Reflection: Mindfulness

DAN KESTERSON

METACOGNITION

CHAPTER 1

Reflection: Mindfulness

In a co-requisite reading course, there is no time for isolated units of reading instruction. It is important that cognitive strategies and habits of mind are taught in the context of the content of the of the paired content course. A form of metacognition, reflection, is seldom actually taught, but is the essence of active learning. In this chapter the skill of reflecting and applying cognitive strategies is discussed. The very foundation of developing competence in an area of inquiry rests on the ability to observe ones own thinking and ap-ply learning strategies that consolidate that being learned.

SECTION 1

Reflection: MindfulnessAt the 2012 Kentucky Association of Developmental Educa-tion Conference, Joe Cuseo projected onto the screen an im-age of the brain. He explained that just understanding some-thing did not move that information into long term memory. He pointed out that MRIs have now shown that reflection on that which was understood moved the information to long-term memory.

This chapter is about what learners can do during those mo-ments of reflection when the brain is focused on what the reader needs to do while reading to consolidate newly learned information into long-term memory - reflection, John Medina has pulled the findings on the most important mental proc-esses that a learner should engage in during moments of reflec-tion. Daniel Coyle has illustrated how the brain increases men-tal processing and transmission, as well as recall when core mental processes are applied during those moments of reflec-tion. David Rock has created a metaphor that illustrates mind-fulness (metacognition or thinking about thinking) in working memory. This chapter will offer practical strategies and habits of mind that readers have to learn - they have to be learned. Ken Bain has discovered what successful college students do in those moments of reflection while learning. All of these con-tributions help us move closer to understanding the strategies (decision-making processes) that are essential to deep learn-ing in those temporal spaces between understanding and mak-ing new learning useful.

It is the stepping back and observing one thinking (reflection) that is the foundation upon which deep learning builds.

Stepping back and reflecting is about taking control of learn-ing while reading. Reflection gives us the space of mind in which we can consider various options for learning and then choose the most appropriate ones. This process of awareness is referred to by many names - metacognition, reflection, mindfulness; however, they all refer to actively taking control of ones thinking while learning.

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Where We Are Headed

Below is a reading selection from an introduction to psychol-ogy textbook on anxiety disorders in a chapter on abnormal behavior. Psychology has already been defined as “the study of how the mind or brain affects behavior.” Abnormal behavior already has been defined as “a mental illness that affects be-havior, thinking, or group interaction.” Taking the short reading selection below on anxiety disorders and gen-eral anxiety, stop and observe your thinking about what you are learning when you encounter th double orange parentheses (). We know that good readers read-ing to learn not only stop and observe their thinking (reflec-tion), they also incorporate cognitive strategies for consolidat-ing the information in long-term memory, as well as trying to understand the information in the context of a conceptual framework (purpose of psychology and the meaning of abnor-mal behavior).

Anxiety Disorders ()

Think about how you felt before a make-or-break exam or a big presentation ()– or perhaps as you noticed police lights flashing behind your speeding car. () Did you feel jittery and nervous and experience tightness in your stomach? () These are the feelings of a normal anxiety, an unpleasant feeling of fear and dread. ()

In contrast, () anxiety disorders involve fears that are un-controllable, () disproportionate to the actual danger the

person might be in, () and disruptive of ordinary life. () They feature motor tension (jumpiness, trembling), () hy-peractivity (dizziness, a racing heart), () and apprehen-sive expectations and thoughts. () In this section we sur-vey five types of anxiety disorders: ()

• Generalized anxiety disorders ()

• Panic disorders ()

• Phobic disorders ()

• Obsessive-compulsive disorders ()

• Post-traumatic disorders ()

Generalized Anxiety Disorder ()

When you are worrying about getting a speeding ticket, you know why you are anxious; there is a specific cause. () Generalized Anxiety disorder is different from such everyday feelings of anxiety in that suffers experience per-sistent anxiety for at least 6 months () and are unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety () (Kendler & Others, 2007). People with generalized anxiety disorder are nerv-ous most of the time. () They may worry about their work relationships, or health. ()  That worry can take on  a  physical tool and cause fatigue, muscle tension, stomach problems, and difficulty sleeping. ()

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The rest of this paper focuses on why students need to reflect and what they need to do mentally while re-flecting.

