger target

provided better acuity, without obscuration, on a TLM.

The standards and specifications of the TLM were considered the greatest limiting

factor in development of the prototypes. The three variables of colour, symbology

and size proved to be limiting factors, to a lesser degree, on development of the

prototypes, because they too were constrained by the TLM standards and

specifications. Finally, the psychological and cognitive issues associated with a

TLM were limiting factors, as they would influence the final user’s acceptance of the

prototypes.


3. Prototype Specifications and Construction

The production of four TLM prototypes was undertaken to validate previous

experimentation and to test theories developed within this research. The prototypes

were constructed and printed with the assistance of the 1st Topographical Survey

Squadron, Australian Army. The prototypes were produced using digital

compilation and process printing methods to replicate, as close as possible, a TLM.

This subchapter details the specifications used on each of the prototypes and methods

used to compile them.

3.1 Standards and Specifications

The major aim of the production of each of the four prototypes was to provide

sufficient contrast on each prototype to read the critical information features without

compromising the overall cognitive and aesthetic functions of a TLM. The four

prototype TLMs each tested a different a contrast theory in order to achieve this aim.

The base TLM used for each of the prototypes was the Mt Tamborine TLM (TLM

B). As discussed earlier, this TLM provides a good overall representation of

vegetation types and is information laden, providing for refinements to be tested in a

‘worst case’ scenario.

The specifications for each prototype, along with their aims, are shown at Tables 4-3,

4-4, 4-5 and 4-6. On each of the four prototype TLMs, certain standards and

specifications remain unchanged. These are standards relating to portrayal, TLM

layout and symbology, which did not affect this research, were not operationally

important or were able to be read with NVG. They are:

• Scale: remains for all prototypes at 1:50 000.

• Vertical Datum: is Australian Height Datum (AHD).

• Horizontal Datum: Australian Geodetic Datum 1966 (AGD 66).

• Projection: Transverse Mercator.

• Cultural features and symbology: No change.


• Text features and symbology: No change.

• Grid features and symbology: No change.

• Marginal Information: No change.

• Vegetation: only changes will be made to scattered, medium, dense and

rainforest.

Prototype One

Feature Symbology Size Colour Comment

Contours Continuous line 0.1mm Process Black

Watercourses Continuous line 0.1mm Electric Blue 266

Scattered vegetation

No change to Mt Tamborine specifications

Green 367

Medium vegetation


Green 367

Dense vegetation


Green 367

Rain forest No change to Mt Tamborine specifications

Green 367

Aims:

1. To test whether contours and watercourses can be read if their colour only is changed to a darker colour.

2. To eliminate the possibility that contours and watercourses cannot be seen because of their 0.1mm size.

3. To see if colour can alone change the contrast of the TLM sufficiently for it to be read with NVG.

Table 4.3 Prototype One


Prototype Two


Contours Continuous line

0.1mm Brown 152 No change from current specifications.

Watercourses Continuous line

0.1mm Process Blue No change from current specifications.


New symbol Green 367 Same as medium but lower density of symbol per sq cm.

Medium vegetation

Same as Caboolture

Green 367

Dense vegetation

Same as Caboolture

Green 367

Rain forest Same as Mt Tamborine

Green 367 Not new symbol but new class for this old specification

Aims:

1. To test the current contour and creek / stream specifications with the old vegetation specifications and see if the vegetation allows more contrast and acuity.

2. To test whether the addition of new vegetation classes, to this specification, is an effective option.

Table 4.4 Prototype Two


Prototype Three



0.2mm Brown 152

Watercourses Continuous line

0.2mm Process Blue

Scattered

vegetation

Same as Wide Bay Training Area Special.

Green 367

Medium

vegetation


Green 367

Dense vegetation Same as Wide Bay Training Area Special.

Green 367

Rain forest Same as Wide Bay Training Area Special.

Green 367

Aims:

1. To test if increasing the size of streams / creeks and contours has an effect on contrast and hence acuity.

2. To test if conglomeration and obscuration occurs if size is increased.

3. To keep as close to current specifications as possible whilst increasing contrast and acuity.

Table 4.5 Prototype Three


Prototype Four



0.1mm Process Black

Watercourses Dashed line 0.2mm Process Blue Same dash as used on Caboolture.



Green 367

Medium vegetation


Green 367

Dense vegetation Same as Wide Bay Training Area Special.

Green 367

Rain forest Same as Wide Bay Training Area Special.

Green 367

Aims:

1. To test if changes to colour, symbology and size, combined, has an effect on contrast and acuity.

2. To keep as close to current specifications as possible whilst increasing contrast and acuity.

Table 4.6 Prototype Four


Each prototype was developed to test the outcomes of the surveys and experiments

undertaken during this research and primarily focus on problems with NVG and

TLMs. The prototypes required testing with normal vision to rate their level of

acuity and acceptability. This was a key component of the research, as the aim was

to refine the TLM for night use but not to impair day use. Testing conducted using

NVG only would address only half of the scope of the research.

It was considered that each prototype may have affected the balance or figure /

ground relationship of the TLM that would have been evident during testing. The

prototypes were designed also to closely reflect the normal attributes and layout of a

TLM. This was to reduce any cognitive or psychological issues with layout and the

distribution of information throughout the TLM. The processes used to make the

prototypes were reflective of the current methods of TLM production and were used

to promote efficiency to ensure that any symbology changes could be easily applied

to current production methods.

