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Presented to Rafael Samudio April 27 th 2011 Tanya Tran and Eva Payette McGill University Under the Supervision of: Amelia Muñoz de Batista Parque Natural Metropolitano | Final Report ENVR 451 REFORESTATION AND RECUPERATION PROJECTS AND THE WHITE- TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) IN PARQUE NATURAL METROPOLITANO: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HABITAT USE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON BEHAVIOR

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Page 1: REFORESTATION AND R P WHITE TAILED DEER (O P NATURAL ... · the reforestation project, the deer will see their environment changing with time. The objectives of this project consisted

[Type text]

Presented to Rafael Samudio April 27th 2011

Tanya Tran and Eva Payette McGill University

Under the Supervision of:

Amelia Muñoz de Batista Parque Natural Metropolitano

|

Final Report ENVR 451

REFORESTATION AND RECUPERATION PROJECTS AND THE WHITE- TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) IN PARQUE NATURAL

METROPOLITANO: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HABITAT USE AND

ITS IMPLICATIONS ON BEHAVIOR

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Reforestation and Recuperation Projects and the White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Parque Natural Metropolitano: a

Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Reforestation and Recuperation Projects and the White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus

virginianus) in Parque Natural Metropolitano: a Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its

Implications on Behavior.

Authors: Eva Payette and Tanya Tran

Host institution: Parqu

.

Saccharum spontaneum is a grass species originally introduced into Panama by the

americans as a mitigation technique against erosion of the Panama Canal watershed. This species

became invasive, spread all throughout the country and has altered the process of regeneration of

native species. 10 years ago, Parque Natural Metropolitano started a reforestation project under

the mission to recuperate the areas invaded by this grass and to reforest them with native species

found in tropical pacific humid forest, the type of forest found in the park. Though there are clear

implications for the positive effect of this reforestation project for native flora species found in

the park, what is yet to be investigated is the relationship and interaction of these reforested areas

with the local fauna. The park itself is a habitat to a plethora of insects, birds, amphibians,

reptiles, and mammals. One of the largest mammal species that have habitats in PNM is the

white-tailed deer or Odocoileus virginianus by its scientific name. This animal is an ungulate,

which occupies a wide range of habitats. They have behavioral characteristics that allow them to

adapt very well to new environments as well as to new food sources. In Parque Natural

Metropolitano, the presence of deer has been observed very frequently. With the development of

the reforestation project, the deer will see their environment changing with time.

The objectives of this project consisted of investigating the frequency of use of the oldest

reforestation area in Parque Natural Metropolitano by the white-tailed deer, Odocoileus

virginianus. This will be done by comparing the reforested area to an old growth area. The

second objective is, through a literature review and our field work, determine the possible current

behaviors associated with each of these areas. Finally, our third objective was to use the

synthesis of our information to predict the changes in behavior of the deer within the

reforestation area. With this study, we are providing the park with baseline information on the

deer population there. In fact, no studies on this mammal have previously been carried out, thus

much information is unknown. The manner chosen for assessing the frequency of habitat use by

deer was by counting groups of deer feces encountered in the areas. Data was collected from

February 25th, 2011 to April 1st, 2011. The 2 chosen areas were searched 2 times each. In the

reforestation area, 15 transects were done and in the old growth area, 18 transects were done,

covering the same area. Along these transects, two observers walked to search for groups of deer

feces. When one was encountered, the geographic coordinates, characteristics of land cover, as

well as canopy cover were noted. Later, a literature search was also done in order to form

hypothesis on relations between reforested areas and deer behavior. The current state of deer

population behavior in the park as well as expected directions of behavioral change hypothesized

with the forthcoming development of the reforestation project was extrapolated.

In total, 25 groups of deer pellets were encountered in both areas. Though insignificant,

the difference between the 2 areas with regards to deer frequency was very informative. They

were for the most part, situated in the area of the reforestation where the majority of the trees

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 3

were found, to maximize at the same time cover and protection against predators, as well as

foraging. Deer were also mostly found in areas of low soil cover, dead organic matter and low

vegetation and canopy cover in order to forage. The literature review presented us with

behavioral use of the reforestation and old growth area, which were opposite one to another. It

can be hypothesized that habitat size and fidelity, deer frequencies and uses may change as the

resources, benefits, and dangers, change with increased reforestation. Behavior varies on many

temporal scales, between genders, and individualistically. The changes that are expected to occur

within these reforestation areas, based on literature analysis, are decrease feeding behavior and

increased use for coverage against predators and for transit, decrease grouping size, and

increasing distance between individuals between groups, increasing use of these areas by males,

and less by females and young, increased vigilance within these areas, and higher flight initiation

distances, changes in the frequencies, and the frequencies of different types, of territorial

markings and finally, increased frequency of aggressive behavior.

Using this research project as a baseline and reference, other deer studies will have the

opportunity be carried out in order to investigate the relationship and impacts of reforestation on

the behavior of deer. Comparing to baseline data, the change of habitat use by deer can be

recorded and analyzed. Any future in this area may greatly increase our knowledge of patterns of

habitat use and maybe relate it to their eventual changes due to human disturbance on

ecosystems and eventually be able to predict more accurately the outcomes of such disturbances.

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 4

RESUMEN EJECUTIVO

Los proyectos de (Odocoileus

virginianus

.

Autores: Eva Payette y Tanya Tran

fitriona:

.

Saccharum spontaneum es una especie de hierba originalmente introducida en Panamá

por los estadounidenses como una técnica de mitigación contra la erosión del Canal de Panamá.

Esta especie exótica se convirtió en especie invasora, se extendió en todo el país y ha alterado el

proceso de generación natural de las especies nativas. Hace 10 años, el Parque Natural

Metropolitano inició un proyecto de reforestación con la misión de recuperar las áreas invadidas

por la hierba invasora y de reforestarlas con especies nativas que se encuentran en los bosques

tropicales húmedos del Pacífico, el tipo de bosque que se encuentra a dentro de los límites del

parque. Aunque hay claras efectos positivos de este proyecto de reforestación sobre la flora del

parque, lo que aún se ha investigado es la relación y la interacción de estas áreas reforestadas con

la biota local. El parque es un hábitat para una gran cantidad de insectos, aves, anfibios, reptiles

y mamíferos. Una de las más grandes especies de mamíferos en el parque es el venado a cola

blanca o Odocoileus virginianus, por su nombre científico. Este animal es un ungulado que

ocupa una amplia gama de hábitats. Tienen características de comportamiento que les permiten

adaptarse muy bien a los nuevos entornos, así como a nuevas fuentes de alimentos. En el Parque

Natural Metropolitano, la presencia de venados se ha observado con mucha frecuencia. Con el

desarrollo del proyecto de reforestación, el venado verá su entorno cambiante con el tiempo.

Los objetivos de este proyecto es de investigar la frecuencia del uso de la más vieja área

de reforestación en el parque por el venado a cola blanca, Odocoileus virginianus. Eso fue hecho

con una comparación entre dos áreas, una de las áreas de reforestación y una zona de bosque

maduro cercana. El segundo objetivo es, a través de una revisión de la literatura y el trabajo de

campo, determinar los posibles comportamientos actuales asociados a cada una de estas áreas.

Por último, nuestro tercer objetivo utilizó la síntesis de nuestra información para predecir los

cambios en el comportamiento de los venados adentro del área de reforestación. También, con

este estudio, establecemos una base de información sobre la populación de este mamífero. De

hecho, no estudios previos han sido hechos en el parque y de repente hay falta de mucha

información. La forma elegida para evaluar la frecuencia de uso del hábitat por el venado es de

contar grupos de heces fecales en las áreas. Datos estuvieron recogidos del 25 de febrero 2011 al

1 de abril de 2011. Las dos áreas elegidas estuvieron observadas dos veces cada uno. En el área

de reforestación, 15 transectos estuvieron establecidos y en el área de bosque maduro, 18

transectos estuvieron establecidos para cubrir la misma distancia. A lo largo de estos transectos,

dos observadores buscaron grupos de heces. Cuando encontraron uno, coordenadas geográficas,

características de la cubierta del suelo así como la cubierta de vegetación y sombra estuvieron

notados. Más tarde, con la revisión de la literatura se realizó también con el fin de formar

hipótesis sobre las relaciones entre las áreas reforestadas y el comportamiento de los ciervos. El

estado actual del comportamiento de la población de venados, así como direcciones esperadas

del cambio de comportamiento con evolución futura del proyecto de reforestación se predijeron.

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 5

En total, 25 grupos diferentes de excrementos estuvieron encontrados en este estudio.

Aunque insignificantes, la diferencia entre las 2 áreas con relación a la frecuencia de venado fue

muy informativa. Eran por la mayor parte, situados en la zona de la reforestación, y en la esquina

donde se encuentra la mayoría de los árboles, para maximizar tanto cobertura y protección contra

los depredadores, como el forrajeo. En este estudio, los venados también se encuentran en zonas

de baja cobertura del suelo, materia orgánica muerta y cubierta de vegetación para alimentarse.

La revisión de la literatura nos presentó con usos y comportamientos opósitos en el área de

reforestación y de bosque maduro El tamaño del hábitat, la variación de la fidelidad, los

comportamientos, las frecuencias de venados pueden cambiar a medida que los recursos,

beneficios y peligros, cambian con el crecimiento de la reforestación. El comportamiento varía

en muchas escalas temporales, entre los géneros y individualmente también. Los cambios que se

esperan dentro de estas áreas de reforestación, con base en el análisis de la literatura, son la

disminución del comportamiento de forrajeo y aumentación del uso de la cobertura contra los

depredadores y para el tránsito hasta áreas de forrajeo, la disminución del tamaño del grupo y

aumentación la distancia entre los individuos en los grupo, una aumentación del uso de estas

áreas por los machos, menos por las mujeres y los cervatillos, una mayor vigilancia dentro de

estas áreas y una mayor distancia de huir cuando vean depredadores, cambios en frecuencias de

venados y frecuencias de diferentes tipos de marcas de territorialidad y finalmente, aumento de

la frecuencia de la conducta agresiva.

Usando este proyecto de investigación como punto de referencia, otros estudios podrán

llevarse a cabo con el fin de investigar la relación y el impacto de la reforestación en el

comportamiento de los venados. En comparación con los datos de referencia, el cambio de uso

del hábitat por el venado puede ser registrado y analizado. Cualquier futuro en esta área puede

aumentar nuestro conocimiento de los patrones de uso de hábitat y tal vez los eventuales cambios

debido a la perturbación humana sobre los ecosistemas y, finalmente, ser capaz de predecir con

mayor precisión los resultados de dichas perturbaciones.

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Payette and Tran 2011 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary………………………………………………………………………. 2 Resumen Executivo………………………………………………………………………. 3 Contact Information……………………………………………………………………… 5 Timeline and Budget of Study…………………………………………………………… 6 Introduction Parque Natural Metropolitano………………………………………………………………… 9 General Context of the Reforestation Projects………………………………………………. 10 White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)………………………………………………….. 14 Objectives and Hypothesis Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………… 17 Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………………... 17 Methods Study Site…………………………………………………………………………………………. 20 Deer Feces……………………………………………………………………………………….. 21 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………….. 23 Impacts on the Behavior of Deer…………………………………………………………….. 23 Ethics……………………………………………………………………………………………… 24 Results Deer Feces Tracking……………………………………………………………………………. 25 Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………... 26 Discussion Reforestation and Old Growth Area Comparison in Deer Frequencies…………………. 40 Current Uses and Associated Behaviors of the Reforestation and Old Growth Area… 41 Predictions of Effects of Reforestation on Deer Behavior………………………………... 43 Reflections and Recommendations Difficulties and limitations……………………………………………………………………... 46 Lessons Learned…………………………………………………………………………………. 47 Next Steps………………………………………………………………………………………… 48 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………….. 49 References……………………………………………………………………………........ 50 Appendices........................................................................................................................... 53 Product for Host Institution……………………………………………………………………. 55

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Payette and Tran 2011 7

CONTACT INFORMATION

Home Institution

McGill University, 845 Sherbrooke Street West, H3A 2T5. Montréal, Québec, Canada

www.mcgill.ca

Host Institution

-

. www.parquenaturalmetropolitano.org

Supervisor

Amelia Muñoz de Batista - Environmental planning and Conservation manager

Telephone : 232-5552

Fax: 232-5615

[email protected]

Authors:

Eva Payette - BSc Biology, Faculty of Science, McGill University. [email protected]

Tanya Tran - BSc Biology, Faculty of Science, McGill Univerversity. [email protected]

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 8

TIMELINE AND BUDGET OF PROJECT

Month Field Work Hours Non-Field Work Hours Total Hours Total Equivalent Time in Days January 8 12 20 0.83 February 23 6 29 1.21 March 35 18 53 2.21 April 12 40 52 1.86 Total 78 76 154 6.41

Item Total Cost ($USD) Transportation 56 Food 40 Materials - Batteries 5.78 Total 101.78

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 9

INTRODUCTION

Parque Natural Metropolitano

Parque Natural Metropolitano is a natural park situated within the boundaries of Panama

City, Panama (8°59'43" N, 79°32'48" W) and it protects 2231159.43m² of natural area. It is

located in the district of Ancon, between Curundu River, and 2 roads; Amistad and Ascanio

Villalaz. This park is known as the “lung of the city” and is the only protected forest area found

within city limits (Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008). This coexistence between wildlife and

urban life, however is not without problems. The fauna and fauna of the park are under constant

human pressure with cars passing within its limits, garbage dumping, poaching and hunting.

The park as a recreational area was inaugurated on June 5, 1988. It was originally an area

part of the Soil Management Plan in 1974 for the protection of the Panama Canal. In order to

ensure its effectiveness, protected areas can be found all along the canal. This plays a role in

regulating water in the canal as well as preventing erosion and as sediment deposition (Ibañez et

al. 2002). Thus, Parque Natural Metropolitano forms a chain, called the Biological Corridor, with

the Parque Nacional Camino de Cruces and the Parque Nacional Sobe . This chain is an

almost uninterrupted line of protected forest stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean

coast.

The forests found within the park limits include tropical humid forest as well as tropical

pacific dry forest. This forest is one of the last of its kind in Central America as it is endangered

(Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008). This park is the only public park run by a board of

administrators, from different backgrounds such as non-governmental organizations (N.G.O.)

like S.T.R.I. for example, and governmental organizations such as the ministry of economy and

finance and “Autoridad National del Ambiente” (A.N.A.M.) (Amelia Muñoz de Batista, Personal

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 10

communication, 26/03/2011). The park comprises four recreation trails on as well as 3 lookout

points. Walking along the trails, people have the chance to see 284 species of plants, 322 species

of animals as well as a multitude of species of birds (Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008).

Besides protecting the wildlife within its limits, the park has aims to provide awareness and

education about the environment and its conservation while offering a pleasant recreational

experience. Parque Natural Metropolitano receives national and international visitors on a daily

basis and hosts seminars on various subjects including conservation, environmental awareness

and works in collaboration with students and researchers to carry out different projects. Finally,

it runs a small veterinary rehabilitation program for wild animals.