Dendrites are LearningThe neuron (brain cell) is the first of two illustrations you will learn that will help you understand how learning occurs in the brain. In later chapters when you see the illustration that on the following page; it will remind you about how the brain learns and that you have control over what is happening when you read to learn.

The first drawing on the opposite page is of a neuron (brain cell). Looking from left to right at the first drawing, the filament-like structures are dendrites. New information enter the brain cell through these dendrites and travel through the cell body and down the axon to the end buds. If the signal finds information in other brain cells (their dendrites are prior learning) that is related to the new information, then a dendrite grows (learning) on the dendrite of related informa-tion (prior knowledge). See second drawing at the bottom of the opposite page.

No learning occurs unless new information being learned in-terconnects with the learner’s prior knowledge. This fact will be the foundation for understanding how learning occurs when one uses learning strategies to learn when reading.

However, understanding is not enough. Dendrites begin to be reabsorbed in the brain almost immediately. During the read-ing process, the reader has to be able to step back and think about what they are learning as they are learning. This is called reflection, mindfulness, or metacognition. It is an inter-nal dialogue (mental conversation) about the meaning being constructed as the brain looks for prior knowledge (previously constructed dendrites). There are a number of cognitive strate-gies that the reader can employ during reflection to move newly learned information to long-term memory. If the learner deliberately practices these cognitive strategies, the strategies themselves move to long-term memory and become automatic. When this happens, the strategies are referred to as metacognitive strategies. The ultimate goal is learn how to

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use cognitive strategies during reflection (those moments of reflection during reading when the reader momentarily ob-serves their own thinking) often enough for these strategies to become automatic. If they do not become automatic, working memory does not have enough capacity to store and manipu-late what the reader is learning and it is forgotten or not stored deeply enough to be recalled easily.

Reflection

Let’s take a look at an example of using a cognitive strategy while reflecting while reading. (Words in parentheses and ital-ics) are the internal dialogue that is occurring during this ex-ample of reading about a type of business in an introduction to business textbook.

The reader is reading the following sentence:

Sole proprietorships are businesses owned by one person and are the most prevalent type of business in the United States.

The reader see that Sole proprietorships is in bold print in-dicating that it is important and that a sole proprietorship is a one owner business. At this point, the reader should be step-ping back in their minds and reflecting on what they know about sole proprietorships. (I know a number of people who have their own business. Jenny makes jewelry and sells the jewelry at a booth on the main floor of the shopping mall. She complains about how much the booth costs her every month, but does not have another way of getting her jewelry

in front of the customer) The reflection in which the reader at-tempts to consciously make connections with what they al-ready know is the use of a cognitive strategy the reader is ap-plying deliberately to make numerous interconnection with prior knowledge, thus creating a neural network for the con-cept of sole proprietorships. The reader is also re-exposing themselves to the concept and having an internal dialogue. This internal ideologue the reader is having is referred to as elaboration, a deliberate attempt by the reader to mentally make connections between what is being learned and prior knowledge.

As the mature reader continues to read, they will step back and reflect on what they are learning - what they already know about what they are reading and/or how they might be able to use this information. Reflection is an ongoing process while reading; it is not just reflecting after reading; that is key to me-tacognition - thinking about ones own thinking as one are learning.

What is the Key Cognitive Strategy?

The key cognitive strategy around which all other cognitive strategies are built is re-exposure to the new informa-tion with elaboration. This is what the reader above was doing in a moment of reflection about sole proprietorships. The learner must re-expose themselves to the new informa-tion frequently and with internal dialogue on what they are learning. (Medina)

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Six internal dialogue questions that readers need to learn to use as part of their internal dialogue for establishing a metacognitive approach to learning while reading are:

1.     What do I already know about what I am reading? (learn-ing – constructing meaning)

2.        How is what I am reading reinforce or contradict what I already know (compare and contrast)?

3.     What do concepts (terminology) introduced in textbooks have in common? (analyzing)

4.     How are concepts (terminology) introduced in the text dif-ferent? (analyzing)

5.        Are the new concepts (terminology) part of a larger con-cept (ex. folkways and mores are types of norms)? (classifying – inductive reasoning)

6.     How are all the concepts in a reading related? (mind map-ping – systematically organizing – deductive reasoning - syn-thesizing)

What Has Happened in the Brain?