3.2 Prototype Production

The author, in conjunction with the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron produced the

prototypes through digital compilation and process printing methods. The equipment

and software used during production included:

• Heidelberg Digital Imagesetter – used for production of intermediate repromat

(negatives).

• Platemaker – used for production of printing plates for press.

• Heidelberg Single Colour Press – used for printing prototypes.

• Arcview 3.266 – for classification of vegetation areas and manipulation of

contours and watercourses.

66 Arcview is a proprietary GIS software program owned and produced by Earth Sciences Research Institute (ESRI).


• Adobe Photoshop67 – for creation of digital images prior to use with image setter.

All prototypes were process printed to ensure close adherence to TLM standards and

specifications and to increase efficiency. Whilst printing could have been achieved

through use of a digital plotter, the colours, clarity, and plotting system limitations

would preclude the prototype from closely resembling a TLM. The limited number

of changes allowed greatest efficiency to be achieved during the printing process.

For example, none of the marginal or grid information was changed with the result

that enough copies could be printed at single time for use with each of the four

prototypes. This allowed maximum efficiency with a single colour press.

Digital data of cultural features, vegetation boundaries, hydrology and hypsography

features were provided by the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron in the form of

AutoCAD files. The files were converted into Arcview Shapefiles and attributed.

Vegetation classes were identified and attributed to assist in producing intermediate

repromat. The accuracy of the attributing was approximately 90% due to data

cleaning and compilation methods used. This was deemed acceptable to the

research, as it would have no major effects on acuity or contrast.

Intermediate repromat is that which is used to create final repromat. In process

printing, intermediate repromat is used to apply stipples to the final repromat so that

one single plate can be produced for all vegetation classes. Intermediate repromat

was produced for all vegetation classes so that vegetation stipples from the

Caboolture and Wide Bay Training Area Special TLMs could be applied to the Mt

Tamborine TLM. The vegetation intermediate repromat, often called open window

masks, was used in conjunction with the master stipple sheets held by the 1st

Topographical Survey Squadron. The master stipple sheets are defined in SYMBAS

Edition 2.68 The combination of stipples allows for different classes of vegetation to

be shown on a TLM and printed using a single plate and single colour.

67 Adobe Photoshop is a proprietary software program owned and produced by Adobe Systems Incorporated.

68 Stipples are defined in Chapter Two, Table 2-2 and Figure 2-8.


The Geospatial Intelligence Branch (GIB), Defence Intelligence and Geospatial

Organisation (DIGO) supplied the final repromat of Mt Tamborine TLM. Previously

known as the Army Survey Regiment Bendigo, the GIB is where all Australian

Army TLMs are compiled and printed. The final repromat was then used to produce

plates for printing of the prototypes where features remained constant. New final

repromat was required to be made where features differed from those on the Mt

Tamborine TLM. A short summary of each prototype is detailed below:

• Prototype One (Appendix G). The original repromat was used to produce plates

as only colour and no features changed from the Mt Tamborine TLM

specifications. During printing, new colours (process black / electric blue) were

substituted for the old colours of contours and watercourses (brown / process

blue).

• Prototype Two (Appendix H). New final repromat and a new vegetation plate

were produced, as vegetation was the only change. The changes included two

new vegetation classes. No colours were changed during printing.

• Prototype Three (Appendix I). New final repromat and plates were made for

vegetation, watercourses and hypsography. No colours were changed.

• Prototype Four (Appendix J). New final repromat and plate were made for

watercourses. During printing, the colour used for contours was changed to

black.


The quality of the prototypes closely matched the standard of TLMs printed by

GIB69. Each of the prototypes was produced according to the specifications as

detailed in Tables 4-3, 4-4, 4-5 and 4-6. During printing some minor problems were

encountered:

• Alignment and registration of plates during the printing process was not exact.

There was a misalignment of approximately + 2mm. This is a common problem

with single colour presses. Though a gap between the neat line and the vegetation

is visible, it has little effect on the outcomes of this research.

• The creation of new stipple for scattered vegetation on Prototype Two was

limited in resolution by the software used for production of the repromat. The

stipple appears as a “blob” and is highly pixilated as compared with the other

stipples used to depict medium and dense vegetation. The impact of this problem

was ascertained during subsequent prototype experimentation.

• The dashed lines used to represent watercourses on Prototype Four appear

pixilated and lack good resolution. The lack of resolution gives the watercourses

appearance of greater size than the intended 0.2mm. The cause of this problem is

related to the software limitations for production of the repromat. The impact of

the watercourse portrayal on Prototype Four was ascertained during subsequent

prototype experimentation.

69 GIB use process printing equipment that is technically advanced over the 1st Topographical Survey Squadron. GIB also uses a five colour press for easier registration and faster printing times.


4. Summary

The development of the prototype TLMs was based on results from the research

experimentation whilst still applying current cartographic design principles. The

scope of the research constrains the amount of changes that could be applied to the

critical information features (contours, watercourses and vegetation). The primary

aim of the changes was to increase the contrast of the TLM so that it could be read

effectively with NVG and normal vision. The use of digital and process printing

techniques to produce the prototypes reduced differences, to a negligible level,

between the prototypes and a standard TLM.