Finally, the park includes six specific goals contained in their mandate. Firstly, to

preserve a natural space within city boundaries, which will contribute to maintain an equilibrium

between natural and urban areas in order to prevent pollution and maintain a clean environment.

Secondly, to offer citizens a natural recreational area. Third, to offer a space to learn about

environmental education and awareness, to do scientific research. Fourth, to protect the integrity

of the Curundu River. Fifth, to conserve natural panama’s native and rich fauna and flora. Lastly,

to protect the integrity of the Panama Canal watershed (Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008).

General Context of the Reforestation Projects

Saccharum spontaneum is a grass species originally introduced into Panama by the

Americans as a mitigation technique against erosion of the Panama Canal watershed (Wishnie et

al. 2002). It is originally a species native to South Asia and is in the same family as the well-

known sugarcane, genus Saccharum (Hammond 1999). Unfortunately, this exotic species

quickly became invasive, spread all throughout the country, and has altered and slowed the

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 11

natural process of regeneration of native species (Hooper et al. 2004). It prevents the

establishment of woody species due to its way of growing in dense patches (Peet et al. 1999).

They grow extensive and deep roots making them hard to get rid of simply by cutting (Peet et al.

1999). Moreover, they have the capacity to regenerate after wildfires (Peet et al. 1999). The

wildfires that occur in Panama each year actually contribute to the spreading of this grass, since

it removes the slower growing native vegetation, but leaving the Saccharum spontaneum roots

intact underground. Also, this grass is very dry and can burns very fast. It contributes to many

forest fires each year, which jeopardizes the lives of people, material goods, in addition to the

fauna and flora of the area.

Saccharum spontaneum is also extensively present in Parque Natural Metropolitano. In

order to control this invasive species, the park started, approximately 10 years ago, a

reforestation project under the mission to recuperate the areas invaded by this grass and to

reforest them with native species found in Pacific humid tropical forest (Parque Natural

Metropolitano 2008). As such, the plan includes areas invaded by this species, which are to be

added to areas that have been reforested, thereby promoting the recovery of forest diversity and

the extermination of the invasive species. With this project, the park also aims to reduce the risk

and control forest fires. The park includes a nursery with these native species. This project is

financed by the park itself and run by the department of urban planning and environmental

conservation, which works in collaboration with other departments in the park. To this day, the

reforestation areas cover 8 012.25 m² of which 4 752 m² (59.31%) have been reforested and 3

259.90 m² (40.69%) still need to be reforested (Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008). 700

plantlets of native species have already been planted (Amelia Muñoz de Batista, Personal

communication, 26/03/2011).

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There are three main areas of reforestation in the park chosen due to the high presence of

Saccharum spontaneum. The first is situated on the east side of El Roble trail next the “La

Garita” castle, the second can be found in the north east of the park, adjacent to the equestrian

club close to the Ascanio Villalaz avenue and the last, next to the Mono Titi trail in the west

bound limits of the park limited by the Curundu river and the University of Panama.

Figure 1. Map of the location of the reforestation projects in Parque Natural Metropolitano. Each black triangle

represents an area of interest for the park’s project. Areas outlined in red also enclose larger areas of reforestation.

Map provided by the Parque Natural Metropolitano.

In order to choose the different species that will be put the reforestation area, the park

possesses a list of species which are the most representative of a Pacific humid tropical forest.

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Comparative Study of Habitat Use and its Implications on Behavior.

Payette and Tran 2011 13

The composition and geographical range of the area is preliminarily studied. After cutting the

invasive grass, the area is marked out for the new plants. The space between each plantlet is

more or less 2 metres. Fertilizer is then put in and the chosen plants are taken from the nursery

and planted in the area. There is a schedule for the maintenance and watering of the reforestation

areas which depends on the temperature and the frequency of rain. Every time this is done, the

plantlets are recounted to keep and inventory of the species that were lost (Amelia Muñoz de

Batista, Personal communication, 26/03/2011).

Though there are clear implications for the positive effect of this reforestation project for

native flora species found in the park. What is yet to be investigated is the relationship and

interaction of these reforested areas with the local biota. The park itself is a habitat to a plethora

of insects, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals, as mentioned above. One of the largest

mammal species that have habitats in PNM is the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).

This animal is seen frequently in the park by park guards and workers.

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White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

Figure 2. White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, found and photographed by a park guard inside Parque Natural Metropolitano. Date of photo : unknown.

The white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, is an ungulate, so named due to the fact

that when startled, distressed or alarmed, they lift up their tails, exposing its white underside.

They also have a white throat patch which completes their coat, brown-red in the summer and

brown-grey in the winter (LaGory 1986). Female deer are called “does” and male deer are called

“bucks”. The white-tailed occupies a wide range of habitats. Studies performed by Gavin et al.

(1984) have also shown that they have fidelity to certain areas within their given habitat and

these sites can also vary depending on the season. They are an edge species, living in transitional

areas from bordering rainforests, secondary forests, mountainous habitats in upper elevations,

cleared mid elevations and open woodlands, fields as well as agricultural grasslands, and even

suburban areas (Emmons and Feer 1990). Their geographic range spans throughout the Americas

(Emmons and Feer 1990), and goes from central Canada to northern South America (De Nicola

et al. 2000). Across this range, white-tailed deer vary, as 38 subspecies can be found (Smith and

Rhodes 1994). Body weights, increasing from south to north, go from 50 to 300 pounds (De

Nicola et al. 2000) but the average body size for a buck is 150 pounds and 100 pounds for a doe.

Their lifespan can go up to 12 years in protected areas, but only 4-5 in areas with hunting (Sauer

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Payette and Tran 2011 15

1984). Under optimal conditions, the population of white-tailed deer can increase very rapidly.

Since the 1930s, densities of deer have been increasing due to landscape changes induced by

human activity and development (Halls 1984). If there are no native predators, hunting is usually

the primary limiting factor to their population size (Rooney and Waller 2002).

This animal is heavily relies on its acute senses to detect approaching predators. With

their senses of smell, hearing and sight, they monitor and scrutinize the surroundings for

predators. During the day, they stay and rest in forests, which provide much cover for refuge.

Deer move from closed areas during the day to open areas at night for foraging (Beier and

McCullough 1990). Many papers suggest they are more active during dawn and dusk (Michael

1970) and thus, observed white-tailed deer density tends to be very low during daylight and

higher at dusk, dawn and at night (Carbaugh et al. 1975). Behavioral studies suggest they prefer

large and grassy areas, with smaller shrubs and vegetation as opposed to dense woody forests

(LaGory 1986). This has been proven to be due to the fact that predators can be more easily

spotted in these kinds of habitats (Beier and McCullough 1990). In dense forests, predators are

less conspicuous and this the deer have more trouble detecting them. When a predator is spotted,

deer can flee at speeds reaching 36 miles per hour and can jump to a maximal height of 8 feet

(Sauer 1984). Moreover, by feeding on plants, deer can modify food webs and thus habitat

structures by reducing species richness (Rooney and Waller 2002). By browsing, they can even

restructure entire ecological communities.

As mentioned above, deer can occupy a large variety of habitats. They have behavioral

characteristics that allow them to adapt very well to new environments as well as to new food

sources (De Nicola et al. 2000). This adaptability has allowed them to thrive in almost all

human-modified environments, with the obvious exception of downtown metropolitan cities (De

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Nicola et al. 2000). Changes in their habitat may be expected to engender changes in the

behavior of the animal (Hirth 1977). In Parque Natural Metropolitano, the presence of deer has

been observed very frequently (Amelia Muñoz de Batista, Personal communication,

26/03/2011). With the development of the reforestation project, the deer will see their

environment changing with time.

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OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS

Objectives

This internship investigation comprises 3 main objectives. Firstly, to investigate the

frequency of use of the oldest reforestation area in Parque Natural Metropolitano by the white-

tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus. This will be done by comparing the reforested area to an old

growth area. The 2 areas are situated in proximity to one another in order to compare two similar

environments. The second objective is, through a literature review and our field work, determine

the possible current behaviors associated with each of these areas. Finally, we use the synthesis

of our information to predict the changes in behavior of the deer within the reforestation area in

the park.

As stated previously, there is a lack of knowledge in understanding the impacts of the

reforestation projects within PNM. As a protected area, it is important to understand the

relationships between the local flora and fauna, and how these relationships can be impacted

with any development projects that occur in the park. Furthermore, PNM has no past studies on

the white-tailed deer population within the park; we believe it is important for the park to have

some basic knowledge about this unique animal that resides within its borders.

Hypothesis

We hypothesize that the frequency of white-tailed deer will be higher in the area of

reforestation than in the old growth area. As mentioned above, behavioral studies suggest deer

prefer large and grassy areas, with smaller shrubs and vegetation as opposed to dense woody

forests (LaGory 1986). The frequency of deer will be higher in the area of reforestation due to

their preference for short vegetation and grassy areas compared to the large vegetation in the old

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growth area (Sage et al. 1983; LaGory 1986). With regards to the mapping of frequencies of deer

within the area, we expect that the deer will be found along the edge of the reforested area, as

previous studies on deer behavior note that deer will remain along edges of forests and grassland

areas to maximize protection and food availability (Kearny and Gilbert 1976; Suring and Vohs

1979). Expanding on this idea, in the area of reforestation excluding the edges, we expect to find

higher frequencies of deer around the few shrubs or trees rather than in completely open areas,

for the same reasons as the last prediction. Our second hypothesis that the two areas will also

differ in the behaviors that occur within the area due to different resources and trade-offs

available.

Though we cannot test for the effects of reforested areas on deer behavior, with literature

research we can hypothesize possible impacts. Firstly, several studies have noted that grouping

behavior in deer is much more common in open areas than in forested, most likely linked to

greater chance to see predators (Hirth 1997; LaGory 1986). Secondly, deer feeding behavior is

most correlated with open areas (Emmons and Feer 1990). Finally, flight initiation distance has

been shown to be smaller in forested areas than in open areas (LaGory 1987). As such we predict

with the continuation of reforestation in these open grass areas, grouping within these areas will

decrease, less feeding will occur, and deer will be less able to flee when startled.

Finally, on the long run, the reforestation project is expected to have a positive impact on

the deer population, by providing them with more habitat, they may be less likely run the danger

of crossing the street to get to the neighbouring Parque Nacional Camino de Cruces where

hunting is very present. No studies on deer have previously been done in the park; therefore our

results cannot be compared with similar data. This study will thus provide baseline information

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on which to build upon and study deer behavior as the reforestation project further develops and

grows.

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METHODS

Study Sites

As stated above, there are three areas of the park which is on the reforestation project and

recovery. Look at these areas, the study site was chosen is the site next to the Metropolitan

Equestrian Club in the northeast. Until about 5 years this area, covering 5508 m², is a part of the

reforestation project (Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008). The site of mature forest for

comparison in this study was found to the south east of the Metropolitan Equestrian Club (Fig.

3). This area was chosen because it had the same geographical and topographical conditions and

the reforested area of interest. The orientation and location of the site for data collection

frequency of deer was chosen at random, and the total area investigated was approximately 9000

m².

Figure 3. Map of the study area. The image in the top left corner illustrates the area protected under Parque Natural Metropolitano. The dash-dot line represents the borders of the park. The larger map represents a blow-up of our study site within the park boundaries. Park map taken from Google Maps. Study site map adapted from a map from Parque Natural Metropolitano

Deer Feces

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Figure 4. Photograph of white-tailed deer feces groups in Parque Natural Metropolitano. Taken Feb. 4th, 2011 by

Tanya Tran.

The methodology for determining the frequency of deer was modeled after those of

Mandujano and Gallina (1995). In this study, we modified the method of counting feces groups

preformed by Mandujano and Gallina (1995) in their research on different methods to model the

density of white-tailed deer population in tropical dry forests. Because of the irregular shape of

the reforested area, transects crossed the entire length of the area and were set every 5 m from

the edge of an area to cover the entire site. A total of 1.834 km of transects was observed within

the reforested area. To cover a transect distance of similar length in the mature forest site, each

transects was 120 m, for a total of 1.800 km. The reforested and old growth area required

transects 18 and 15 respectively. Transects are facing 223° in the reforested area, and 283° in the

area of mature forest. The beginning and end of each transect were tagged with flag tape to

ensure that the same transects were observed in each observation. In addition, a compass was

used to maintain a straight line during observations. To allow for equal sampling effort in both

areas, each survey an entire area was allocated 3 to 4 days. The collection of data occurred

between February 25th, 2011 and April 11th, 2011.

Along these transects, two observers walked along the transect to search for groups of

feces. When found, Garmin GPS III Plus was the system used to mark the geographic

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coordinates. Besides the location of each group found, several characteristics of land cover and

vegetation cover around each group was also recorded (Table 1). It should be noted that dense

vegetation does not necessarily imply high shade, as for example, high density of Saccardium

spontaneum does not produce canopy cover.

Table 1. Characteristics of ground cover and area quality investigated in this study. During observations, two

observers would estimate the percentage presence of each of these characteristics on site. If there was a discrepancy

between the two observers opinions, an average of the two were recorded.

Characterisic Description Measure

Location

GPS Location Latitute and Longitude of feces group UTM

Ground Cover

Soil

Percentage of ground approximately 2 m around the group

that is covered by each characteristic

1 0-25%

Litter/Detritus 2 25-50%

Green Vegetation 3 50-75%

Other (ie. rocks, unknown, etc.) 4 75-100%

Area Quality

Dense vegetation The percentage around the group (up to the visibility of the

observer) which is surrounded by dense vegetation/trees

1 0-25%

2 25-50%

3 50-75%

4 75-100%

Shade Quantity of Shade in a 3 m radius

1 0-25%

2 25-50%

3 50-75%

4 75-100%

After the location and characteristics were recorded, the group was removed from the

site, leaving only a few stools. Droppings of white-tailed deer are often used to communicate

territoriality and find partners (Hirth 1977, Miller 1997), so not to completely alter the important

role of odour signals, we left some feces. This species is also very sensitive to small

concentrations of odours (Miller 1997), thus it was determined that some feces remaining were

sufficient to allow a scent trail to stay. However, it was important to eliminate most of the group

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to prevent recounting after repeated observations of each of the areas. The two areas were

analyzed for feces twice.

Data Analysis

Data analysis and graphs were preformed and created by using Microsoft Excel and JMP.

Transect data was analyzed for average feces group found per kilometer over the two observation

periods for each of the areas, then the results were log transformed and compared using a t-test.

It should be noted that due to the small sample size of only two observation rounds for each area,

the assumptions of normality and equal variance was not able to be tested, and thus the results of

the t-test should be interpreted with caution.

We used a chi-square to analyze the frequency of feces group in relation to each of the

four qualities of ground cover and two of area quality (refer to Table 1).

Impacts on the Behavior of Deer

Unfortunately, because many factors on the deer population in the Parque Natural

Metropolitano are unknown, such as population size and distribution within the park,

observations of behavior in these two areas was not feasible in the time available for this

research. Therefore, literature review, along with the recovered data on the frequency of deer in

the area of reforestation and mature growth were used to assess several hypotheses about the

impacts of reforestation projects in the park boundaries.