Before we continue lets’ take a look at what is happening in the brain in order to have a deeper understanding about why the reader needs to be reflecting and applying cognitive strate-gies when reading.

The reader must be paying attention to what is being read as paying attention to what is being read is what is in the reader’s working memory. Working memory is those areas of the brain that stores and manipulates new information that the reader is holding in awareness at any moment. It is where cognitive strategies are applied to move new information to long-term memory where it can be later retrieved to be used in new situations. David Rock uses the Stage Metaphor to help one visually grasp what is happening.

Let’s look at what the Stage Metaphor represents (see picture on opposite page). First the Stage Metaphor has a stage and the stage represents working memory. Working memory is where information you are reading is stored temporarily (20 to 30 seconds) before it is forgotten. Even more limiting, working memory can only hold about 4 unrelated items of in-formation before new information starts to replace those items.

In the stage metaphor there are actors, who represent new information the reader is encountering. Also in the Stage Metaphor is the audience, which represents prior knowl-edge. The Stage Metaphor also has stage hands, who repre-sent learning strategies that the reader will need to manipu-late the actors and audience once they are on the stage.

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The Point

The point of the Stage Metaphor is to remind the reader when they are reading to learn that they have very little time to store and manipulate new information you are reading before it dis-appears. It reminds them that reading just hoping to remem-ber what they are reading just because it was read just doesn’t work. It reminds them that they must try and connect new in-formation to prior knowledge before learning occurs. It re-minds them that they must do something mentally if they want learn in a way that makes the information useful to them later. For example, asking oneself what you already know about what you are learning.

The Observer in Metacognition

“In the stage metaphor, the actors represent conscious infor-mation. The audience members represent information in your brain just below conscious awareness, such as memories and habits (prior knowledge). Then there is the director. The direc-tor is a metaphor for the part of your awareness that stands outside of experience. This director can watch the show that is your life, make decisions about how your brain will respond, and even sometimes alter the script.

This self-awareness is our ability to pause before we react, Sei-gel explains. “It gives us the space of mind in which we can consider various options and then choose the most appropri-ate ones.”

Knowledge of your brain is one thing, but you also need to be aware of what your brain is doing at any moment for any knowledge to be useful. People who score high on a mindful-ness scale are more aware of their unconscious processes. Ad-ditionally these people have more cognitive control, and a greater ability to shape what they do and what they say than do people lower on the mindfulness scale. 

Activating your director (the part of ones mind that observes what ones brain is doing) is hard to do when there is a lot go-ing on or when you feel under pressure. Teasdale explains, “Mindfulness is a habit, it’s something the more one does the more likely one is to be in that mode with less and less ef-fort…. It’s a skill that can be learned. It’s assessing something

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we already have. Mindfulness isn’t difficult. What’s difficult is to remember to be mindful”

How do you remember to be mindful easily? It should be primed in your brain, something that’s at the top of your mind because it was a recent experience. One of the best ways of having your director handy is practicing using your director regularly. A number of studies now show that people who prac-tice activating their director do change the structure of their brains. They thicken specific regions of the cortex involved in cognitive control and switching attention.” (Rock)

“You need to keep the director right on the front of the audi-ence, so he can jump right on stage fast when needed. Having a director close to the stage helps keep your actors in line. A your director notices your brain’s quirks in real time, you get better at putting words to experiences, which makes you faster at identifying subtle patterns as they occur. This skill in-creases your ability to make subtle changes.  Ax your mind makes changes in brain functioning in real time, you become more adaptive, responding in the most helpful way to every challenge that comes along” (Rock).

“About the Director – we’ve learned that being able to step out-side your experience and observe your mental function, which comes from an ability to focus attention in the moment, openly. It is clear that the ability to notice your own mental process in this way has a dramatic impact on your capacity to stop and separate yourself from an automatic train of thought. In other words, you discovered that being able to notice your

own thinking process itself was central to knowing and chang-ing your brain” (Rock).

Awareness and control occur in working memory where new information being learned is temporarily stored and manipu-lated. The learner must bring to their conscious awareness (fo-cus on) the new information being learned and at the same time the learner must bring into conscious awareness relevant background information and then deploy cognitive strategies to manipulate what is being learned. Until that happens, new information being learned is quickly forgotten. If the learner is successful in holding new information in conscious aware-ness and at the same time bringing to that awareness relevant prior knowledge, and deploys cognitive strategies to manipu-late what is being learned, then new learning will move to long-term memory.