Orientation, shape, size and the three aspects of colour (hue, chroma and value) were

investigated to determine their degree of impact on refining the TLM. Orientation,

including ground / figure relationship was considered to remain stable within the

TLM as changes were made only to shape, size and colour. Shape was used to

enhance watercourses and develop new vegetation classes that complimented the

vegetation specification used on the Caboolture TLM. Size of contours and

watercourses were increased to determine if the larger sizes would provide better

contrast without obscuring or reducing clarity. Colour, as a single factor, was

changed for contours and watercourses to investigate the possibility of providing

sufficient contrast for NVG acuity. The prototype designs use a combination of

shape, size and colour to test different combinations of change to the critical

information features.

Page 103

Chapter 5

Testing the Refinements

Page 104

Chapter 5. Testing the Refinements

1. Prototype Testing

The production of the prototypes was the culmination and linking of the information

gained throughout the surveys conducted in Chapter Two, the experimentation in

Chapter Three and the contrast and cartographic theory discussed in Chapter Four.

The major aim of each of the four prototypes was to produce sufficient contrast by

which to read the critical information features (contours, watercourses, vegetation)

without compromising the overall cognitive and aesthetic functions of a TLM. The

prototype TLMs each were designed and produced to test a different contrast theory

in attempting to achieve this aim.

An experiment was devised and conducted to test if any of the prototypes or

elements of the prototypes were successful in achieving the aim. Members of the

Australian Army participated in the experiment within which they used normal

vision and NVG vision to view and comment on each of the prototypes.

1.1 Aim and Methodology

The aim of the experiment was to test if changes to the TLM through use of colour,

size and symbology, as developed through the prototypes, allowed the critical

information features to be read.

The experiment was conducted in two parts, within the period of a single day, at

Gallipoli Barracks, Enoggera. The first part asked participants to complete a survey

form whilst viewing the four prototypes concurrently with normal vision in daylight

conditions. The second part required participants to view the prototypes

concurrently using the Australian Army NVG. The experiment was conducted in an

outside location for the first part, with each of the four maps laid out on a table.

Each participant was allowed as much time as required to answer the questions and

was allowed to touch the maps and move them about freely.

Chapter 5: Testing the Refinements Page 105

The second part of the experiment was conducted in a military weapons training

facility that replicates night light ambience. The level of light selected was

equivalent to that which is available during a half moon. Half moonlight was chosen

as the timeframe for the experiment was minimal and the difference between full

moonlight and no moonlight could be extrapolated if necessary. The half moonlight

was the same level of light as used in previous experimentation and thus was a

constant. Participants were asked to focus their NVG and then read the two lines of

text printed under the scale bar of TLM C. All participants were able to accurately

read the two lines of text before proceeding with the second part. Participants then

viewed each of the four prototypes concurrently, in their own time, and completed a

simple set of questions.

Twenty two Army personnel participated in the experiment. None of the participants

had been involved in earlier surveys or experiments during this research. By using

personnel who had not been exposed to the previous research methodology, it was

expected that non-biased and uninfluenced results could be achieved. The

questionnaire used during this experiment is at Appendix K.

To simplify the results each prototype is referred to in the remainder of this study as

P1 (Prototype One – Appendix G), P2 (Prototype Two – Appendix H), P3 (Prototype

Three – Appendix I) and P4 (Prototype Four – Appendix J).

1.2 Results

The response to the first two questions by the participants was unanimous. The

prototype that best resembled a standard TLM was P3, whilst P2 was regarded as the

prototype which least resembled a standard TLM. The choice of P3 was expected as

it has the closest specifications to a standard TLM and is of the same colours as a

TLM. P2 does not represent the vegetation specifications that many personnel are

accustomed to. P2 also provides a different contrast background as the prototype is

predominantly white, whilst the other prototypes have a predominantly green

background.

Page 106 Chapter 5: Testing the Refinements

The majority of participants stated that on P1 the contours were easiest to read. The

second highest response was P2 whilst only one response stated P3 and none P4. P4

was rated as the worst prototype on which to read contours with normal vision. These

responses highlight the ease of reading information, coloured black, on a TLM and

shows that the greatest contrast provides the easiest recognition. There are two

reasons why P4 was chosen as the worst on which to read contours; the vegetation on

P4 is of a darker hue than P1 and the overbearing nature of the watercourses on P4

affects the balance of the TLM and readability of contours.

All participants stated that the best prototypes on which to read watercourses were P2

and P3, and the worst was P1. That is to say the best watercourses for reading were

coloured Process Blue. Watercourses were best ‘identified’ on P4, however

participants stated the clarity and accuracy was not as good as the other prototypes

making P4 difficult to read. Some participants stated that the watercourses on P4

changed the overall appearance and feel of the TLM. P1 was rated as the worst as

the contrast between the contours and the watercourses was limited and caused some

confusion. This is in contrast to the fact that contours were rated the best read on P1

and confusion of contours with watercourses was not mentioned during the previous

question. Colour combined with background contrast allows watercourses to be

easily recognised on P2 and P3.