Ethics

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Throughout the duration of this internship investigation, during interviews and scientific

methods, contact with humans and animals, the code of ethics of McGill University, Montréal,

Canada was followed. A copy of the Code of Ethics can be found at

http://www.mcgill.ca/files/secretariat/Ethical-Conduct-Research-Human-Policy.pdf

and

http://animalcare.mcgill.ca/index_files/Page982.htm

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RESULTS

Deer Feces Tracking

A total of 25 different pellet groups were encountered in this study. The distribution of

each of these groups can be seen in Fig. 3. Of the 25 of the feces groups encountered, 20 of them

(80%) were located in the reforestation area. In particular, the majority of the feces groups

encountered (72%) where found on the first 6 transects of the reforested area, on the southeast

side. A photo was taken in the direction of the transects to illustrate the area of highest density of

feces groups (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. Map of the reforested area (red dashed line) and the old growth area (orange dashed line) with the locations of the feces groups found during the study. Each brown dot represents 1 feces group. 20 groups were found in the reforested area, and 5 in the old growth, for a total of 25 groups.

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Figure 6. (Left) A photo facing perpendicularly to the 6 transects where the 72% of the feces groups were found. (Right) A photo of the reforestation area taken 180 degrees from the photo on the left, for contrast.

The average feces group per km was approximately 5.45 ± 0.771 S.D. groups / km and

1.39 ± 0.392 S.D. groups / km in the reforested area and the old growth area respectively (Fig.

7). When log transformed and analyzed with a t-test, the data shows non-significant difference,

but with the p value only slightly above 0.05 at 0.515. As stated previously, due to the small

sample size of only two observation rounds for each area, the assumptions of normality and

equal variance was not able to be tested and the results of this test suggest that the sample size is

too small to determine significant differences of feces group per km between the two areas of

study.

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Figure 7. Average pellet groups found per km in the reforestation area and the old growth area. The results are from

an average of 2 full observations of each area. Error bars represent 1 standard deviation. The averages were 5.45 ±

0.771 S.D. groups / km and 1.39 ± 0.392 S.D. groups / km for the reforestation and old growth areas respectively. T-

test results show they are insignificantly different (p=0.0515, α = 0.05).

A summary of the chi-square results of the characteristics of the surroundings of the feces

groups can be seen in Table 2. Pellet groups were found at a significantly higher frequency in

areas of low (0-25%) soil, litter/dead organic matter, and other cover. However, green vegetation

on the group was shown not to be significant. The chi-square results for area quality

characteristics demonstrate a high correlation of frequency of feces groups with moderately low

(26-50%) dense vegetation and shade.

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Table 2. Summary of the chi-square analysis of correlation between ground cover and area quality characteristics, and frequency of pellet groups. Significant results are marked with an asterisk. α = 0.05

Characteristic Number of feces groups Proportion p-value

Ground Cover Quality

Soil

0-25% 23 0.92

<0.001* 26%-50% 1 0.04

51-75% 0 0

76-100% 1 0.04

Litter/Dead Organic Matter

0-25% 12 0.48

0.0186* 26%-50% 6 0.24

51-75% 3 0.12

76-100% 4 0.16

Green Vegetation

0-25% 4 0.16

0.4201 26%-50% 7 0.28

51-75% 6 0.24

76-100% 8 0.32

Other

0-25% 25 1

<0.001* 26%-50% 0 0

51-75% 0 0

76-100% 0 0

Area Quality

Dense vegetation

0-25% 7 0.28

0.0012* 26%-50% 12 0.48

51-75% 2 0.08

76-100% 4 0.16

Shade

0-25% 8 0.32

0.0017* 26%-50% 11 0.44

51-75% 2 0.08

76-100% 4 0.16

Literature Review

Literature review of past studies related to habitat and deer behavior demonstrated

repeated results with respect to deer behavior in relation to their surrounding habitat.We have

categorized the findings of these studies into six different categories of relationships between

deer behavior and habitat. These categories include a) habitat preference and its variability b)

grouping behavior c) anti-predator behavior, d) communication and territoriality, e) behaviors

during habitat changes, and f) effects of deer behavior on habitat.

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a) Habitat Preference and its Variability

White-tailed deer are a species that often demonstrate strong fidelity to certain areas,

demonstrating “home range” in which individuals will remain (Gavin et al. 1984, Larson et al.

1978). These ranges have been shown to be very stable through time (Gavin et al. 1984, Larson

et al. 1978). However, as white-tailed deer occupy a broad range of habitats, variations in

behavior might be expected in these different habitats (Hirth 1977). For example, in northern and

eastern North America, white-tailed deer occupy deciduous and coniferous forests, although

forest openings have been shown to be an important component of their environment, mainly for

foraging (McCaffery and Creed 1969). In western and south-western North America, they

occupy a more open range and commonly feed in wide plains and savanna regions, and later

come back to more vegetated areas for cover during periods of inactivity (Hirth 1977). Shapes of

home ranges frequented and which parts of that range are most used vary with the resources

available (e.g. food), soil cover, age and sex, topography and presence of other territorial

individuals (Rongstad and Tester 1969; Carbaugh et al. 1975; Larson et al. 1978; Gavin et al.

1984). Because deer often require a range of different habitats for different uses, home ranges of

deer are often overlap between several different habitats, and are thus considered an “edge-

species” (Alverson et al. 1988).

Past studies on indices of frequency of deer (i.e. tracks, sightings, feces groups, radio

tracking) have also shown patterns between forested and open areas, similar to the old growth

area which is forested and the reforestation are of PNM which is comprised mostly of open

space. Several studies have demonstrated that deer signs were most commonly found in open

areas with little tress than forested areas (Carbaugh et al 1975; Kearny and Gilbert 1976).

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However, as noted by Carhbaugh et al. (1975), lack of signs of deer does not imply they do not

use the habitat, but suggest rather a different use of the habitat. For example, in a study of white-

tailed deer in Ossabaw Island, Georgia, U.S.A , “estimates of variance in forage abundance along

transects were greater in the open and wooded pastures, but spatial variation relative to mean

abundance along transects was greater in the forest” (LaGory 1986). Similarly, Suring and Vohs

(1979) demonstrated that Columbian white-tailed deer population in Washington State had

higher percentages of inactivity (i.e. resting behavior) and movement in the forest than in the

non-forest communities, and “higher percentage of feeding in non-forest communities with

available forage”. In addition, the authors, and Gavin et al. (1984) found that the plant

communities that were more frequently used by deer were those “providing both forage and

cover, and was greater than either of those qualities alone”. In the study by Suring and Vohs

(1979), despite the fact that the highest habitat use was shown in two of the forest communities,

browsing was relatively rare. These studies suggest that methods of tracking deer frequencies in

comparison of different habitats cannot by themselves be used to imply usage behavior.

Other studies have also compared deer frequency indices with different characteristics of

forests. Canopy of trees have been shown to have a relationship with presence of deer. Suring

and Vohs (1979) demonstrated preference for the forest communities in their study area,

especially in fall, winter, and spring. The deer sought cover provided by shrubs and trunks of

large trees (Suring and Vohs 1979). The explanation the authors suggested was that the

“reduction in heat loss that occurs under tree canopy may have attracted the animals to this

community during these times of the year”. Which species of trees occupy the forested area also

had correlations with frequencies of deer. Sage et al. (1983) were able to find significantly more

proof of deer frequency in hardwood forests rather than hardwood-conifer forests. Similarly, in a

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comparison between different herbaceous plants, Carbaugh et al. (1975) showed that clover

species attracted deer the most, more than vetch, and grass.

Though it was demonstrated that white-tailed deer will often have strong fidelities for

certain habitats, among the studies analyzed, several of them highlighted the variability of this

preference at various scales. Time of day plays a role in which areas deer are most frequently

present, as well as the chances encountering deer themselves. Many researchers have noted that

this species of deer are most active at dawn and dusk (Carbaugh et al. 1975; Hirth 1977; Beier

and McCullough 1990). For example, Carbaugh et al. (1975) and Beier and McCullough (1990)

noted a pattern of deer using closed vegetation types during day time and open types at dusk,

night, and dawn. Results from Carbaugh et al. (1975) and Schmitz (1991) suggested that as deer

foraged during dawn, dusk and at night in open areas; the choice of habitat and time of feeding

was related to the thermal conditions and visibility of predators.

At a larger scale, seasons also play a role in habitat preferences and related behaviors,

mostly due to seasonal availabilities of resources (such as food), and shelter against varying

temperatures and climate. There have been several studies in North America on seasonal

variation of habitat use and preference, due to the various seasons and weather conditions.

White-tail deer prefer different microclimates and resources offered by different habitats and

vegetation species depending on the season (Kearny and Gilbert 1976; Suring and Vohs 1979).

For example, in early spring, there is preference to openings, as these areas produce the first

green vegetation (due to direct sunlight incidence), and during the winter there is a preference for

forested sites for cover, rather than food value in open areas in winter (Kearny and Gilbert 1976).

In the research preformed by Larson et al. (1978), deer in their study area showed “a decline in

swamp usage through the spring and this probably resulted from an increased availability of food

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in fields and upland woods” (as the snow melted) and the “nightly trips from the swamp to

surrounding fields were reduced during periods of strong winds or excessively low

temperatures”. These two factors: time of day and seasonality can also have a synergistic

influence upon the preference of deer for certain habitats (Rongstad and Tester 1969). For

example, Larson et al. (1978) who studied white-tailed deer in Lewiston Township included a

swamp and its bordering agricultural land in their study in South-central Wisconsin, USA. They

demonstrated that the use of the three types of habitat available to deer varied with seasonality as

well as time of day. During daylight hours the swamp was the most used habitat during all times

of the study. Almost 90 % of all daytime locations were in the swamp during January and but

gradually declined until May to the point where about half of the frequentations of deer were in

the swamp (Larson et al. 1978). The use of the swamp later increased from fall to a more

frequent use during mid-winter (Larson et al. 1978). During the night, deer showed decreasing

swamp and increasing field use (Larson et al. 1978). During the fall, some deer rested during the

day in the corn fields in which they fed at night (Larson et al. 1978). Gender has also been

highlighted in several studies on the variation of habitat preference (Kie and Bowyer 1999).

Beier and McCullough (1990) saw that males made use closed forests more frequently and

females rather used open woodland and grassland. This may be because for females, especially

ones that are pregnant or are with their fawns, the forested habitats provided protection against

predators (Aycrigg and Forter 1997). Also, pregnant females tended to become more solitary and

secretive (Gavin et al. 1984) and thus are more often found in forested areas. There has also been

noted that both males and females vary seasonally in their preference of environment, and also

importantly, related to densities (i.e. due to intra-specific competition) (Kie and Bowyer 1999).

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b) Grouping Behavior

One characteristic of white-tail deer populations, like other ungulates, tend to

demonstrate grouping behavior (Hirth 1977). Previous research show that white- tailed deer that

occupy dense forest environments tend to be found forming matrilineal groups (Hirth 1977;

Aycrigg and Forter 1997). These groups are generally composed of older females, frequently

with their female offspring (Hirth 1977; Aycrigg and Forter 1997). The structure of deer groups

have been analyzed in previous studies. They have suggested that most groups were matriarchal

with three to four generations present (Hawkins and Kilmstra 1970). Grouping behavior has been

extensively studied in comparisons to open areas and forested areas. White-tailed deer groups

have been shown to be largest in open areas (LaGory 1986). For example, in a comparative

study done by Hirth (1977) in brushy savanna regions with areas of dense cover and large

expanses of open spaces and relatively dense cover and small open areas, the former contained

large multifamily and female groups with a single dominant male, where the latter had mostly

single males and single females. The explanation for such behavior is that protective cover

against predators has implications on grouping between habitats (Hirth 1977). For wild

ungulates, those species that occupy large dense forests with a lot of cover tend to live

individually or in small groups and plains, and open land ungulates with little cover usually

appear in large groups to easily detect predators (Hirth 1977). Furthermore, as deer frequent both

types of habitat, grouping behavior changes with movement between them. Grouping behavior

allows reducing vigilance in open areas, which allows the other individuals to have more time for

other activities like foraging. This enhances fitness of deer groups (LaGory 1986). It is also

suggested this kind of association with others may also increase an individual's ability to locate

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food (LaGory 1986). As such, “food quality, abundance, and dispersion also vary with cover

density has been shown to influence the size of ungulate groups” (Hirth 1977; LaGory 1986)

Furthermore, these factors not only vary between open areas and forested areas, but within the

areas themselves. LaGory (1986) noted in his study that grouping provides “anti-predator

benefits to deer in all habitats because there was a universal reduction in time spent alert with

increasing group size”, however for smaller groups are favored in more dense vegetation when,

for example, individuals were interfering with one another during foraging behavior or disturbed

the local dispersion of food. In contrast, competition should be reduced and group cohesion was

more easily maintained when food is more evenly scattered. Also, abundant food source is

typical of open areas ( Hirth 1977; LaGory 1986). Also, groups may be smaller in forested areas

because individuals have more difficult time maintaining contact with others because of reduced

visibility (LaGory 1986). A particular characteristic of grouping behavior that has been

compared in forested and open areas is the distance between neighbouring individuals. LaGory

(1986) determined that temporal variation of neighbour distances were greatest in the forest than

in open pastures. In addition, intensity of grouping behavior has also been shown to vary

seasonally and between the sexes, even within the same area (Hawkins and Kilmstra 1970;

LaGory 1986). For example, during fawning season female tended to isolate themselves socially

as well as spatially from groups or other individuals (Hawkins and Kilmstra 1970). Fleeing

behavior was also studied within groups within forested areas (LaGory 1987) and showed that

larger groups in forests were more likely to flee than smaller groups.

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c) Predator Avoidance

As previously discussed, predator avoidance behavior, i.e. fleeing, is associated with

grouping behavior, is not only effected by grouping, but it also effected by habitat. Kie and

Bowyer (1990) noticed in their study that female deer with young preferred to be in dense tree

cover when they were in moderate sized groups probably because of predator avoidance.

Although solitary deer are more vulnerable in open areas because of their obvious exposure, they

may in fact be more vulnerable in thick vegetation despite their increased concealment. They

may be more cautious when foraging in areas of low visibility like forested areas because they

have higher chances of being ambushed (LaGory 1986). Accordingly, flight initiation distance

has been shown to be significantly greater in forest areas than open areas, as deer in forests

seemed to compensate for this increased sense of danger by fleeing even when a predator was

seen at distances greater or equal to 100 m (LaGory 1987). Evidence of the impact on wariness

has been seen in trade-offs in time spent on different behaviors has also been demonstrated and

compared in different habitat types as well. For example, LaGory (1987) noted that found deer in

open pastures spent more time foraging, less advancing, and less being alert than forest deer did.