Note, that to succeed the learner has to be able to mentally step back and observe the learning process as it is occurring in the brain. This is metacognition and it has to be taught.

Reflection is Ongoing

Let’s look at the example of sole proprietorships again.

Sole proprietorships () are businesses owned by one person () and are the most prevalent type of business in the United States.()

The mature reader seeking sole proprietorships in bold print would mentally step back and reflect on what t know about

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sole proprietorships immediately; as they continued reading, they would step back and reflect on what they now about peo-ple who own their own businesses or business that have own owner; as they continued reading they would mentally step back and reflect on what main types of businesses are in other countries. Learning how to do this takes deliberate practice be-fore it becomes automatic and there are a number of mental activities that the readier can use during reflection, which we will look at later.

Let’s look at why in any reading course most of the time should be spent learning how to reflect and why it take deliber-ate practice to become efficient at reflecting and applying cog-nitive strategies when learning.

The Myelin Sheath

Recall that the key cognitive strategy around which all other cognitive strategies are built is re-exposure to the new infor-mation with elaboration. This is what the reader above was do-ing in a moment of reflection about sole proprietorships. The learner must re-expose themselves to the new information fre-quently and with internal dialogue on what they are learning. (Medina)

Here is what happens in the brain when the learner re-exposes themselves to the new information, especially with elaboration (ex. internal dialogue). See drawing below to fol-low the explanation to follow:

The Myelin Sheath

The Myelin Sheath of a neuron consists of fat-containing cells that insulate the axon from electrical activity. This insulation acts to increase the rate of transmission of signals.

Think of the myelin sheath as an insulator, which promotes electrical transmission and as a result strengthens neural path-way.

The more myelin the circuit attracts, the stronger and faster its signal strength becomes. It turns out that myelin, not the nerves, is what builds the speed, precision and timing that cre-ates great learners.

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The Point

1. All strong learning strategies help the learner interconnect new information to the learner’s prior knowledge, which re-sults in growing new dendrites (learning).

2. New dendrites formed by new learning start to be reab-sorbed by the brain (forgetting) if they are not strength-ened. The most powerful learning strategies increase the size of the myelin sheath (by re-exposure with elaboration) around the axons in the neural pathways leading to the new learning (dendrites). These strategies always involve re-exposing the learner to the newly learned information with elaboration. Elaboration means that the learner attempts with every re-exposure to the new learning to in some way have an dialogue about what they are learning that ties what they are learning to what they already know. For exam-ple, saying what is being learned in the learner’s own words.

The Reflection Strategies

The following is going to rely heavily on the strategies that Ken Bain found when researching what the best college stu-dents do.

In order to set the stage for what these students do and how reading instruction must step away from teaching isolated skill units, let’s look at how learning works in the real world.

Ken observed that “Our best students engage in all the cogni-tive strategies at the same time, They remember, understand, apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate as they read. many col-lege professors; however, organize their courses as if that list of mental activities has to be conquered in order rather than in an integrated fashion. They insist that students memorize large bodies of information before thinking about the data. But the human brain doesn’t work that way” (Bain, 2012). Reading instruction is often taught as if these mental activities are isolated separate; they are not and readers need to learn to engage in all the cognitive strategies at the same time as they are needed.

Bain’s research support john Medina, Daniel Coyle, David Rocks finding about learning that we have just explored. and he put it in a nutshell as follows: “What does the research tell us about how best to review material? Elaborate, elaborate, elaborate, Associate, associate, associate. Make connections, Ask questions, Evaluate. Play with words (new concepts) in your own mind. Have fun.

Develop an understanding before trying to remember.

Understanding requires a deep network of associations, and it is those intricate strands of connection that make recall even possible” (Bain, 2012).

While reading, “Repeat, repeat, repeat” (Bain, 2012).

“Consider how the brain works. When you encounter some-thing new - let’s say a new work - you will begin to forget it im-

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mediately, and a day later you might not recall it at all. but a second exposure will extend the time you can remember” (Bain, 2012). Think of reflection while reading as enhancing the chances of recalling what is being learned as you are read-ing by reflecting and applying cognitive strategies. “Repetition will pay the greatest rewards if done in the midst of meaning-ful and elaborated work” (Bain, 2012).