Participants rated P3 as easiest on which to identify different vegetation types. The

common reason given for this was that there is significant difference between the

different hues and the dot stipple affect allows for easy identification of vegetation

types. A few participants stated that P4 allowed for easy recognition. No

participants stated either P1 or P2 as the easiest on which to read different vegetation

types. The reason why both P3 and P4 were rated similarly is because vegetation

specifications on both prototypes are the same.

The worst prototype for identification of vegetation types was P2. The reduced

stipple resolution and lack of a definitive boundary between vegetation types were

given as reasons why vegetation types were difficult to discern and read.

Participants in this question listed no other prototype.


When participants were asked to describe their feelings about each of the prototypes,

the following generalised responses were received:

P1

• Watercourses are difficult to discern quickly.

• The map has an overall darker tone as compared to standard TLM.

• Contours are easily read and stand out well.

• Contours sometimes obscure text and make reading difficult, but not impossible.

P2

• Discerning the different vegetation types of scattered, medium and dense is

nearly impossible.

• Contours stand out well.

• Watercourses stand out well.

• The map seems more cluttered with individual features.

P3

• This map is exactly the same as a standard TLM.

• It is a little difficult to read contours when they are close together.

• Discerning different vegetation types is easy.

• The map feels ‘right’.


• P4

• The blue watercourses are overbearing on the map and lack clarity and accuracy.

• The map seems cluttered in places.

• Discerning vegetation types is not too difficult.

• Text is difficult to read on certain areas of the map, generally where contours are

close together.

These responses helped to determine if the prototypes still retained the balance,

figure / ground relationship and cognitive properties of a standard TLM. On P1,

participants stated the map seemed darker than a standard TLM. This was

considered to be a function of the black contours and lack of brown on the prototype.

On P2, many participants responded that the map felt more cluttered than a standard

TLM. This was considered due probably to the vegetation specification that is a

point feature rather than an area feature. The increased amount of point features in

the prototype give the feeling that the map is cluttered. By far, the specifications for

P3 were the closest to a standard TLM, which is why some participants stated the

map felt ‘right’. On P4, the dominant features were the watercourses, which affected

the overall balance of the map. Participants stated that P4 also seemed cluttered

where there was a high density of contours, watercourses and text.

The responses helped identify how the prototypes might be accepted for use during

daylight viewing, if they are successful for use with NVG. Further discussion of the

daylight view of each prototype will be undertaken later in this Chapter.

The final question of the first part of the experiment asked participants to state which

prototype they thought would convey the most amount of information when viewed

with NVG. The majority of participants stated that P4 would be the best with NVG.

The next highest rated was P1 then P2. No participants rated P3 as being possible

the best to convey information when viewed with NVG.


The second part of the experiment, using NVG, was conducted immediately after the

first part with the same participants. The first two questions asked which were the

best and worst prototypes for reading contours. Participants equally ranked P1 and

P4 as the prototypes on which contours were easiest to read. On both P1 and P4

contours are black and have an interval of ten metres. All participants stated that

contours could not be read on P3, where contours are brown and 0.02mm in width.

P2 appeared in no answers from participants.

The prototype on which watercourses could be read the best was rated by just over

half of all participants as P3. Remaining participants rated P2 and P4 evenly as the

best on which to read watercourses. All participants rated P1 as the worst on which

to read watercourses. On P3 the watercourses are Process Blue, 0.02mm wide and

are read well against the dot stipple vegetation background. On P1, the watercourses

are Electric Blue, 0.01mm wide and easily confused with contours as stated by

participants.

The majority of participants, answered P3 as the best prototype on which to

differentiate between vegetation classes. The remainder of participants stated that P4

was the best on which to differentiate vegetation classes. Both P3 and P4 have the

same specifications for vegetation portrayal, which is the current standard used by

the Australian Army. All participants responded that P2 was the worst on which to

identify vegetation classes. Participants stated they could clearly identify pine and

rainforest but could not differentiate between scattered, medium and dense

vegetation.


Table 5-1 details the responses to question twenty one, which asked the participants

to rank as a percentage how well they could read each of the features on each of the

prototype TLMs. It is the average of all participants’ ratings and helps substantiate

the responses of the previous questions and helps quantify the readability of each

prototype. Some of the responses differ slightly from the previous questions as the

answer is a percentage of how well a participant could read the entire feature on the

prototype.

Feature / Prototype 1 2 3 4

Contours 100% 84% 0% 100%

Watercourses 22% 84% 90% 78%

Vegetation 44% 20% 100% 90%

Table 5.1 Readability of Critical Features on Prototypes

The final question within the experiment asked participants for any comments on the

prototypes with either type of vision. There were no responses that contributed

further to the research.


2. Discussion of Results

The results gained from experimentation on the prototypes was fairly conclusive in

identifying features and cartographic portrayal which work both with normal and

NVG vision. Table 5-2 displays results from both the first part and the second part

of the experiment. Prototypes were rated from best to worst70 according to the

participants ability to read critical information features. If prototypes were rated

evenly by participants they were given the same rating for example both P1 and P4

were rated evenly as the best on which to read contours with NVG.