Deer in the wooded pasture (intermediate environment between an open pasture and forest) were

found to have an intermediate percent of time spent foraging compared to open areas and

forested areas. This behavior is more similar to the open pasture deer for the percent of time

spent advancing and more similar to behavior in the forest for the percent of time spent being

alert (LaGory 1986). It should not be forgotten that because grouping behavior also impacts

fleeing behavior, as larger groups are more likely to spot a predator than are smaller groups and

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are thus more likely to flee (LaGory 1987), surrounding habitat does have implications on the

bidirectional relationship of fleeing behavior and grouping.

d) Communication and Territoriality

Interactions between individuals of a deer population often rely on communication done

through scents and visual markings. Odour production and their olfaction are used to facilitate

intraspecific communication, for example using urine, and are often signals for hierarchal status,

communication to potential rivals, reproductive condition, and individual recognition (Miller et

al. 1997). In addition, bucks often rub their antlers on trees and paw the grounds to mark their

territory. Habitat analyses have demonstrated that the presences of certain tree species were

correlated with these kinds of markings (Kile and Marchinton 1977). For instance, male deer, in

a study by Kile and Marchinton (1977) showed significant frequencies of rubs in vegetation

types that were smooth but avoided those that were too thick. Thus, bucks are selective in their

selection of what tree species on which they will mark their territory. Examples of certain

qualities that were shown to be significant factors in their study were bark texture, branching

pattern, and even circumferences. There was also evidence that “aromatic quality of the tree is

also involved in selection, as pines and black cherry were the species most often rubbed, both of

which are aromatic” (Kile and Marchinton 1977). It is also suggested that males chose the trees

based on very subtle olfactory and/or taste factors. Habitat selection was also seen when scrape

distributions correlated to vegetation types (Kile and Marchinton 1977). Scrapes were mostly

found in sites which contained relatively little understory vegetation, in open, conspicuous

places, and even on hanging branches of a tree (Kile and Marchinton 1977). In their study, the

authors also showed that deer showed fidelity to the same locations annually during rubbing

behavior, indicating the importance of their choice for territorial markings. Female deer have

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also been shown to demonstrate territoriality behavior (Gavin et al. 1984) which suggests that

these habitats in relation to these behaviors are not gender biased. To expand on this idea,

because these communications also effect mate selection, habitat then also indirectly has impacts

on mating behavior (Kile and Marchinton 1977). This also implies that though males are often

express fidelity to areas, the intensity at which they mark can vary seasonally (Kile and

Marchinton 1977).

Aggressive behavior, which can also vary seasonally due to pressure of mating (Kile

and Marchinton 1977), also plays a key role in intra-specific interactions and communications

between individuals. It has been shown trough some studies that the rates of aggression and non-

aggressive behaviors also varied between different habitats (Hirth 1977; LaGory 1986). In

LaGory’s 1986 study, more aggressive behaviors were observed in pastures, and more non

aggressive behaviors were observed in forest areas. Similarly, in Hirth’s (1977) comparison of

aggression behavior between George Reserve and the Welder Refuge, aggressive interactions

were 10-100 times higher in the George reserve, which was an area of relatively dense cover but

with small open areas (compared to the Welder Refuge which is a brushy savannah region with

areas of dense cover and large expanses of open spaces). It was hypothesized hat high levels of

aggression probably direct cause of small groups on the George Reserve, thus big expansive

areas in Welder allowed for less aggression as it allowed for big groups to form (Hirth 1977).

e) Effects of habitat change

As previously stated, white-tailed deer occupy a plethora of habitat types. As a result of

these species being very adaptive they also have other physical attributes allowing them to

flourish in urban areas well as in the wilderness (De Nicola et al. 2000), like in Parque Natural

Metropolitano. One study in particular on black-tailed deer in the Pacific Northwest by Crouch

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(1976) examined the effects of deforestation and forestation on the deer populations. Previously

in this area, forestry researchers and managers concluded that black-tailed deer responses to

changes in forest cover are predictable (Lawrence 1969; Resler 1972). Populations increase as

dense canopy forests are burned (naturally through wildfires and unnaturally) or logged and tend

to decline they redevelop and mature (Crouch 1976). The “increase in population during

deforestation events is because this change often increases food production and abundance in

these areas” (Crouch 1976). It is interesting to note that the author also states that reforestation

within these areas are often difficult due to damaging browsing behavior by the black-tailed deer.

Though this study was conducted on a different species of deer, it can be predicted that white-

tailed deer can have similar impacts.

f) Impacts of deer on surrounding ecosystems

As concluded by Crouch (1976), deer have a strong impact on their habitat. As deer have

a strong interaction with plant communities, they greatly affect their distribution and abundance,

and this interaction can vary spatially and temporally (Rooney and Waller 2002). As such, deer

are often considered keystone species, as they can restructure whole ecological communities

(Rooney and Waller 2002). It should also be noted that because deer are wide-range species,

their impacts on certain plant communities can be considerable (Alverson et al. 1988). As deer

have preferential feeding on some plants and avoid others, and because some plants demonstrate

protection against herbivory whereas others do not, deer alter the relative competitive ability of

plants within a community (DeNicola et al. 2000; Rooney and Waller 2002). For instance, plants

avoided by deer and/or able to defend themselves against herbivory have a competitive

advantage over those plants preferred by deer and/or unable to compensate (Rooney and Waller

2002). As such, in particular to tree species, deer browsing can slow normal local regeneration.

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Browsing can also reduce the normal time for browse-tolerant and/or late-successional species to

dominate the forest canopy (DeNicola et al. 2000; Rooney and Waller 2002). Tree regeneration

can be severely disrupted during events of continuous browsing. This can create shifts to less

dense canopy coverage by both “directly reducing the density of tree seedlings and indirectly

favouring grasses, sedges, and ferns that inhibit tree seedling success” (Rooney and Waller

2002). Rooney and Waller (2002) showed in their area of study that deer browsing “increased in

mixed coniferous–deciduous forest stands, and decreased diversity in the understory herb

community as ferns, grasses, sedges, and rushes became dominant species”. Enclosure studies

and population surveys revealed that “deer densities as low as 4 deer/km2 may prevent

regeneration of the once common woody species” (Alverson et al. 1988). Clearly, herbs may also

be more vulnerable for multiple reasons: “because of browsing as they never grow large enough

to escape browsing impacts and through reduction of successful reproduction” (Rooney and

Waller 2002). Moreover, all these impacts of deer browsing also alter vegetation structure by

changing microclimates as well as nutrient cycles and other ecosystem characteristics (Rooney

and Waller 2002). This also has indirect effects on receiver plant communities and animal

species through food web interactions (Rooney and Waller 2002). Importantly, problems

associated with large concentrations of white-tailed deer are accentuated in metropolitan areas,

like in Parque Natural Metropolitano, where groups are isolated within parks by urban

development, and thus their impacts become amplified within these remaining natural areas

(DeNicola et al. 2000).

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DISCUSSION

Reforestation and Old Growth Area Comparison in Deer Frequencies

From our statistical analysis, though it was found that 80% of the feces groups

encountered were in the reforested area, when comparing the average log feces group per

kilometer between the reforested and old growth area, the p-value of our data was only slightly

above (0.015) the threshold value of α = 0.05. These results contradict past studies, which have

compared deer frequency indicators between habitats, as these indices are more common in open

areas than forested areas (Carbaugh et al 1975; Kearny and Gilbert 1976). When considering that

the t-test was preformed with the averages only two rounds of observations from each site, it is

highly probable that the sample size was not enough to detect a clear significance, or

insignificance within the data. Furthermore because the area is undergoing reforestation, it is

possible that the transformation of the area into a forested area once again also is influencing the

reduction of the number of deer signs. It is similar to studies that have indicated that wooden

pastures have intermediate intensities of signs and behaviors of deer (LaGory 1986). Also,

because there is no previous census on deer population size or density within the park, and

within these two study areas, it is difficult to compare the areas as no baseline is available. As

white-tailed deer also demonstrate strong fidelities to certain habitats and areas within habitats

(LaGory 1986), this may have also affected the results of the study, since no baseline frequencies

were known for each of these areas.

As 72% of the feces groups were concentrated around the southeast corner of the

reforestation area, it is hypothesized that there is some characteristic of this area that correlate

with deer use and frequencies of feces groups. This part of the reforestation area is unique to the

rest of the reforestation area because it contains the most densities of trees within the area (Fig

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6.) Past studies have shown that deer use is not most commonly located in centre of open spaces,

but rather deer often stay along the edges of the open area, particularly if there is adjacent forest

(Kearny and Gilbert 1976; Suring and Vohs 1979). This is also supported with our data that has

significant correlations with certain characteristics of the area like ground cover and area

qualities. Particularly, our data supports the results of Kearny and Gilbert (1976) and Suring and

Vohs (1979) as we found a significant correlation of qualities of areas that are intermediate

between an open area and a reforested area

As discussed previously, habitat uses and preferences of white-tailed deer often vary

through different seasons (Kearny and Gilbert 1976; Larson et al. 1978; Suring and Vohs 1979),

and as such the results from this investigation should considered with caution in application of

behaviors and uses throughout the year. Furthermore, this particular year’s irregular climate

events may have impacted results due to abnormally long and intense wet season, which can

have impacts directly or indirectly on mammal populations (Letnic et al. 2005).

Current Uses and Associated Behaviors of the Reforestation and Old Growth Area

Currently, the reforestation area is mostly open area, spotted with a few trees and the

largest trees and the highest density of reforestation has occurred on the south east side of the

area. From the literature analysis it is clear that open areas often provide feeding opportunities

for the deer population. Thus it is hypothesized that the deer of PNM have a similar use of the

reforested area. Feeding can also explain why 80% of the feces groups were found in the

reforested area. Furthermore, past studies have shown that deer feeding in open areas remained

no more than 50 m away from forest cover (Hirth 1977), which also further explains the

concentration of feces groups in the part of the reforestation area of highest tree densities. This is

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also supported with our data that has significant correlations with certain characteristics of the

area like ground cover and area qualities. Particularly, our data supports the results of Kearny

and Gilbert (1976) and Suring and Vohs (1979) as we found a significant correlation of qualities

of areas that are intermediate between an open area and a reforested area.

In contrast, the old growth area, though there was a lack of evidence of deer signs, it

should be again emphasized that lack of signs of deer does not imply they do not use the habitat,

but suggest rather a different use of the habitat (Carbaugh et al 1975). Previous studies have

highlighted that forest area often provide transit routes and cover against predators during resting

times during the day between foraging in open areas (Carbough et al. 1975; Schmitz 1991).

Therefore, it is hypothesized that the old growth area offers similar opportunities to the deer

population within the area. Deer tracks were also commonly encountered within the old growth

area, often in specific trail-like patterns. However, due to less exposed soil in the reforestation

area, higher encounters of deer tracks may have been because it was simply easier to spot tracks

within the old growth area.

The difference of the frequency of certain behaviors between the two areas is

hypothesized to extend further than feeding and moving. It can also be hypothesized that the

trees in the reforested area offer an opportunity for specific marking behavior. Though no

obvious rubs were found on trees, as we were not focusing on markings during our investigation,

several individual, deep, track marks were observed in the ground that could be a result of

marking territory by pawing the ground’s surface. It is suggested through the study of Beier and

McCullough (1990) that the forested area may also be more frequently used by male white-tailed

deer than female white-tailed deer. Furthermore deer grouping behavior is also hypothesized to

be higher in the reforestation area than in the old growth area, with larger distances between

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individuals in the forested area, as previous studies demonstrated that deer groups are larger in

open areas (Hirth 1977; Kie and Bowyer 1999). Predator avoidance behaviors, such as fleeing,

are expected to occur at larger distances within the old growth are as the dense cover reduces

visibility for predators and deer have increased vigilance (Kie and Bower 1990; LaGory 1987).

Aggressive behaviors are also expected to occur at higher frequencies in the reforested area than

the old growth area, based on the results of LaGory (1986) and Hirth’s (1977) comparative

studies of open areas and forested areas.

It is also hypothesized that the current frequency and type’s uses and behaviors of the old

growth and reforestation area vary between ages and genders, and throughout a daily and a

seasonal scale, for reasons previously mentioned, as almost all behaviors analyzed have these

variations, indirectly, or directly to the different scales of variations within their habitat

(Rongstad and Tester 1969; Hawkins and Kilmstra 1970; Carbough et al. 1975; Kearny and

Gilbert 1976; Hirth 1977; Kile and Marchinton 1977; Suring and Vohs 1979; Gavin et al. 1994;

LaGory 1986; Beier and McCullough 1990; Kie and Bower 1990).

Predictions of Effects of Reforestation on Deer Behavior

As reforestation projects continue in PNM, it can be hypothesized that deer behavior will

also be changing to behavior and uses in open areas to those in forested areas. Habitat size,

fidelity and its variation, behaviors, deer frequencies, and uses may change as the resources,

benefits, and dangers, change with increased reforestation. It is also important to recall that all

behavior again varies on many temporal scales, between genders, and individualistically. The

changes that are expected to occur within these reforestation areas, based on literature analysis,

are:

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1) decrease feeding behavior, increased use for coverage against predators and for transit

2) decrease grouping size, and increasing distance between individuals between groups,

3) increasing use of these areas by males, and less by females and young,

4) increased vigilance within these areas, and higher flight initiation distances,

5) changes in the frequencies, and the frequencies of different types, of markings (ie. decreasing

scrape markings), and

6) increased frequency of aggressive behavior.

Though previous case studies of deer population changes are predictable through areas of

deforestation and reforestation (Crouch 1979), it is difficult to predict directions of change in

behavior for certain behaviors, due to the unknown characteristics and/or its relationship to

behavior. For example, because there is evidence that rubbing behavior in deer depend on the

available tree species, it is difficult to determine if there will be an increase or a decrease in

rubbing behavior as there has been no study on the relationship of species selected for

reforestation and rubbing behavior. Also it is important to note that the reforestation project

involves a lot of human-induced maintenance (Amelia Muñoz de Batista, Personal

communication, 26/03/2011) and human presence has been proven to impact not only deer

visitations to habitat areas, but also alter deer behavior (Jones and Witham 1990). For example,

deer that often in encounter with humans may reduce their flight initiation distance and other

predator avoidance behaviors (Jones and Witham 1990), which is the opposite change that is

expected for an increasingly forested area. This example demonstrates another dimension of

factors that increase the difficulty in predicting impacts of deer behavior within these areas.

Furthermore, as previously stated, because deer themselves live a bi-directional relationship with

their habitat (Crouch 1976), the impacts of reforestation become increasingly difficult to predict,

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because reforestation may not occur as desired by managers. The case study of the Pacific

Northwest by Crouch (1976) highlighted that reforestation is often is impeded by presence of

deer. In addition, because deer have the ability to reorganize their environment (Rooney and

Waller 2002), it is difficult to predict and project the characteristics of the reforestation areas that

also impact deer use and behavior.

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REFLECTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Difficulties and Limitations

The data collection started slowly due to difficulties with regards to finding evidence of

deer. We started off setting up “track traps” in order to quantify the frequency of deer by

counting how many left their tracks on them. We collected earth which we put inside a bucket

and refined it taking out rocks and twigs. We later filled with water and mixed the content to

make mud which was used for the track traps. Starting at one end of the reforestation area

transects stretched along the entire area. Mud traps were laid down every 10 meters. They

measured roughly 50 cm by 50 cm and were about 1 cm thick. This revealed to be very time

consuming and inefficient due to the small size of the traps compared to the whole area, thus

reducing the probability of deer actually laying down a track on them. The fact that the mud traps

were very conspicuous made us believe that deer would prefer to go around them. Changing our

way of find evidence of deer was found to be much more effective. Counting deer pellets do not

require any prior set up and contrarily to deer tracks, are much more conspicuous and are less

likely to disappear due to a disturbance, rain fall for example.