“Testing is better than rehearsing.” (Bain, 2012). A cognitive strategy during reflection is asking yourself if you really under-stood the information and can say explain the information in your own words. Self-testing understanding while reading and immediately following the introduction of a new concept is very powerful and necessary. This needs to be practiced until it is automatic.

Guessing and Predicting

Guessing and predicting before and as one is reading during moments of reflection is a powerful strategy. It is counter-intuitive, but effective. Let’s look at some research Ken Bain reported, “Suppose you begin by just guessing and getting something wrong. Will that help as much as trying to recall the correct answers? Shouldn’t you at least study first before attempting to remember something? If you just guess wildly before someone tells you the right answer (or read the right answer), you will undoubtedly get it wring, and wouldn’t that practice of incorrect information diminish your learning? Quite the contrary, argues some recent research. IN experi-ments at the University of California at LosAngeles. Students

were asked guess at a response first before seeing the correct one. The others studies first. THose who had generated possi-ble answers, even though they were all wrong, scored signifi-cantly higher than those who had spent their time reviewing the material first.

Other studies got the same results, even when those who read first had “copies of the article that highlighted and italicized all the material that would be on the exam.. Those who specu-lated first didn’t get the paper and they did significantly better on the final exam” (Bain, 2012).

Guessing and predicting before reading and while reading prime those neural pathways of related information makes the construction of meaning more likely.

Being wrong and making mistakes alerts the brain to pay at-tention and that attention is shifted to the correct answer. Bain recommends, “Speculate, sometimes wildly, about possi-ble solutions and connections

Related to this ideas is contrast.

Contrasts: Comparing and Contrasting During Reflection

Contrast - the brain sends signals down well worn pathways when learning; however, the brain learns by contrast -

Brain, Comparing/Contrasting, and Learning

The Brain is a Natural Pattern Recognizer

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When one looks at what the brain does with new information and prior knowledge, it becomes apparent that the brain is al-ways comparing new and prior knowledge. A metacognitive approach to reading to learn would take advantage of that fact.

“When students encounter something new, they try to match it or compare it with something that is already in their memory. Schank puts it this way: "When you learn new things, as you are all the time, the new knowledge must perturb the system in order to find its place in mem-ory in relation to what is already there. Does it amplify old knowledge, or contradict it? The mind needs to re-solve these questions as new knowledge appears, getting reminded of what it already knows or believes each time some new experience occurs. This process of reminding and comparison is a critical part of learning.” (Bain, How We Learn).

In the 1990s a committee of the National Research Council, led by John Bransford, Ann Brown, and Rodney Cocking con-cluded that metacognition is a key factor in learning that should be deliberately cultivated. They emphasized the par-ticularly important role that metacognition plays in promot-ing transfer learning. That is, students can more readily apply knowledge acquired in one context to another context if they have more awareness of themselves as learners, if they moni-tor their strategies and resources, and if they assess their readi-ness for tests and other performances” (Linda Baker).

Think about what the following processes have in common: Consider the following processes that are often taught in isolation; however, following the pattern seeking na-ture of the brain, understanding and then using the the power of seeking contrasts as a cognitive strategy during reflection while reading can amp up learning.

Categorizing – commonality under a category title

Classifying – defining boundaries – comparison/contrast

Analyzing – separating wholes into parts by distinguishing boundaries

Synthesizing – combining new ideas into a complex whole

Prediction – matches between sensory input and prior knowledge

Figurative Language - comparison between two different things in order to highlight some point of similarity.

Analogy - comparison of two or more objects

Metaphor – implied comparison between two unlike things

Simile - comparison of two unlike things that are alike in one way

They all compare and contrast.

Then think about what elaborative strategies have in common when reflecting; here are a few:

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Reciting – comparing and contrasting new information with prior knowledge expressing new learning in the language of new and prior knowledge.

Writing to Learn -(clarifying and organizing) by compari-son

Questioning (Inquiry) -  triggers prior knowledge in prepa-ration for comparing new and prior knowledge

Metacognition and Developing Internal Dialogue& Compare and Contrast

Handelsman etal (2006) refers to metacognition as "the internal dialogue about what is being learned", and state that it includes "the process of setting challenging goals, identifying strategies to meet them, and monitor-ing progress toward them". (Lovett, 2008). (Appala-chia Educational Laboratory, 2005)

Donovan, Bransford, and Pellegrino (1999) describe me-tacognition as an internal dialogue that individuals de-velop in order to build skills for predicting learning out-comes and monitoring comprehension. (Gorsky, 2004)

Internal Dialogue (Comparing and Contrasting)

Below are six internal compare and contrast dialogue ques-tions that readers need to learn to use as part of their internal dialogue for establishing a metacognitive approach to learning while reading.