Prototypes Features P1 P2 P3 P4

Contours 1 2 3 4 Watercourse 4 1 1 3 Normal

Vision Vegetation 3 4 1 2

Contours 1 3 4 1 Watercourse 4 2 1 2 NVG

Vision Vegetation 3 4 1 2

Table 5.2 Rating of Critical Features on Prototypes

From Table 5-2 each critical feature, for each prototype and type of vision can be

added to show the best means of portraying the critical features. Table 5-3 shows the

best cartographic portrayal for critical features in bold.

Prototypes Features P1 P2 P3 P4

Contours 1 + 1 2 2 + 3 5 3 + 4 7 4 + 1 5 Watercourse 4 + 4 8 1 + 2 3 1 + 1 2 3 + 2 5

Normal Vision +

NVG Vision Vegetation 3 + 3 6 4 + 4 8 1 + 1 2 2 + 2 4

Table 3.3 Best Cartographic Portrayal for Both Types of Vision

70 The rating system was from 1-4 with 1 being the best and 4 the worst.


Table 5-3 shows that quantitatively, the best way for portrayal of each critical feature

is a combination of P1 and P3:

• Contours – Process Black, 0.1mm in width, solid line, 10 metre interval.

• Watercourses – Process Blue, 0.2mm in width, solid line.

• Vegetation – Green 367, current standard as reflected on TLM C: Wide Bay

Training Area Special.

Contours are brown on a standard TLM and cannot be read with NVG.71 The only

brown contours that can be read are those which are portrayed on mainly white

backgrounds as provided by the vegetation specifications on Caboolture TLM and

P2. Changing the size of the contour without changing colour does not achieve a

satisfactory result as the contours still cannot be read, proved previously with P3.

Therefore, the only option left within the scope of this research is to change the

colour of contours from brown to black, black being the most easily seen with NVG.

Experimentation in this research72 has proved that the size of contours, if black, can

remain unchanged at 0.1mm width for them to be above acuity thresholds for normal

and NVG vision.

The scope of this research limited the amount of variables for portrayal of

watercourses to two; 0.1mm process blue solid and 0.1mm blue dashed. The

variables were increased by two through introducing a colour change of 0.1mm

process blue solid to 0.1mm electric blue 266 solid and by increasing the size of both

dashed and solid lines from 0.1mm to 0.2mm, without changing colour. This

research has shown previously that the best read watercourses, with NVG, were

0.1mm dashed lines found on the Caboolture TLM.73 The reason that the

watercourses were best read on the Caboolture TLM is that the background allowed

good contrast for the watercourses to be seen. Additionally, another reason is the

71 As proved during test of critical feature readability in Chapter Three, Table 3-2 and during the experimentation on prototypes where contours could not be read on the only prototype with brown contours and a solid vegetation background, Table 5-1.

72 Section 3.2.1 pages 65-67.


dashed lines of the watercourses were not easily confused with continuous contour

lines. During testing of the prototypes, the best watercourse portrayal, with normal

vision, was on P2 and P3. The reason for this is that the background allowed for

good contrast and definition of the watercourses. With NVG, the best prototype for

reading watercourses was P3, which was not expected. It was expected that either P2

or P4 would have the best watercourse specifications, due to their background

contrast and symbol size respectively. On P3, the lack of visible contours allows

watercourses to be easily identified. As no contours can be read there is no confusion

between watercourses and contours. This gives P3 the highest rating for

watercourses with NVG. The effect of introducing contours that can be seen with

NVG will probably reduce the overall definition of watercourses as portrayed on P3.

This loss of definition will have to be accepted, as the best vegetation portrayal is

used on P3, P4 and Wide Bay Training Area Special, which is the current standard as

used by the Australian Army.

During the research, there have been only three types of vegetation portrayal

specifications used. These were as applied on Caboolture, Mt Tamborine and Wide

Bay Training Area Special TLMs. The specification that provides the greatest

contrast and definition for reading contours and watercourses with normal and NVG

vision is that used on Caboolture.74 Though this specification provides the best

contrast, it is the worst specification for differentiating between vegetation classes, as

there are no definitive boundaries between classes, and clutters the map with point

symbology.75 Overall, as rated in experiments within this research and during

prototype testing, the vegetation specifications that allows for both vegetation

differentiation and discrimination of watercourses and contours was the current

vegetation specification as shown on P3, P4, and Wide Bay Training Area Special

TLM.

73 Table 3-2 page 63.

74 If the average of all vegetation readability tests undertaken within this research are compared the vegetation specification used on Caboolture provides the best background for contrast and readability of contours and watercourses, even though P3 (with Wide Bay Training Area Special specifications) was rated the best to read watercourses on during prototype testing.

75 As stated by participants during prototype testing.


3. Final Product

A final product was made with the best specifications as defined during the prototype

testing to test the outcome of the prototype experimentation and to achieve the aim of

this research. The product, based on Mt Tamborine, is at Appendix L and has the

following specifications:

• Contours – Process Black, 0.1mm in width, solid line, 10 metre interval.

• Watercourses – Process Blue, 0.2mm in width, solid line.

• Vegetation – Green 367, current specifications as reflected on P3, P4 and Wide

Bay Training Area Special TLM.

• All other features remain unchanged.