This method however, did have limitations. For the 2 areas, throughout the transects, we

would sometimes encounter terrain that was hard to search. For example, thick leaf litter which

we had to move and look under. Tall grasses were also hard to look through because we could

not see the ground. Also, the invasive grass Saccharum spontaneum in the reforestation area also

revealed to be a problem. It was very tall and we had to use machetes in order cut it. For the

second round of survey, when we came back, it had already grown back and we had to cut it

again. This was very time consuming. In the old growth forest area, the abundance of vegetation

made it sometimes hard to keep the transects straight. Lianas and small vegetation branches and

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leaves made it hard to move fast in the area. Once again, the use of machetes was needed and

time consuming.

Lessons Learned

Encountering problems and difficulties in this kind of study is normal. No matter how

organized and planned out the methods are, they are always harder in practice. It is the reality of

field work. There are always eventualities that cannot be planned and need to be overcome. A

thing that is important to keep in mind while doing field work is to always leave room for trial

and error and allocate more time than originally predicted for the data collection on the field.

Being flexible as well as creative was necessary when a problem needed to be resolved on the

spot. These are definitely skills we acquired fast when doing our transects. Supporting one

another was also important as transects were physically demanding. Dealing with heat, humidity,

dehydration and different kinds of stinging arthropods on the field was sometimes arduous and

challenging. Working in collaboration with the park workers, who shared different view points

on our methods was helpful to us in many ways. Different interesting inputs and ideas were

brought together to give us different perspectives and outlooks on the way our project was being

developed. Also, the entire process required a lot of communication, comprehension as well as

patience, because once again, things do not always go as originally planned. Besides the

problems faced, resolving them felt very satisfying. This helped us better understand our limits

as well as defining precisely the goals of this project and how to go about achieving them. We

feel this experience was an overall positive and successful one.

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Next Steps

This study was limited by 4 months of setup and data collection. Results may have been

more powerful had the study been repeated on a larger time scale. Also, comparing the frequency

of deer in other kinds of environments in the park such as slopes, elevations and forest gaps

could help us to further understand the use of different habitats by deer. As the reforestation

project expands and grows, so will its effect on deer. Using this research project as a baseline

and reference, other deer studies will be able to be carried out in order to investigate the

relationship and impacts of reforestation on the behavior of deer. Comparing to baseline data, the

change of habitat use by deer can be recorded and analyzed. Any future in this area may greatly

increase our knowledge of patterns of habitat use and maybe relate it to their eventual changes

due to human disturbance on ecosystems and eventually be able to predict more accurately the

outcomes of such disturbances.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank firstly, our Supervisor, Amelia Muñoz de Batista, for her

suggestions and guidance throughout the project and for providing all the necessary help for its

achievement. We would also like to thank Elias Estrada, for his help and participation in the field

as well as to all the people of Parque Natural Metropolitano which have been of a great help

throughout our research. They truly have made of this project an unforgettable experience. We

would like to also thank our professors and TA at McGill University and STRI for this wonderful

opportunity, patience, and guidance. Finally, we would like to thank McGill University and the

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute for the wonderful opportunity to perform research in

Panama.

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Aycrigg, J.C.,Porter W.F. 1997. Sociospatial Dynamics of White-Tailed Deer in the Central

Adirondack Mountains, New. Journal of Mammalogy, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 468-482

Beier, P. and McCullough, D. R. 1990. Factors Influencing White-Tailed Deer Activity Patterns

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Carbaugh, B., Vaughan, J. P. , Bellis, E. D. , Graves, H. B. 1975. Distribution and Activity of

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Cohen, W.E., Reiner, R.J., Bryant, F.C., Drawe, D.L., Bradley, L.C. 1989. Daytime Activity of

White-Tailed Deer in Response to Short-Duration and Continuous Grazing. The

southwestern naturalist. Vol. 34, No. 3

Crouch, G.L. 1976. Deer and reforestation in the pacific north west. Vertebrate Pest Conference

Proceedings collection Proceedings of the 7th Vertebrate Pest Conference. University of

Nebraska – Lincoln. USDA Forest Service

DeNicola, A.J., VerCauteren, K.C., Curtis, P.D., Hygnstrom, S.E. 2000. Managing White-Tailed

Deer in Suburban Environments: A Technical Guide. ISBN 1-57753-296-1

Emmons, L.H., Feer, F. 1990. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: a Field Guide Text. University

of Chicago, USA.

Gavin, T.A., Suring, L.H., Vohs, P.A., Meslow, E.C. 1984. Population Characteristics, Spatial

Organization, and Natural Mortality in the Columbian White-Tailed Deer. Wildlife

Monographs, No. 91, Population Characteristics, Spatial Organization, and Natural

Mortality in the Columbian White-Tailed Deer. pp. 3-41

Halls, H. K., ed. 1984. White-Tailed Deer: Ecology and Management. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole

Books.

Hammond, B. 1999. Saccharum spontaneum (Graminae) in Panama: the physiology and ecology

of invasion. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 8(3-4): 23-38.

Hawkins, R.E., Klimstra W.D. 1970. A Preliminary Study of the Social Organization of White-

Tailed Deer. The Journal of Wildlife Management. Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 407-419

Hirth, D.H.1977. Social Behavior of White-Tailed Deer in Relation to Habitat. Wildlife

Monographs, No. 53, Social Behavior of White-Tailed Deer in Relation to Habitat pp.

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Hooper, E., Legendre, P., Condit, R. 2004. Factors affecting community composition of forest

regeneration in deforested, abandoned land in Panama. Ecology, 85(12), pp. 3313–3326

Ibañez, R., Conditi, R., Angehr, G., Aguilar, S., Garcia, T. Martinez, R., Sanjur, A., Stallard, R.,

Wright, S. J., Stanley Rand, A., Heckadon, S. 2002. An ecosystem report on the Panama

canal: monitoring the status of the forest communities and the watershed. Smithsonian

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Kearney, S.R., Gilbert, F.F. 1976. Habitat Use by White-Tailed Deer and Moose on Sympatric

Range. The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 645-657

Kie, J.G., Bowyer, R.T. 1999. Sexual Segregation in White-Tailed Deer: Density-Dependent

Changes in Use of Space, Habitat Selection, and Dietary Niche. Journal of Mammalogy.

Vol. 80, No. 3,pp. 1004-1020

Kile, T.L., Marchinton, R.L. 1977. White-Tailed Deer Rubs and Scrapes: Spatial, Temporal and

Physical Characteristics and Social Role. American Midland Naturalist

Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 257-266

LaGory, K. E. 1986. Habitat, Group Size, and the Behavior of White-Tailed Deer. Animal

Behavior Vol. 98, No. ¼, 168-179

LaGory, K.E. 1987. The influence of habitat and group characteristics on the alarm and flight

response of white-tailed deer. Animal Behavior Vol. 35, 20-25

Larson, T.J., Rongstad, O.J., Terbilcox, F.W. 1978. Movement and Habitat Use of White-Tailed

Deer in South-central Wisconsin.The Journal of Wildlife Management. Vol. 42, No. 1 pp.

113-117.

Lawrence, W.H. 1969. The impact of intensive forest management on wildlife populations. Proc.

Wildl. & Refor. Pac. Northwest Symp. 1968:72-74.

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souther oscillation) - associated rainfall, predation and wildfire in central Australia.

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Forest. Wildlife Society Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 180-186

McCaffery, K. R., W. A. Creed. 1969. Significance of forest openings to deer in northern

Wisconsin. Wisconsin Department Natural Resources. Technical Bulletin 44, pp. 104

Michael, E. D. 1970. Activity patterns of white-tailed deer in South Texas. Texas Journal of

Science 21:417–438.

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Miller, K.V. 1997. What do we know about deer scent communication? Pages 36-46 in 2nd

Annual White-tailed deer Shortcourse. James River Timber Corporation and Gulf States

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en.html [Accessed on february 17, 2011].

Peet, N. B., A. R. Watkinson, D.J. Bell and U.R. Sharma. 1999. The conservation management

of Imperata cylindrica grassland in Nepal with fire and cutting: an experimental

approach. Journal of Applied Ecology 36: 374-387.

Rongstad, O.J., Tester, J.R. 1969. Movements and Habitat Use of White-Tailed Deer in

Minnesota.The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 366-379

Rooney, T. P., Waller, D. M. 2002. Direct and indirect effects of white-tailed deer in forest

ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management 181: 165–176

Resler, R.A. 1972. Clearcutting: Beneficial aspects for wildlife resources. J. Soil & Water

Conserv. 27(6):250-254.

Sage, R.W., Tierson, W.C., Mattfeld, G.F., Behrend, D.F. 1983. White-Tailed Deer Visibility

and Behavior along Forest Roads. The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 47, No. 4

pp. 940-953

Sauer, P. R. 1984. Physical characteristics. Pages 73–90 in L. K. Halls, ed., White-Tailed Deer:

Ecology and Management. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books.

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Atwater, and J. Schnell, eds., Deer. Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books.

Schmitz, O.J. 1991. Thermal Constraints and Optimization of Winter Feeding and Habitat

Choice in White-Tailed Deer. Holarctic Ecology. Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 104-111

Suring, L.H and Vohs, P.A. 1979. .Habitat Use by Columbian White-Tailed Deer. The Journal of

Wildlife Management. Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 610-619

Wishnie, M.H., Deago, J., Mariscal, E., Sautu, A. 2002 The efficient control of Saccharum

spontaneum (L.) (Graminae) in mixed plantations of six native species of tree and teak

(Tectona grandis) in the Panama Canal Watershed, Republic of Panama: 2nd annual

report. Proyecto de Reforestación con Especies Nativas (P.R.O.R.E.N.A.)

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APPENDICES

Appedix 1. Summary data sheet of the information collected in the field.

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Appendix 2. Host-Institution Product: Spanish Research Paper, and an copy of this report.

Eva Payette y Tanya Tran Universidad McGill

Proyecto Supervisado por:

Amelia Muñoz de Batista Parque Natural Metropolitano

Abril 2011

|

Reporte Final

Los Proyectos de Reforestación y Recuperación y el Venado a Cola Blanca (Odocoileus virginianus) en el

Parque Natural Metropolitano: Un Estudio Comparativo del Uso de Hábitat y sus Implicaciones

sobre el Comportamiento.

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Tabla de contenido

Resumen………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Introducción Parque Natural Metropolitano……………………………………………………………… 4 El Proyecto de Reforestación………………………………………………………………. 4 Venado a Cola Blanca (Odocoileus virginianus).………………………………………… 7 Métodos y Materiales Área de Estudio…………………………………………………………………………………. 10 Grupos de Heces Fecales……………..………………………………………………………. 11 Análisis de Datos..……………………………………..………………………………………. 12 Impactos Sobre el Comportamiento..………………………………………..………………. 13 Éticos……………………………………………………………………………………………. 13 Resultados Grupos de Heces Fecales……………………………………………………………………. 14 Análisis de la Literatura……………………………………………………………………... 17 Discusión Comparación de los Frecuencias en el Área Reforestado y de Bosque Maduro……… 28 Usos y Comportamientos asociados actuales en el Area Reforestado y de Bosque

Maduro…………………………………………………………………………………….

29 Predicciones de los Impactos de Reforestacion sobre el Comportamiento…………... 31 Agradecimientos…………………………………………………………………………. 33 Referencias……………………………………………………………………………...... 34 Apéndices........................................................................................................................... 37

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Resumen

Saccharum spontaneum es una especie de hierba originalmente introducida en Panamá por los

estadounidenses como una técnica de mitigación contra la erosión del Canal de Panamá. Esta

especie exótica se convirtió en especie invasora, se extendió en todo el país y ha alterado el

proceso de generación natural de las especies nativas. Hace 10 años, el Parque Natural

Metropolitano inició un proyecto de reforestación con la misión de recuperar las áreas invadidas

por la hierba invasora y de reforestarlas con especies nativas. Aunque hay claras efectos

positivos de este proyecto de reforestación sobre la flora del parque, lo que aún se ha investigado

es la relación y la interacción de estas áreas reforestadas con la fauna local. Una de las más

grandes especies de mamíferos en el parque es el venado a cola blanca o Odocoileus virginianus,

por su nombre científico. Con el desarrollo del proyecto de reforestación, el venado verá su

entorno cambiante con el tiempo. Los objetivos de este proyecto es de investigar la frecuencia

del uso de la más vieja área de reforestación en el parque por el venado a cola blanca.El segundo

objetivo es, a través de una revisión de la literatura y el trabajo de campo, determinar los posibles

comportamientos actuales asociados a cada una de estas áreas. Por último, nuestro tercer objetivo

utilizó la síntesis de nuestra información para predecir los cambios en el comportamiento de los

venados adentro del área de reforestación. También, con este estudio, establecemos una base de

información sobre la populación de este mamífero. De hecho, no estudios previos han sido

hechos en el parque y de repente hay falta de mucha información. En total, 25 grupos diferentes

de excrementos fueron encontrados en este estudio. Aunque insignificantes, la diferencia entre

las 2 áreas con relación a la frecuencia de venado fue muy informativa. Eran por la mayor parte,

situados en la zona de la reforestación, y en la esquina donde se encuentra la mayoría de los

árboles, para maximizar tanto cobertura y protección contra los depredadores, como el forrajeo.

En este estudio, los venados también se encuentran en zonas de baja cobertura del suelo, materia

orgánica muerta y cubierta de vegetación para alimentarse. La revisión de la literatura nos

presentó con usos y comportamientos opósitos en el área de reforestación y de bosque maduro El

tamaño del hábitat, la variación de la fidelidad, los comportamientos, las frecuencias de venados

pueden cambiar a medida que los recursos, beneficios y peligros, cambian con el crecimiento de

la reforestación. El comportamiento varía en muchas escalas temporales, entre los géneros y

individualmente también.

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Introducción

Parque Natural Metropolitano

Parque Natural Metropolitano es un parque natural situado a dentro de los límites de la

ciudad de Panamá, Panamá (8° 59' 43" N, 79° 32' 48" W). Está ubicado en el distrito de Ancón,

entre el río Curundú, y dos caminos; La Amistad y Ascanio Villalaz. Protege 2231159.43m ² de

área natural. Es conocido como el "pulmón de la ciudad" y es el único bosque de áreas

protegidas que se encuentra dentro los límites de una ciudad (Parque Natural Metropolitano

2008). Los bosques que se encuentran dentro de los límites del parque son bosques tropicales

húmedos y bosques tropicales secos del Pacífico. Este bosque es uno de los últimos de su tipo en

América Central, ya que es en peligro de extinción (Parque Natural Metropolitano 2008).

Además de proteger la vida silvestre dentro de sus límites, el parque tiene como objetivo de

proveer una experiencia de educación y de sensibilización sobre el medio ambiente y la

conservación a al mismo tiempo que ofrece una experiencia recreativa agradable.