1.     What do I already know about what I am reading? (learn-ing – constructing meaning)

2.        How is what I am reading reinforce or contradict what I already know (compare and contrast)?

3.     What do concepts (terminology) introduced in textbooks have in common? (analyzing)

4.     How are concepts (terminology) introduced in the text dif-ferent? (analyzing)

5.        Are the new concepts (terminology) part of a larger con-cept (ex. folkways and mores are types of norms)? (classifying – inductive reasoning)

6.        How are all the concepts in a reading related? (mentally mind mapping – systematically organizing – deductive reason-ing - synthesizing)

Helping Novice learners to Take Actively Control of Their Thinking - Reciprocal Teaching

Reciprocal teaching can take many forms but at its essence it refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. In its initial form the purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher and stu-dents as well as among students in the task of bringing mean-ing to the text. Within the context of developing in an area of inquiry, the purpose goes beyond constructing meaning to also to including incorporating mental processes within those

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moments of reflection that foster developing a deep founda-tion of factual knowledge, understanding facts and ideas i the context of a conceptual framework, while organizing knowl-edge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application.

Effective reciprocal teaching lessons include scaffolding, in which the instructor models reflection while reading aloud (ex-plaining the thinking about thinking that is going on as the in-structor reads and then gradually increasing having the stu-dent model reflective thinking aloud until the instructor is out of the process.

Many students are unaware or are only vaguely aware that they can observe their own thinking and that old habits of reading through sentence after sentence through a reading se-lection are very inefficient. Reflection has to be taught and de-liberately practiced until the neural networks are fully devel-oped and the myelin sheath on neuron axons make the proc-ess automatic at which time the cognitive strategies become metacognitive strategies.

Example Revisited

Reflection

Let’s take a look at an example of using a cognitive strategy while reflecting while reading. (Words in parentheses and ital-ics) are the internal dialogue that is occurring during this ex-ample of reading about a type of business in an introduction to business textbook.

The reader (instructor or students) is reading the following sentence:

Sole proprietorships are businesses owned by one person and are the most prevalent type of business in the United States.

The reader sees that Sole proprietorships is in bold print indicating that it is important and that a sole proprietorship is a one owner business. At this point, the reader should be stepping back in their minds and reflecting on what they know about sole proprietorships. (I know a number of people who have their own business. Jenny makes jewelry and sells the jewelry at a booth on the main floor of the shopping mall. She complains about how much the booth costs her every month, but does not have another way of getting her jewelry in front of the customer) The reflection in which the reader at-tempts to consciously make connections with what the reader knows is the use of a cognitive strategy the reader is applying deliberately to make numerous interconnection with prior knowledge, thus creating a neural network for the concept of sole proprietorships. The reader is also also re-exposing them-selves to the concept and having an internal dialogue. This in-ternal ideologue the reader is having is referred to as elabora-tion, a deliberate attempt by the reader to mentally makes connections between what is being learned and prior knowl-edge.

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As the mature reader continues to read, they will step back and reflect on what they are learning - what they already know about what they are reading and/or how they might be able to use this information. Reflection is an ongoing process while reading; it is not just reflecting after reading; that is key to me-tacognition - thinking about ones own thinking as they are learning.

Scaffolding Process

In the scaffolding process, the instructor points out aloud all the reflective thinking going on while reading; however, the instructor can focus specifically on (draw attention to) any one of the cognitive strategies he or she is employing in the reading process to emphasize and have the student model.

For example, if the focus is on inquiry such as how is what I am reading like or different than what I already know the in-structor will pay particular attention to passages that compare and contrast. For example if the reading passages are compar-ing normal and abnormal behavior in a psychology text, the instructor will model the active reflection of noting the com-parison. The instructor will note any of the following compari-son pattern of organization as he or she model reflecting.