The final product contains the best specifications as discovered through the course of

this research. The product differs from the current standards and specifications used

to produce Australian Army TLMs, in the portrayal of contours and watercourses.

The scope of this research defined that changes to current TLMs should be limited to,

where possible, previous standards and specifications used to produce TLMs. As

discussed previously the rigid adherence to previous or current specifications would

preclude this research from achieving its aim. The changes to watercourses and

contours, whilst not falling within previous or current specifications, have remained

as close as possible to established specifications in order to reduce the cognitive or

perception issues that may arise. The change of contours from Brown 152 to Process

Black has the greatest effect on the TLM as it changes the overall tone of the map

and makes it slightly more difficult to read other black features such as grid lines,

text and some cultural features. The change of watercourses from 0.1mm to 0.2mm

has little affect on the overall TLM and looks very similar to the current specification

for portraying watercourses.


4. Summary

The prototype experiment aim, to test if changes to the TLM through use of colour,

size and symbology allowed the critical information features to be read, was

achieved. The prototypes were rated against each other to determine if a single

prototype or a combination of features on different prototypes would be acceptable.

The best result was a combination of features from P1 and P3.

The best method of portrayal for the critical information features was determined to

be:

• Contours - change colour to black but no change to size.

• Watercourses – no change to colour but change size to 0.02mm.

• Vegetation – no change to current specifications.

A final TLM using current specifications but applying these three changes was

produced and is contained at Appendix L.

Page 116

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

Page 117

Chapter 6. Conclusions and Recommendations

1. Summary

The aim of this research was to refine Australian Army TLM standards and

specifications, to produce a TLM that can be read and used effectively with both

normal vision and NVG. This aim has been achieved through the undertaking of

surveys, conduct of experiments and through investigation and application of

cartographic theory and technique. The final product (Appendix L) shows the

refinements this research recommends should be applied to the Australian Army

TLM standards and specifications.

The secondary aims of this research, as defined in Chapter 1, were achieved through:

• Identification of problems associated with using Australian Army NVG. The

surveys undertaken of experienced NVG users identified problems with the

Australian Army NVG such as weight and alignment, focus, resolution and the

major problem of not being able to read TLMs effectively.

• Identification of cartographic theory and design techniques, which are

applicable to NVG use. Cartographic theories and design techniques, which

have the greatest influence on NVG maps, were identified during this study as

symbology, size and contrast. Contrast is the most important factor and is

influenced by symbology, size and colour. The achromatic nature of NVG lends

itself to theories and techniques used for production of single colour maps and

maps that are designed for people with colour deficiencies.

• Identification of TLM information and features which are critical to the

successful conduct of military operations. The survey of TLM information

priority identified that there are three main features depicted on a TLM that are

critical to operations. These features are contours, watercourses and vegetation.

• Identification of future research areas on NVG and TLM relationships. This

study has identified future areas for research, listed in the next sub-chapter.

Page 118 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

The only variation within the scope was with the development of new portrayal

specifications for contours and watercourses. The prohibitive nature of the standards

and specifications for portrayal of contours required the modification of the existing

standards. Although contour colour was changed from brown to black, the

symbology and size remained unchanged. The change to black maintained

efficiency as black is already used during the production of TLMs. The change of

contours to black has the greatest effect of any refinements on the TLM. Black

contours give the map a different feel and have altered the balance slightly. The

black also makes it difficult to read some text, grid lines and cultural features. This

difficulty should be accepted as the overall usability and effectiveness of the TLM

has increased. The change of size in watercourses from 0.1mm to 0.2mm was

needed, as the amount of variables for portrayal was limited. Watercourses retain

their colour and symbology, and therefore have little impact on the balance, figure /

ground relationship and cognitive aspects of the TLM. The changes to both contours

and watercourses were still within the scope.

Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations Page 119

The importance of the research, defined in Section 1.2.3, has been substantiated:

• To solve a problem, identified within the Australian Army. The final product at

Appendix L provides one solution to the problem of reading TLMs with normal

and NVG vision.

• To improve efficiency of military operations and reduce reliance on other, more

cumbersome or tactically inefficient, methods for reading TLMs at night. This

research has proved it is feasible to produce a TLM that can be read with passive

NVG alone. This will allow soldiers to stop using filtered torches on the

battlefield to read maps, saving time and effort. It also reduces the risk of system

failure or operator error by reducing the amount of systems in use.

• To improve the survivability chances of a soldier on the battlefield. If a soldier is

able to accurately read a TLM with NVG, they will be able to make better

decisions and reduce risk. The ability to read TLMs with NVG only is now

achievable. Soldiers can quickly read maps and make quicker decisions, thereby

according them an advantage through time and knowledge.

• No studies have been previously undertaken on the direct relationship between

NVG and TLMs. This research will identify areas for future research and

improvement of NVG and TLM relationships. This study has identified future

areas for research and these are listed later in this chapter.

• The findings of this research may be applied to any NVG and TLM relationship

regardless of individual characteristics of either the NVG system or TLM

standards and specifications. This research has identified that value contrast is

the single most important aspect when designing maps for use with NVG. The

monochromatic environment of NVG allows only for difference in contrast, as

defined by tones, to be interpreted by the human eye. When designing maps for

use with both normal and NVG vision, balance between the two environments

must be accounted for. Whilst there is an easily defined set of good contrast

colours, these colours do not easily lend themselves to good balance and

figure/ground relationships in cartography and have totally different

characteristics when viewed with NVG.