El parque fue inaugurado el 5 de junio, 1988. Originalmente fue una zona parte del Plan

de Manejo de Suelo en 1974 para la protección del Canal de Panamá. Este plan tenía por objetivo

de garantizar la eficacia del canal con la regulación del agua, la prevención de la erosión y

deposición de sedimentos (Ibáñez et al. 2002). Así, el Parque Natural Metropolitano, forma una

cadena, llamada el Corredor Biológico, con el Parque Nacional Camino de Cruces y el Parque

Nacional Soberanía. Esta cadena es una línea casi ininterrumpida de bosque protegido que se

extiende desde el Océano Pacífico hasta la costa del Caribe.

Proyecto de Reforestación

Saccharum spontaneum es una especie de hierba originalmente introducida en Panamá

por los estadounidenses como una otra técnica de mitigación contra la erosión del Canal de

Panamá (Wishnie et al. 2002). Es originalmente una especie nativa del sur de Asia. Esta especie

exótica se convirtió en una especie invasora y se extendió en todo el país. Ha alterado el proceso

de regeneración natural de las especies nativas (Hooper et al. 2004). Esta hierba previene el

establecimiento de especies leñosas debido a su forma de crecer en parches densas. Crecen con

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profundas raíces extensas haciéndolas difíciles deshacerse simplemente cortándolas. Así, tienen

la capacidad de crecer rápidamente después de incendios forestales (Peet et al. 1999). Los

incendios que ocurren cada año en Panamá en realidad contribuyen a la difusión de esta hierba,

porque elimina la vegetación nativa, pero dejando las raíces de Saccharum spontaneum intactas.

Además, esta hierba es muy seca, se incendia fácilmente y quema muy rápidamente. Así,

contribuye a muchos incendios forestales cada año, y pone en peligro la vida de las personas,

bienes materiales, además de la fauna y la flora.

Saccharum spontaneum está también ampliamente presente en el Parque Natural

Metropolitano. Para controlar esta especie invasora, el parque comenzó, hace aproximadamente

10 años, un proyecto de reforestación con la misión de recuperar las áreas invadidas por la hierba

y reforestarlas con especies nativas encontradas en el parque (Parque Natural Metropolitano

2008). Con este proyecto, el parque también tiene como objetivo de reducir el riesgo de

incendios forestales. Hay tres principales áreas de reforestación en el parque elegido debido a la

alta presencia de Saccharum spontaneum. El primero está situado en el lado este del sendero “El

Roble” cerca del castillo “La Garita” cerca de la carretera La Amistad, el segundo se encuentra

en el noreste del parque, junto a la cerca del club Ecuestre Metropolitano cerca de la avenida

Ascanio Villalaz y el último, al oeste, junto al sendero de “los Mono Titi” en los límites del

parque junto al río Curundú y la Universidad de Panamá.

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Figura 1. Carta de la ubicación de los proyectos de reforestación en el Parque Natural Metropolitano. Cada

triangulo negro representa una de las áreas interés para el proyecto del parque. Áreas delineadas en rojo muestran las

áreas de reforestación más grandes. La carta fue proporcionada por el Parque Natural Metropolitano

Aunque hay claras implicaciones para el efecto positivo de este proyecto de reforestación

sobre especies de flora nativa, lo que aún no se ha investigado es la relación y la interacción de

estas áreas reforestadas con la fauna local. El parque es un hábitat para una gran cantidad de

insectos, aves, anfibios, reptiles y mamíferos. Una de las especies más grandes de mamíferos que

tienen hábitats en PNM es el venado a cola blanca.

Venado a Cola Blanca (Odocoileus virginianus)

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Figura 2. Venado a cola blanca, Odocoileus virginianus, encontrado por un guarda parque a dentro del Parque Natural Metropolitano. Fecha de la foto: Desconocida

El venado de cola blanca, Odocoileus virginianus, es un ungulado, llamado así debido al

hecho de que cuando se asustan, levantan la cola, dejando al descubierto su parte inferior blanca.

También tienen un parche de cuello blanco que completa su capa de color marrón-rojo en el

verano y marrón-gris en el invierno (LaGory 1986). El venado a cola blanca ocupa una amplia

gama de hábitats. Estudios preformada por LaGory (1986) han demostrado que tienen una alta

fidelidad a ciertos sitios dentro de su área de hábitat, y estos sitios también puede variar

dependiendo de la temporada. Son una especie de borde, que viven en zonas de transición entre

bosques primeros, bosques secundarios, hábitats montañosos, elevaciones superiores,

elevaciones medias y bosques abiertos, campos, praderas agrícolas y zonas urbanas (Emmons y

Feer 1990). Su distribución geográfica se extiende a lo largo de las Américas (Emmons y Feer

1990), y va desde el centro de Canadá hasta el norte de América del Sur (De Nicola et al. 2000).

A través de esta gama, ciervo de cola blanca varía, así que 38 subespecies se encuentran (Smith y

Rhodes 1994). El peso corporal, aumentando de sur a norte, es de 50 a 300 libras (De Nicola et

al. 2000). El tamaño corporal promedio de un macho venado es de 150 libras y 100 para una

mujer venado. Su altura normal, desde el hombro es de 36 pulgadas y su vida puede llegar hasta

12 años en las áreas protegidas, pero sólo 4-5 en las zonas con caza (Sauer 1984). Bajo

condiciones óptimas, la población de venados de cola blanca puede aumentar muy rápidamente.

Desde la década 1930, las densidades de venados se han subiendo debido a los cambios del

paisaje inducidos por la actividad humana y el desarrollo (Sauer 1984) Si no hay depredadores

nativos, la caza suele ser el factor limitante principal para su tamaño de población (Rooney y

Waller 2002).

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Este animal depende mucho de sus agudos sentidos de olfato, oído y vista, para detectar

depredadores que se acercan en el entorno. Durante el día, se quedan en los bosques, que

proporcionan una cobertura para refugiarse. El venado se desplaza de áreas cubiertas durante el

día hasta zonas abiertas en la noche para alimentarse (Beier et al. 1990). Muchas investigaciones

sugieren que son más activos durante el amanecer y el anochecer (Michael 1970). La

observación de la densidad de venados a cola blanca es muy baja durante el día y superior al

anochecer, el amanecer y por la noche (Carbaugh et al. 1975). Los estudios de comportamiento

sugieren que se prefieren zonas verdes, con pequeños arbustos y vegetación en comparación a

densos bosques leñosos (LaGory 1986). Esto se ha demostrado que es debido al hecho de que los

depredadores pueden ser más fáciles de ver en este tipo de hábitats (Beier et al. 1990). En los

bosques densos, los depredadores son menos visibles y los venados tienen más dificultades para

detectarlos. Cuando se detecta un depredador, los venados pueden huir a velocidades de hasta 36

millas por hora y pueden saltar a una altura de 8 pies (Sauer 1984).

Como mencionado anteriormente, los venados pueden ocupar una gran variedad de

hábitats. Tienen características de comportamiento que les permiten adaptarse muy bien a los

nuevos entornos, así como a nuevas fuentes de alimentación. Esta capacidad de adaptación les

permiten de prosperar en casi todos los ambientes modificados por los humanos, con la obvia

excepción del centro de las ciudades metropolitanas. Con cambios en su hábitat, se puede

predecir cambios en el comportamiento del animal (Hirth 1977). En el Parque Natural

Metropolitano, la presencia de venados se ha observado con mucha frecuencia (Amelia Muñoz

de Batista, comunicación personal, 26/03/2011). Con el desarrollo del proyecto de reforestación,

el venado verá su entorno cambiando con el tiempo.

Esta investigación comprende tres objetivos principales. En primer lugar, para investigar

la frecuencia de uso de la zona de reforestación más antigua en el Parque Natural Metropolitano,

por el venado de cola blanca, Odocoileus virginianus. Nuestra hipótesis es que la frecuencia de

los venados será más alta en el área de reforestación que en el área de bosque maduro. Además,

esperamos que los venados se encuentran a lo largo del borde de las áreas. Como demostrado en

estudios similares, los venados tienden a estar a lo largo de los bordes de los bosques y áreas

pastizales para maximizar la protección y también la disponibilidad de alimentos. Ampliando

esta idea, en la zona de reforestación, se espera encontrar frecuencias más altas de venados

alrededor de los arbustos o algunos árboles y no en zonas completamente abiertas, por las

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mismas razones que la última predicción. El segundo objetivo es, a través de una revisión de

literatura y los resultados encontrados en el objetivo previo, determinar los usos actuales por los

venados de esos áreas. Finalmente, utilizar todo esa información para predecir los cambios de

comportamiento que las 2 áreas podrían tener sobre los venados en el parque.

Métodos y Materiales

Sitios de Estudio

Como indicado anteriormente, hay tres áreas del Parque Natural Metropolitano donde se

encuentran el proyecto de reforestación y recuperación. De esas áreas, el sitio de estudio que fue

elegido es el sitio situado al lado del Club Ecuestre Metropolitano, al noreste del parque. El

proyecto de forestación de esta zona empezó hace 5 años y cobre 5.508 m². El sitio de bosque

maduro que escogimos para la comparación se encuentre al sur este del Club Ecuestre

Metropolitano (Fig. X). Esta zona fue elegida porque tenía las mismas condiciones topográficas

y geográficas que zona reforestada de interés. La orientación y ubicación de este sitio para la

recolección de datos de frecuencias de los venados fue elegido al azar, y el área total investigado

cobre aproximadamente 9000 m².

Figura 3. Carta del área de estudio. La imagen arriba en la esquina izquierda ilustra el área protegido por el Parque Natural Metropolitano. La línea punteada representa los límites del parque. El mapa más grande representa una imagen ampliada del sitio de estudio en los límites del parque. La carta del parque fue tomada en Google Maps. La mapa del sito de estudio fue adaptada de desde una carta proporcionada por el Parque Natural Metropolitano.

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Grupos de Heces Fecales

Figura 4. Fotografía de grupos de heces fecales de venados a cola blanca en el Parque Natural Metropolitano. Foto

tomada en 4 de febrero, 2011 por Tanya Tran.

La metodología para determinar la frecuencia de los venados fue modelada según la

metodología de Mandujano y Gallina (1995). En este estudio, hemos modificado los métodos de

contar grupos de heces fecales que Mandujano y Gallina (1995) han preformado en su

investigación para modelar la densidad de populación de venado a cola blanca en bosques secos

tropicales. El área reforestada tenía una forma muy irregular y los transectos cruzaron toda la

longitud de la zona, empezando cada 5 metros a partir del empiezo del área hasta el fin para

cubrir todo el sitio. El área reforestado y el área de bosque maduro requieren 18 y 15 transectos

respectivamente. Los transectos están en la dirección de 223º en el área reforestado, y 283º en el

área de bosque maduro. Para cubrir un área de tamaño similar en el sitio de bosque maduro cada

transecto midió 120 m y empezaron cada 5 metros al empiezo del área. El empiezo y el final de

cada transecto estuvo etiquetado con cinta pabellón para garantizar que los mismos transectos

estuvieron observados en cada observación. Además, una brújula estuvo utilizada para mantener

una línea derecha durante las observaciones. Para asegurarse de la igualdad de esfuerzos de

muestreo en cada áreas, cada una encuesta de un área entera fue asignado 3 a 4 días. La

colección de datos ocurrió entre el 25 de febrero, 2011 y el 1 de abril, 2011

A lo largo de estos transectos, dos observadores caminaron a lo largo de los transectos en

busca de grupos de heces fecales. Cuando lo encontraron, el sistema Garmin GPS III Plus fue

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utilizado para marcar las coordenadas geográficas. Además de la ubicación de cada grupo

encontrado, varias características de la cobertura del suelo y la cubierta forestal alrededor de

cada grupo también fue registradas

Característica Descripción Medido

Ubicación

Ubicación GPS Latitudes and Longitudes del grupo UTM

Cubierto de Suelo

Suelo

Porcentaje del suelo aproximadamente 2 m alrededor del

grupo que está cubierto con cada característica

1 0-25%

Hojarasca/vegetación muerta 2 25-50%

Vegetación verde 3 50-75%

Otro (ie. Rocas, etc.) 4 75-100%

Area Quality

Vegetación densa Porcentaje alrededor del grupo (a la visibilidad del

observador) que es rodeado por vegetación densa

1 0-25%

2 25-50%

3 50-75%

4 75-100%

Sombra Cantidad de sombra en un radio de 3 m

1 0-25%

2 25-50%

3 50-75%

4 75-100%

Cuadro 1. Características de la cobertura del suelo y cualidad de área investigados durante este estudio. Durante las

observaciones, los dos observadores estimaban el porcentaje de cada de esas características en el sitio. Si había

diferencias entre los resultados de algún observador, el promedio fue registrado

Después de que la ubicación y características estuvieron registradas, el grupo estuvo

eliminado del sitio, sólo dejando algunas heces. Excrementos de venados de cola blanca están

utilizados para comunicar la territorialidad y encontrar parejas (Hirth 1977; Miller et al. 1997).

Para no alterar completamente el importante papel de los señales de olor, dejábamos algunos

heces. Esta especie también es muy sensible a pequeñas concentraciones de olores (Miller et al.,

1997), se determinó que sólo algunos heces estaban suficientes para permitir que un rastro de

olor a permanecer. Sin embargo, fue importante para eliminar la mayoría del grupo para prevenir

recontándolo después de observaciones repetidas de cada una de las áreas. Las dos áreas

estuvieron analizadas dos veces.

Análisis de Datos

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El análisis de datos y gráficos estuvieron preformados y creados usando Microsoft Excel

y J.M.P. Datos de los transectos estuvieron analizados por el promedio de grupos de heces

fecales encontrados por kilómetro en los dos períodos de observación para cada una de los áreas.

Luego, los resultados estuvieron transformados a la escala log y se estuvieron comparados con

una prueba-t. Cabe señalar que debido al tamaño pequeño de la muestra (sólo dos rondas de

observación para cada área) los supuestos de normalidad y varianza no pudieron estar probados,

y por lo tanto los resultados de la prueba-t deben ser interpretados con precaución.

Una prueba chi² estuvo utilizada para analizar la frecuencia de los grupos de heces

fecales en relación con cada una de las cuatro tipos de cobertura del suelo y dos para la cualidad

de la área (ver Tabla 1).

Impactos sobre el Comportamiento

Desafortunadamente, porque muchos factores sobre la población de venados en el Parque

Natural Metropolitano están desconocidos, como el tamaño de la población y su distribución

dentro del parque, las observaciones de comportamiento de estas dos zonas no serían factibles en

el tiempo disponible para esta investigación. Por lo tanto, una revisión de la literatura, conjunto a

los datos recuperados sobre la frecuencia de los venados en la área reforestada y de bosque

maduro estuvieron utilizados para determinar varias hipótesis acerca de los impactos de los

proyectos de reforestación en los límites del parque.

Éticas

Durante esta investigación, nuestras entrevistas y métodos científicos siguen el codo de

éticas para las investigaciones sobre humanos y animales de La Universidad McGill de Montréal,

Canadá. Una copia de este codo puede ser encontrado a

http://www.mcgill.ca/files/secretariat/Ethical-Conduct-Research-Human-Policy.pdf y

http://animalcare.mcgill.ca/index_files/Page982.html

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Resultados

Grupos de Heces Fecales

En total, 25 grupos diferentes de excrementos estuvieron encontrados en este estudio.