Categorizing – commonality under a category title

Classifying – defining boundaries – comparison/contrast

Analyzing – separating wholes into parts by distinguishing boundaries

Synthesizing – combining new ideas into a complex whole

Prediction – matches between sensory input and prior knowledge

Figurative Language - comparison between two different things in order to highlight some point of similarity.

Analogy - comparison of two or more objects

Metaphor – implied comparison between two unlike things

Simile - comparison of two unlike things that are alike in one way

TRY EXERCISE AGAIN: Taking the short reading se-lection below on anxiety disorders and general anxi-ety, stop and observe your thinking about what you are learning when you encounter th double orange pa-rentheses ().

Anxiety Disorders ()

Think about how you felt before a make-or-break exam or a big presentation ()– or perhaps as you noticed police lights flashing behind your speeding car. () Did you feel jittery and nervous and experience tightness in your stomach? () These are the feelings of a normal anxiety, an unpleasant feeling of fear and dread. ()

In contrast, () anxiety disorders involve fears that are un-controllable, () disproportionate to the actual danger the

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person might be in, () and disruptive of ordinary life. () They feature motor tension (jumpiness, trembling), () hy-peractivity (dizziness, a racing heart), () and apprehen-sive expectations and thoughts. () In this section we sur-vey five types of anxiety disorders: ()

• Generalized anxiety disorders ()

• Panic disorders ()

• Phobic disorders ()

• Obsessive-compulsive disorders ()

• Post-traumatic disorders ()

Generalized Anxiety Disorder ()

When you are worrying about getting a speeding ticket, you know why you are anxious; there is a specific cause. () Generalized Anxiety disorder is different from such everyday feelings of anxiety in that suffers experience per-sistent anxiety for at least 6 months () and are unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety () (Kendler & Others, 2007). People with generalized anxiety disorder are nerv-ous most of the time. () They may worry about their work relationships, or health. ()  That worry can take on  a  physical tool and cause fatigue, muscle tension, stomach problems, and difficulty sleeping. ()

Try Another Exercise: Taking the short reading selection below on the nature of business, stop and observe your think-ing about what you are learning when you encounter the dou-ble orange parentheses (), then consider what you might do mentally (cognitive strategies) or physically to ensure that the information get consolidated in long term memory at each ().

The Nature of Business ()

A business () tries to earn a profit () by providing products () that satisfy people’s needs (). The outcomes of its efforts are products that have both tangible and intangible characteris-tics () that provide satisfaction and benefits. When you pur-chase a product, you are buying the benefits and satisfaction you think the product will provide. () A Subway sandwich, for example, may be purchased to satisfy hunger (); a Porsche Cay-enne sport utility vehicle, to satisfy the need for transporta-tion and the desire to present a certain image ().

Most people associate the word product with tangible goods-an automobile, computer, loaf of bread, coat, or some other tangible item (). However, a product can also be a service (), which results when people or machines provide or process something of value to customers (). Dry cleaning, photo proc-essing, a checkup by doctor, a performance by a movie star or basketball player------these are examples of services. A prod-uct can also be an idea (). Consultants and attorneys, for exam-ple, generate ideas for solving problems. ()

 

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The Goal of Business

The primary goal of all businesses is to earn a Profit (), the difference between what it costs to make and sell a product and what a customer pays for it (). If a company spends $2.00 to manufacture, finance, promote, and distribute a product that it sells for $2.75, the business earns a profit of 75 cents on each product sold (). Businesses have the right to keep and use their profits as they choose-----within legal limits----because profit is the reward for the risks they take in providing products. Not all organizations are businesses. Nonprofit organizations (), such as Greenpeace, Special Olympics, and other charities and social causes, do not have the fundamental purpose of earning profits, although they may provide goods or services ().

To earn profit (), a person or organization needs manage-ment skills to plan (), organize (), and control the activities of the business () and to find and develop employees () so that it can make products consumers will buy. A business also needs marketing expertise to learn what products con-sumers need and want and to develop (), manufacture (), price (), promote (), and distribute () those products. Addi-tionally, a business needs financial resources () and skills to fund, maintain, and expand () its operations. Other chal-lenges for businesspeople include abiding by laws and gov-ernment regulations (); acting in an ethical and socially re-sponsible manner (); and adapting to economic, technologi-cal, and social changes (). Even nonprofit organizations en-

gage in management, marketing, and finance activities to help reach their goals. ()

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