Page 120 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

2. Conclusions

This research has resulted in findings and conclusions that affect the use of NVG, use

of TLMs and the interaction between the two systems. The following conclusions

are drawn from the research:

• NVG is an integral operating system of the soldier. Whilst it is currently used to

increase effectiveness during night operations, it is not used to read maps and

TLMs. This is a result of information, on a TLM, being unreadable with NVG.

• Information that is unreadable on a current TLM, when using NVG, is contours,

watercourses and vegetation.

• TLM information that is critical to tactical level military operations is contours,

watercourses, vegetation and grid/marginal information.

• Value contrast is the greatest factor why cartographic features can be read on a

TLM with NVG.

• The development of maps for use under chromatic and achromatic conditions is

difficult and constrained by the few design qualities that affect both chromatic

and achromatic processes, such as value contrast, symbology and size.

• The greatest limitations on production of TLMs are the standards and

specifications to which they must abide. The standards and specifications limit

the TLM greater than the compilation or printing methods.

Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations Page 121

3. Recommendations for Further Research

This research recommends the following areas for future research with respect to

cartography and NVG:

• The undertaking of colour research to identify colours outside the Australian

Army TLM standards and specifications that can be read with both normal and

NVG vision. A potential direction may be to take the Pantone Colours and

equate them to Munsell or CIE colour solids. The colours could then be

mathematically separated to determine best contrast and tested to achieve best

cartographic portrayal of TLM features.

• A comprehensive investigation of cartographic features that are critical to

military operations. This research identified TLM critical, important, not

important and irrelevant information for the successful conduct of military

operations. The results in this study were gained from only the tactical level of

military operations and only from select corps. A more encompassing scoping to

identify critical information at the tactical, operational and strategic levels and in

the context of different operational scenarios would assist map production and

focus limited map making resources accurately.

• This research be extended into how its findings can be applied to rapid mapping

techniques and the development of general standards and specifications for

production of rapid mapping products for use at night with NVG.

• An investigation be conducted into paint and use of reflective additives to make a

map easier to read during night conditions. Paints that can reflect light towards

the infrared end of the light spectrum may be easily read with NVG.

Page 122

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Page 125

Appendix A: Caboolture 1971

Page 126

Appendix B: Mount Tamborine 1988

Page 127

Appendix C: Wide Bay Training Area Special 1999.

Page 128 Appendix D

Appendix D: Survey - Operating with NVG

1. What are some of the effects / limitations of using NVG

2. What are some of the effects / limitations of wearing NVG?

3. What are some of the extra considerations taken into account when planning and

conducting night missions?

Appendix D Page 129

4. How are maps currently read at night? Is this effective or does it place

limitations on successfully conducting missions?

5. How is planning conducted for night missions; under white light, other light or

NVG? What percentage for each?

White Light percentage____________

Other Light type_________________percentage_____________

NVG percentage____________

6. What changes, if any, are made to Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to read

maps and navigate successfully at night?

Page 130 Appendix D

7. How are the limitations of NVG compensated for when conducting missions?

Reading Maps 8. Are colours able to be distinguished when using NVG?

YES NO 9. If Yes what colours can be distinguished? 10. Do dark or light tones stand out best with NVG? Dark Light 11. What information on a map is most critical for successful conduct of missions?

Appendix D Page 131

12. Indicate how easy it is to read the following information on a map with NVG contours 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read text 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read grid references 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read roads 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read creeks/streams/rivers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read vegetation types 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read point features such as buildings/spot heights/dams etc 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read line features such as powerlines and fences 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 easy can’t read

Page 132 Appendix D

13. What information is unreadable on a standard 1:50 000 map with NVG? 14. What information stands out best on a map with NVG? 15. How is information added onto maps during night missions (e.g. other locations,

points of interest, etc)?

Appendix D Page 133

Navigation with NVG 16. Approximately how far can be seen with NVG under good light conditions?

25m 50m 75m 100m 125m 150m 175m 200m 250m 275m 300m 325m 350m 375m 400m 425m 450m 475m 500m 525m 550m 575m 600m more_____________

17. What effects does the reduced Field of View (FOV) have on reading maps? 18. What limitations does the reduced FOV place on the ability to navigate

effectively? 19. Are there any other issues I have not covered that are applicable to NVG map

reading and navigation?

Page 134

Appendix E: Survey Questions for Pl Comd/Pl Sgt/ Sect Comd/Sect 2IC

1. How often is NVG training conducted?

2. How many NVG goggles are in use in a section during night missions?

3. How often is training conducted on navigation / map reading skills?

4. What specific training is conducted on night navigation with NVG?

Appendix E Page 135

5. Approximately what percentage of training sessions are conducted at night?

6. Do you ever conduct night mission training without NVG? If Yes –Why?

YES NO

7. Do you mark maps in any special way (colours/lines/highlighting/etc) for use

during night missions? If Yes – how?

YES NO

Page 136 Appendix E

8. Have you ever conducted night missions during operations? If yes were there

any major differences from your training missions?