La distribución de cada uno de estos grupos se puede ver en la figura 3. De los 25 grupos de

heces fecales encontradas, 20 de ellos (80%) se localizaban en el área de reforestación. En

particular, mayoría de los grupos de heces fecales encontradas (72%) se encontraron en los 6

primeros transectos del área reforestada, en el lado sureste. Una foto fue tomada en la dirección

de los transectos para mostrar la zona donde estuvieron encontrados la mayoridad de los heces

fecales (Ver figura 5).

Figura 5. Carta del área de reforestación (línea punteada roja) y la área de bosque maduro (línea puntada anaranjada) con las ubicaciones de los grupos de heces fecales encontrados durante el estudio. Cada punto representa 1 grupo de heces. 20 grupos estuvieron encontrados en la área de reforestación y 5 en la área de bosque maduro, por un total de 25 grupos de heces fecales.

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Figura 6. (Izquierda) Una foto tomada perpendicularmente al transecto numero 6 donde 72 % de los grupos de heces fecales estuvieron encontrados. (Derecha) Una foto del área de reforestación tomada 180 º de la foto

a la derecha, para contrastar.

El promedio de heces fecales por kilómetro fue de aproximadamente 5.45 ± 0.771 grupos

S.D. / km y 1,39 ± 0,392 grupos S.D. / k.m. en la área reforestada y el área de bosque maduro,

respectivamente (Fig. X). Cuando la transformación logarítmica fue hecha sobre los resultados,

esos estuvieron analizados con una prueba t. Los datos muestran una diferencia que no es

significativa, el valor de p era sólo ligeramente por arriba de 0,05, a 0,515. Como se mencionó

anteriormente, debido al tamaño pequeño de la muestra (sólo dos rondas de observación para

cada área) los supuestos de normalidad y varianza no pudieron ser probados. Los resultados de

este ensayo sugieren que el tamaño de la muestra es demasiado pequeño para determinar

diferencias significativas del grupo de heces por k.m. entre las dos áreas de estudio.

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Figura 7. Promedio de grupos de heces por k.m. en la área de reforestación y la área de bosque maduro. Los

resultados son de un promedio de 2 observaciones completas de cada área. Las barras de error representan 1

desviación estándar. Los promedios eran 5.45 ± 0.771 S.D. grupos / km y 1.39 ± 0.392 S.D. grupos / km para la área

de reforestación y la área de bosque maduro, respectivamente. Los resultados de la prueba-t muestran estar

insignificantemente diferente de (p=0.0515, α = 0.05).

Un resumen de los resultados de la prueba chi² de las características del entorno alrededor

los grupos de heces se pueden ver en el cuadro 2. Grupos de heces fecales estuvieron

encontrados en una frecuencia significativamente mayor en las zonas con no mucho (0-25%)

tierra, materia orgánica muerta, y otros. Sin embargo, la vegetación verde sobre los grupos se

mostró de no ser significativo. Los resultados de chi² para las características de calidad del área

demostraron una alta correlación de la frecuencia de los grupos de heces con moderadamente

baja (26-50%) vegetación y sombra.

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Característica Numero de grupos Proporción Valor p

Calidad del cubierto de suelo

Suelo

0-25% 23 0.92

<0.001* 26%-50% 1 0.04

51-75% 0 0

76-100% 1 0.04

Hojarasca/ vegetación muerta

0-25% 12 0.48

0.0186* 26%-50% 6 0.24

51-75% 3 0.12

76-100% 4 0.16

Vegetación Verde

0-25% 4 0.16

0.4201 26%-50% 7 0.28

51-75% 6 0.24

76-100% 8 0.32

Otro

0-25% 25 1

<0.001* 26%-50% 0 0

51-75% 0 0

76-100% 0 0

Calidad del Área

Vegetacion Densa

0-25% 7 0.28

0.0012* 26%-50% 12 0.48

51-75% 2 0.08

76-100% 4 0.16

Sombra

0-25% 8 0.32

0.0017* 26%-50% 11 0.44

51-75% 2 0.08

76-100% 4 0.16

Cuadro 2. Resumen de la analisis de la prueba de chi² de la correlacion entre características de la

cobierta del suelo y la calidad del area con la frecuencia de heces fecales. Resultados

significantes son marcados con un asterisco (*) α = 0.05

Análisis de la Literatura

La revisión de la literatura de estudios anteriores relacionados con el hábitat y el

comportamiento del venado demostraron resultados repetitivos. Hemos clasificado los resultados

de esos estudios en 6 categorías diferentes para ilustrar diferentes comportamientos del venado

en relación con su hábitat. Estas categorías son las siguientes: a) la preferencia de hábitat y su

variabilidad b) el comportamiento de agrupación c) la evitación de depredadores, d) la

comunicación y la territorialidad, e) los comportamientos durante cambios de hábitat y f) los

efectos del comportamiento del venado sobre su hábitat.

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a) Preferencia de hábitat y su variabilidad

El venado a cola blanca es una especie que demuestra una fuerte fidelidad a ciertas áreas.

Así tienen rangos de hogar específicos donde individuales se mantendrán. Estos rangos se han

demostrado ser muy estables a través del tiempo (Gavin et al. 1984, Larson et al. 1978). Sin

embargo, como los venados ocupan una amplia gama de hábitats, seguramente hay algunas

variaciones en su comportamiento en cada uno de estos hábitats (Hirth 1977). Por ejemplo, en el

norte y el este de América del Norte, este animal ocupan los bosques de coníferas y bosques

caducifolios pero claros del bosques se han demostrado ser un componente importante de su

entorno (McCaffery and Creed 1969). En el oeste y el sudoeste de América del Norte, ocupan

más frecuentemente áreas abiertas. Comúnmente se alimentan en grandes llanuras y las regiones

de sabana. Más tarde, vuelven en áreas con más vegetación y cubierta durante los períodos de

inactividad (Hirth 1977). Las formas rangos de hogar frecuentados y las partes de esos rangos

que son los más utilizados varían de acuerdo con los recursos disponibles (por ejemplo,

alimentos), la cobertura del suelo, la edad y el sexo, la topografía y la presencia de otros

individuos territoriales (Rongstad and Tester 1969, Carbaugh et al 1975; Larson et al,. 1978

Gavin et al., 1984). Debido al hecho que los venados requieren una gran variedad de hábitats

para diferentes usos, sus rangos de hogar se superponen entre los diferentes hábitats, y así es

considerado como una "especie de borde" (Alverson et al. 1988).

Estudios anteriores sobre los índices de frecuencia de los venados (pistas, observaciones

visuales, heces fecales, seguimiento por radio) también han mostrado patrones entre las zonas

abiertas y zonas boscosas. Esos patrones son similares a los que encontramos en nuestra área de

bosque maduro que está cubierta de bosques y la área de reforestación en P.N.M., que está

compuesto en su mayoría de espacio abierto. Varios estudios han demostrado que los signos de

venados eran más comunes en áreas abiertas con pocos árboles que en las zonas forestales

(Carbaugh et al 1975; Kearny y Gilbert, 1976) Sin embargo, como señaló Carbaugh et al. (1975),

si no hay signos de venados en una área, no significa que no utilizan el hábitat, sino que sugieren

un uso diferente del ese hábitat. Por ejemplo, en un estudio en Ossabaw Island, Georgia, EE.UU,

las estimaciones de la varianza en la abundancia de forrajeo a lo largo de transectos eran más

frecuentes en los áreas abiertas y praderas, pero la variación espacial relativa a lo largo de

transectos fue mayor en el bosque (LaGory 1986). Del mismo modo, Suring and Vohs (1979)

demostraron que los venados a cola blanca de la población en el estado de Washington tuvieron

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mayores porcentajes de inactividad (comportamiento de descanso) y de movimiento en el bosque

que en zonas que no son boscosas y mayor porcentaje de la alimentación en zonas que no son

boscosas con alimentación disponible. Además, esos autores, y Gavin et al. (1984) encontraron

que las comunidades vegetales que estuvieron utilizadas con más frecuencia por los venados eran

las que proporcionaban tanto el forraje como la cubierta. En el estudio de Suring y Vohs (1979),

a pesar del hecho de que el uso del hábitat mayor se presentó en dos de las comunidades de los

bosques, forrajeo era relativamente raro. Estos estudios sugieren que no se puede necesariamente

utilizar los métodos de seguimiento de las frecuencias de los venados para comparar diferentes

hábitats y atribuirlos al comportamiento de uso de hábitat.

Otros estudios también han comparado los índices de frecuencia de venados a cola blanca

con diferentes características de bosques. Se ha demostrado que el dosel de los árboles tiene una

relación con la presencia de venados. Suring y Vohs (1979) demostraron la preferencia por las

comunidades forestales en su área de estudio, especialmente en otoño, invierno y primavera. El

venado busca refugio cerca de arbustos y troncos de árboles de gran tamaño. La explicación de

los autores sugiere es a causa de la reducción de la pérdida de calor que se produce en el dosel de

los árboles puede haber atraído a esos animales durante estas épocas del año. Las especies de

árboles que ocupan la superficie forestal también tuvieron correlaciones con las frecuencias de

venados. Sage et al. (1983) estuvieron capaces de encontrar una prueba más significativa de la

frecuencia de los venados en los bosques leñosos en vez de los bosques de coníferos. Del mismo

modo, en una comparación entre diferentes plantas herbáceas, Carbaugh et al. (1975) demostró

que las especies de trébol atrajeron a los venados, más que la mayoría de otras especies de

hierba.

Aunque como se ha demostrado que los venados a cola blanca a menudo tienen fidelidades

fuertes de ciertos hábitats, entre los estudios analizados, varios de ellos destacaron la variabilidad

de esta preferencia a diversas escalas. La hora del día influenza los áreas que son las más

frecuentemente visitadas por el venado. Muchos investigadores han observado que esta especie

de venado es más activa al amanecer y al atardecer (Carbaugh et al,. 1975; Hirth 1977; Beier and

McCullough 1990). Por ejemplo, Carbaugh et al. (1975) y Beier and McCullough (1990) observó

un patrón de uso con tipos de vegetación cubierta durante el día y las de tipo abierto en el

crepúsculo, durante la noche y el amanecer. Los resultados de Carbaugh et al. (1975) y Schmitz

(1991) sugirió que el venado forraje durante el amanecer, el atardecer y la noche en áreas

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abiertas y la elección del hábitat y el tiempo de la alimentación están relacionados con las

condiciones térmicas y la visibilidad de los alrededores. En una escala más grande, las estaciones

también desempeñan un papel en las preferencias de hábitat y el comportamiento relacionado, en

su mayoría debido a la disponibilidad estacional de los recursos (por ejemplo, alimentos), y

refugio contra diferentes temperaturas y climas. Ha habido varios estudios en América del Norte

sobre la variación estacional del uso de hábitat y de la preferencia, debido a las diferentes

estaciones y condiciones climáticas. El venado a cola blanca prefiere microclimas y recursos

diferentes ofrecidos por los diferentes hábitats y especies de vegetación en función de la

temporada (Kearny y Gilbert, 1976; Suring y Vohs 1979). Por ejemplo, al principio de la

primavera, hay una preferencia por las áreas abiertas, porque estas zonas producen vegetación

primero (debido a la incidencia de la luz solar directa). Durante el invierno hay una preferencia

para sitios forestales cubiertos (Kearny and Gilbert 1976). En la investigación preformada por

Larson et al. (1978), el venado en su área de estudio mostró una disminución en el uso de los

pantanos hasta la primavera y esto probablemente el resultado de una mayor disponibilidad de

alimentos en los campos y bosques de montaña (porque la nieve ha derretido). También, los

viajes de noche del pantano hasta los campos alrededor se han reducido durante los períodos de

fuertes vientos y temperaturas excesivamente bajas. Estos dos factores: el tiempo del día y de la

estacionalidad también pueden tener una influencia sinérgica sobre la preferencia de los venados

a algunos hábitats (Rongstad and Tester 1969). Por ejemplo, Larson et al. (1978) que estudió

venados a cola blanca en el municipio de Lewiston en el sur del estado de Wisconsin, EE. UU.,

incluyó un pantano y las tierras agrícolas alrededor en su estudio. Demostró que el uso de tres

tipos de hábitat disponibles para los venados varía con la estacionalidad, así como la hora del día.

Durante el día el pantano es el hábitat el más utilizado a lo largo del estudio. Casi 90% de todas

las localidades durante el día se encontraban en el pantano, pero en enero eso disminuyó

gradualmente hasta mayo. El uso del pantano empezó a crecer de nuevo desde otoño hasta un

uso más frecuente en la mitad del invierno. Durante la noche, los venados mostraron una

disminución del uso del pantano y un aumento de uso del campo. Durante el otoño, algunos

venados descansaban durante el día en los campos de maíz en los que se alimentaban por la

noche. El género también ha sido destacado en varios estudios sobre la variación de la

preferencia de hábitats (Kie y Bowyer 1999). Beier y McCullough (1990) vio que los machos

hacían un gran uso de bosques densos y las mujeres utilizaban los bosques abiertos y pastizales.

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Esto puede ser a causa de que las mujeres, especialmente aquellas que están embarazadas o con

sus cervatillos, los hábitats forestales proporcionan protección contra los depredadores (Aycrigg

and Forter 1997). Además, las mujeres embarazadas tienden a ser más solitarias, secretas (Gavin

et al. 1984) y están más frecuentes en las zonas boscosas. También se ha observado que las

preferencias de hábitat de los machos y las mujeres varían según la estación y también con la

densidad (por ejemplo, a causa de la competencia intra-específica) (Kie y Bowyer 1999)

b) Comportamiento de agrupación

Como en otras especies de ungulados, una de las características de las poblaciones de

venado a cola blanca es que demuestran un comportamiento de agrupación (Hirth1977).

Investigaciones anteriores muestran que los venados a cola blanca que ocupan bosques densos

tienden a encontrarse formando grupos matrilineales. Estos grupos se componen generalmente de

mujeres mayores, muchas veces con sus crías hembras (Hirth 1977; Aycrigg and Forter 1997).

La estructura de los grupos de venados fue analizada en estudios previos y ha sugerido que la

mayoría de los grupos eran matriarcales con tres o cuatro generaciones (Hawkins and Kilmstra

1970). El comportamiento de agrupación ha sido ampliamente estudiado en las comparaciones

entre áreas abiertas y zonas boscosas. Los grupos de venado se han demostrado de ser más

grande en áreas abiertas (LaGory 1986). Por ejemplo, Hirth (1977) , en un estudio comparativo

entre regiones de sabana arbustiva con áreas de cobertura densa y grandes extensiones de

espacios abiertos con relativamente densa cubierta y pequeñas áreas abiertas, encontró que la

sabana tenía gran figuras multifamiliales: grupos de hembras con un macho dominante, cuando

la área de cobertura tenía su mayoría machos solteros y mujeres solteras. La explicación de este

comportamiento es la cubierta da protección contra los depredadores. Para los ungulados

silvestres, las especies que ocupan grandes extensiones de bosques densos con un montón de

apertura tienden a vivir solos o en pequeños grupos y en los terrenos abiertos con poca cobertura,

ungulados aparecen en grupos grandes para detectar fácilmente los depredadores (Hirth1977).