YES NO

9. Do you ever use the NVG Extended Range (ER) for navigation? If yes what are

some of the problems associated with its use?

YES NO

10. Do you ever use the NVG ER with compass attached for navigation? If yes what

are some of its limitations?

YES NO

Appendix E Page 137

11. Are you aware when using the NVG ER with compass of the possible errors in

magnetic reading? If so what are they?

YES NO

12. Do you use any other equipment to help you read maps / navigate at night?

13. How do you incorporate NVG, maps and GPS to navigate at night?

14. Are there any other issues or problems not previously mentioned with NVG,

maps and navigation?

Page 138

Appendix F: Map Information Priority

The following notes are relevant to the survey:

Mark your response simply by placing a tick in the box that best reflects your

opinion.

You can refer to a standard 1:50 000 map as much as you like.

All symbols are grouped in like categories in alphabetical order. Please add any

other symbols/information that have been missed or you require.

Definitions of each criteria:

• Critical. You cannot complete your mission if this information is not available.

• Important. You may complete your mission with limitations or difficulties if

this information is not available.

• Not Important. Inclusion of this information is not required to complete your

mission.

• Irrelevant. You have never needed this information to complete your mission.

If you have any questions or don’t understand please ask.

All symbology used comes from Australian Army SYMBAS Edition 2

Appendix F Page 139

Cultural

Description Critical Important Not Important Irrelevant

Causeway Culvert Cutting Divided Highway Embankment Foot bridge Foot track Gate National route marker Metropolitan route marker Road bridge Stock grid Sealed road two or more lanes Unsealed road two or more lanes Unsealed road one lane Underpass Vehicle track Light railway Multiple track railway Railway bridge Railway tunnel Railway underpass Single track railway Siding Station Administrative boundary Built Up Area (BUA) Building Church Drive in theatre Fence Mine Power transmission line Quarry/Pit Recreation reserve Ruin Windpump Yard

Page 140 Appendix F

Hydrography


Beach Coastline Exposed wreck Harbour Intertidal flat Intertidal ledge or reef Navigation Light Pier/Wharf/Jetty/Quay Rock bare or awash Saline coastal flat Submerged reef Submerged rock Submerged wreck Aqueduct Area subject to inundation Channel Dam Ford Intermittent lake Intermittent watercourse Mainly dry lake Mainly dry watercourse Perennial lake Perennial watercourse Swamp Tank or small dam Watercourse with flood limits Waterhole

Appendix F Page 141

Hypsography/Physiography


Contour line Escarpment Depression contour Distorted surface High cliff Horizontal control point Index contour Levee Sand Sand ridge Spot elevation Supplementary contour

Vegetation


Dense Line of trees/windbreak Mangrove swamp Medium Orchard/vineyard Pine Rain forest Scattered

Page 142 Appendix F

Marginal Information / Map Information

Description Critical Important Not

Important Irrelevant

Index to adjoining maps Grid lines Grid numbers outside map Grid numbers inside map Latitude / Longitude Magnetic variance Map name Mean rainfall Mean Temperature Production Information Scale Bar Watercourse guide

Page 143

Appendix G: Prototype 1

Page 144

Appendix H: Prototype 2

Page 145

Appendix I: Prototype 3

Page 146

Appendix J: Prototype 4

Page 147

Appendix K: TLM Prototype Experiment

Experimentation Details:

• This experiment is broken into two parts: normal vision and NVG vision. The

first set of questions are to be answered when viewing each of the TLMs in

normal daylight conditions with normal vision (optical glasses are OK). The

second set of questions is to be answered when viewing the Prototype TLMs with

passive NVG.

• Each TLM is numbered P1, P2, P3 and P4, which directly relates to their

Prototype specifications.

• Do not use the IR light on the NVG to read the TLMs.

• Any questions please ask.

Page 148 Appendix K

Part One – Normal Vision

1. Which map looks most similar to a standard TLM?

2. Which map looks the most different from a standard TLM?

3. Which TLM allows you to read contours the best?

Appendix K Page 149

4. Which TLM is the worst for reading contours?

5. On which TLM is it the easiest to read watercourses?

6. On which TLM is it the hardest to read watercourses?

Page 150 Appendix K

7. On which TLM is it the easiest to identify different vegetation types?

8. On which TLM is it the hardest to identify different vegetation types?

9. Describe how you feel about P1

Appendix K Page 151




Page 152 Appendix K

13. Which TLM do you think will allow you to read the most amount of information

with NVG?

Part Two – NVG vision

14. Which TLM allows you to read contours the best?

15. Which TLM is the worst for reading contours?

Appendix K Page 153

16. On which TLM is it the easiest to read watercourses?

17. On which TLM is it the hardest to read watercourses?

18. On which TLM is it the easiest to identify different vegetation types?

Page 154 Appendix K

19. On which TLM is it the hardest to identify different vegetation types?

20. Rate as a percentage how well you can see each of the features on each of the

TLMs

Feature / Prototype 1 2 3 4

Contours

Watercourses

Vegetation

Appendix K Page 155

21. Do you have any other comments about the TLMs as viewed with normal vision

or NVG?

Page 156

Appendix L: Final TLM, Mount Tamborine

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