Cuando el ciervo frecuente los dos tipos de hábitat, hay cambios en el comportamiento de

agrupación también. El comportamiento de agrupación permite reducir la vigilancia en espacios

abiertos, que permite a las demás individuales a tener más tiempo para otras actividades como la

alimentación (LaGory 1986). También este tipo de asociación sugiere también que individuales

pueden aumentar su capacidad de localizar fuentes de alimentos (LaGory 1986). Como tal,

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calidad de los alimentos, la abundancia y dispersión también influyen el tamaño de los grupos de

ungulados (Hirth 1977; LaGory 1986) Además, estos factores no sólo varían entre las zonas

abiertas y zonas boscosas, pero pueden variar a dentro de las propias áreas. LaGory (1986)

señala en su estudio que la agrupación ofrece a los venados beneficios contra los depredadores

en todos los hábitats, porque hubo una reducción de tiempo en que el venado debe estar alerto

con el aumento del tamaño del grupo. Sin embargo, para grupos más pequeños se ven

favorecidos en la densa vegetación, por ejemplo, los individuos interfieran con cada unos durante

el comportamiento de alimentación. Por el contrario, la competencia debería ser reducida y la

cohesión del grupo era más fácil de mantenerse cuando la comida es más uniformemente

dispersada. Asimismo, las fuentes de alimento abundante son típicas de zonas abiertas (Hirth

1977; LaGory 1986). Además, los grupos pueden ser más pequeños en las zonas boscosas,

porque los individuales tienen más dificultades para mantener el contacto con los otros

individuales del grupo debido a la vegetación densa (LaGory 1986). Una característica particular

del comportamiento de agrupación que se ha comparado en zonas boscosas y abiertas. Eso es la

distancia entre cada individuo del grupo. LaGory (1986) determino que la variación temporal de

las distancias entre vecino eran mayores en el bosque que en los pastizales abiertos. Además, la

intensidad del comportamiento de agrupación también se ha demostrado que varía según la

estación y entre los sexos, incluso dentro de la misma zona (Hawkins y Kilmstra 1970; LaGory

1986). Por ejemplo, durante la temporada aduladora, mujeres tienden a aislarse socialmente de

todos otros individuos (Hawkins y Kilmstra 1970). El comportamiento de huyendo se ha

estudiado también dentro de los grupos en áreas boscosas (LaGory 1987) y demostró que los

grupos más grandes en los bosques eran más propensos a huir de los grupos más pequeños. Los

alrededores en un hábitat influenza la relación bidireccional entre huir y agruparse.

c) La evitación de depredadores

Como fue discutido previamente, el comportamiento para evitar los depredadores, (huir), se

asocia con el comportamiento de agrupación, y no sólo es afectado por agrupación, pero también

por el hábitat. Kie y Bowyer (1990) cuenta en su estudio que mujeres con jóvenes prefieren estar

en la cubierta densa de árboles cuando se encontraban en grupos de tamaño moderado,

probablemente debido al comportamiento contra los depredadores. El venado solitario es más

vulnerable en áreas abiertas debido a su exposición obvia, pueden ser más vulnerables en una

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espesa vegetación porque su visibilidad está reducida. Pueden ser especialmente prudentes

cuando busquen alimentos en zonas de baja visibilidad, como las zonas boscosas, ya que tienen

mayores posibilidades de ser emboscados por depredadores (LaGory 1986). En consecuencia,

distancia a la cual huyen ha demostrado ser significativamente mayor en las zonas forestales que

en las zonas abiertas. Los venados en los bosques parecían compensar este aumento en la

sensación de peligro huyendo incluso cuando un depredador se observó a una distancia mayor o

igual a 100 m (LaGory 1986). LaGory (1986) señaló que los venados que se encuentran en

pastos abiertos pasan más tiempo buscando alimento, menos tiempo moviéndose, y menos

tiempo en alerta que los venados del bosque denso. Venados en el pastizal arbolado (hábitat

intermedio entre una pastura abierta y forestales) se encontró que un porcentaje medio de tiempo

de forrajeando en comparación con zonas abiertas y zonas boscosas. Este comportamiento es

más similar a los venados pasto abierto para el porcentaje de tiempo dedicado a la alimentación y

mucho más similar al comportamiento en el bosque para el porcentaje de tiempo dedicado a estar

alertas (LaGory 1986). No hay que olvidar que debido al hecho que el comportamiento de

agrupación también impacta el comportamiento de huirse, grupos más grandes tienen más

probabilidades de detectar un depredador que grupos más pequeños y por tanto son más

propensos a huir (LaGory 1987).

d) La comunicación y la territorialidad

Las interacciones entre los individuos de una población de venados dependen sobre la

comunicación a través de olores y marcas visuales. La producción de olor y su senso de

olfacción se utilizan para facilitar la comunicación intra-específica. Con el uso de la orina, por

ejemplo, que es señal que puede decir algo sobre la condición jerárquica, la comunicación a los

rivales potenciales, la condición reproductiva o para el reconocimiento de otro individual (Miller

1997). Además, los machos a menudo se frotan las astas para dejar rasguños sobre los árboles o

la pata sobre el suelo para marcar su territorio. Algunos análisis han demostrado que la presencia

de algunas especies de árboles fue correlacionada con este tipo de marcas (Kile y Marchinton

1977). Por ejemplo, los venados machos, en un estudio de Kile y Marchinton (1977), mostraron

frecuencias significativas de frotamiento en los tipos de vegetación que eran lisas, pero evitaban

los que son demasiado duros. Así, los machos son selectivos en su selección de especies de

árboles en que marcarán su territorio. Ejemplos de ciertas cualidades que mostraron ser factores

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significativos eran textura de la corteza de los árboles, patrones de las ramas, y circunferencias.

También hubo pruebas de que la calidad aromática del árbol también está involucrada en la

selección, como los pinos y el cerezo negro eran las especies más escogidos por sus valores

aromáticas (Kile y Marchinton 1977). Selección de hábitat también se observó cuando las

distribuciones raspar estuvieron relacionados con algunos tipos de vegetación (Kile y

Marchinton 1977). Los rasguños se encuentran principalmente en los sitios de sotobosque con

relativamente poca vegetación, en lugares abiertos, e incluso en las ramas de árbol (Kile y

Marchinton 1977). En su estudio, los autores también mostraron que los venados mostraron

fidelidad a los mismos lugares cada año durante el comportamiento de frotamiento. Eso indica la

importancia del lugar de su elección demarcas territoriales. Aunque machos son fieles a algunas

áreas, la intensidad a la cual ellos marcan su territorio puede variar según la estación (Kile y

Marchinton 1977). Mujeres también demuestran un tipo de comportamiento de territorialidad

(Gavin et al. 1984). Eso sugiere que estos comportamientos de territorialidad no son basados en

el género. Para ampliar esta idea, ya que estas comunicaciones también sirven para atraer a su

pareja, el hábitat entonces también tiene un impacto indirecto sobre el comportamiento de

apareamiento (Kile y Marchinton 1977).

El comportamiento agresivo, que también puede variar según las estaciones debido a la

presión de apareamiento (Kile y Marchinton 1977), juega un papel clave en las interacciones

intra-específicas y las comunicaciones entre los individuos. Se ha demostrado a través de algunos

estudios que las tasas de los comportamientos agresivos también varían entre diferentes hábitats

(Hirth 1977; LaGory 1986). En el estudio de LaGory (1986), los comportamientos más agresivos

se observaron en los pastos, y las conductas menos agresivas se observaron en las zonas

forestales. Del mismo modo, en el estudio de Hirth (1977) de comparación del comportamiento

de agresión entre la Reserva George y el Refugio de Welder, las interacciones agresivas eran 10-

100 veces más alta en la reserva de George, que era una zona de densa cobertura relativamente

pequeña pero con zonas abiertas (en comparación con el Refugio de Welder que es una región de

sabana arbustiva con áreas de cobertura densa y grandes extensiones de espacios abiertos). El

alto nivel de agresión era probablemente a causa de pequeños grupos en la Reserva de George.

Los grandes áreas abiertos en Welder permitió menos agresión y probablemente permitió a

grandes grupos de formar (Hirth 1977).

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e) Los comportamientos durante cambios de hábitat

Como indicado previamente, venados a cola blanca ocupan una gran cantidad de tipos de

hábitat. Esa especie es muy adaptable y también tiene otros atributos físicos que les permite

prosperar en zonas urbanas, así como en el áreas silvestres (De Nicola et al. 2000), como en el

Parque Natural Metropolitano, por ejemplo. Un estudio en particular sobre los venados a cola

negra en el noroeste del Pacífico hizo por Crouch (1976) examino los efectos de la deforestación

y la reforestación en las poblaciones de venados. Los investigadores forestales y administradores

dieron la conclusión que los venados a cola negra responden a cambios en el bosque de manera

previsible (Lawrence 1969; Resler 1972).

Las poblaciones aumentan si el dosel denso de los bosques se quema (naturalmente por

los incendios forestales o artificialmente). Tienden a disminuir cuando los bosques se regeneren

y maduran (Crouch, 1976). El aumento de la población durante eventos de deforestación es

debido al hecho que producción y abundancia de alimentos aumenta en estas áreas (Crouch,

1976). Es interesante notar que el autor también afirma que la reforestación dentro de estas áreas

a menudo es difícil debido a la conducta de navegación daños por el venado de cola negro.

Aunque ese estudio fue conducido sobre una especie diferente de venado, podemos predecir que

el venado a cola blanca puede reaccionar de la misma manera a la deforestación y reforestación.

f) Los efectos del comportamiento del venado sobre su hábitat.

Como concluyó Crouch (1976), los venados tienen un impacto fuerte en su hábitat. Hay

una grande interacción entre ese animal y las comunidades de plantas, y eso afecta

considerablemente su distribución y su abundancia, y eso puede variar espacialmente y

temporalmente (Rooney y Waller 2002). Como tal, los venados son considerados especies

claves, por qué pueden reestructurar completamente comunidades ecológicas (Rooney y Waller

2002). También hay que señalar que debido a que esos animales son especies que se pueden

encontrar en una grande gama de hábitats, su impacto en las comunidades de plantas puede ser

considerable (Alverson et al. 1988). Como venados tienen alimentación preferencial en algunas

plantas y así, evitan otras, y porque algunas plantas tienen protección contra la herbívora, y

algunas no, ello puede alterar la capacidad de competitividad relativa de las plantas dentro de una

comunidad (DeNicola et al; 2.000 Rooney y Waller 2002). Por ejemplo, las plantas evitadas por

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los venados y / o capaces de defenderse de los herbívoros tienen ventajas competitivos sobre las

plantas preferidas por los venados y / o que no pueden defenderse (Rooney y Waller 2002). Así,

particularmente en especies de árboles, el forrajeo por los venados puede ralentizar la

regeneración local normal. El forrajeo puede también disminuir el tiempo normal que toma a

plantas que tienen defensas contra herbívoros para dominar el bosque (DeNicola et al 2000;

Rooney y Waller 2002). La regeneración puede ser gravemente perturbada durante eventos

regulares de forrajeo. Eso puede crear cambios a la densidad del dosel del bosque y también a la

densidad de plántulas e indirectamente favorecer hierbas, juncos y helechos que compiten contra

y inhiben el crecimiento de las plántulas de árboles (Rooney y Waller 2002). Rooney y Waller

(2002) demostraron en su estudio que el forrajeo por los venados aumenta las especies de

coníferos, de arboles caducos y enseguida, disminuya la diversidad en la comunidad de hierbas

del sotobosque. Otras plantas como helechos, hierbas, juncias y juncos se convirtieron en

especies dominantes en esa área. Estudios realizados en recintos y encuestas sobre las

poblaciones revelaron que densidades tantas bajas como 4 venados/km 2 puede impedir la

regeneración de las especies leñosas comunes (Alverson et al. 1988). Claramente, las hierbas

también pueden ser más vulnerables por múltiples razones. Con el forrajeo constante, ninguna

puede crecer hasta tamaños suficientes y también no pueden tener una reproducción exitosa.

(Rooney y Waller 2002). Por otra parte, todos esos impactos del forrajeo pueden también alterar

la estructura de la vegetación por cambio de microclimas, así como los ciclos de nutrientes y

otras características del ecosistema (Rooney y Waller 2002). Esto también tiene efectos

indirectos sobre las comunidades vegetales y otras especies de animales través de interacciones

de la cadena alimentaria (Rooney y Waller 2002). Es importante de decir que problemas

asociados con grandes concentraciones de venados a cola blanca se acentúan en las zonas

metropolitanas, como en el Parque Natural Metropolitano, donde los grupos están aislados por el

desarrollo urbano. Por eso, sus efectos son amplificados dentro de estas áreas naturales.

Discusión

Comparación de los Frecuencias en el Área Reforestado y de Bosque Maduro

De nuestro análisis estadístico, aunque se encontró que el 80% de los grupos de heces

eran en el área reforestado, comparando el promedio log de grupos de heces por kilómetro entre

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el área de bosque maduro y en la zona reforestada, el valor-p de los datos fue sólo ligeramente

superior (0,015) al valor de umbral de α = 0,05. Esos resultados contradicen estudios previos que

han comparado la frecuencia de los indicadores de venados en diferentes hábitats y que han

encontrado que esos índices eran más comunes en áreas abiertas que en áreas boscosas.

(Carbaugh et al 1975; Kearny y Gilbert, 1976). Considerando que la prueba t se realizó con los

promedios de sólo dos rondas de observaciones en cada sitio, es muy probable que el tamaño de

la muestra no fue suficiente para detectar resultados significativos o insignificanticos claros en

los datos. Por otra parte, porque el área está siendo reforestada, es posible que la transformación

de esta zona en un área boscosa esté influyendo en la reducción del número de signos de

venados. Esos datos se parecen a esos de estudios que han indicado que los pastos leñosos tienen

una concentración media de signos y comportamientos de los venados (LaGory 1986). También,

porque en el Parque Natural Metropolitano no hay censo anterior del tamaño de la población o la

densidad de venados dentro de estas dos áreas de estudio, no hay referencia para comparar las

áreas. Como venados a cola blanca también demuestran fidelidades fuertes para ciertos hábitats y

áreas dentro de esos hábitats (LaGory 1986), esto también ha podido haber afectado los

resultados del estudio por que las frecuencias de referencia de estas áreas eran desconocidas.

En el 76% de los grupos de heces que se concentraron en la esquina sureste de la zona de

reforestación, es posible de que existe alguna característica en esta zona que se correlaciona con

el uso de los venados. Esta parte de la zona de reforestación es única comparativamente al resto

de la zona de reforestación porque contiene la mayoría de la densidad de árboles en la zona (Fig.

6).Estudios anteriores han demostrado que el uso por los venados no es comúnmente localizado

en el centro de espacios abiertos, pero en lugares donde los venados pueden encontrar protección

cerca del borde de la zona abierta, particularmente si hay una área boscosa adyacente (Kearny y

Gilbert, 1976; Suring y Vohs 1979). Como se mencionó anteriormente, los usos y preferencias

de hábitat de los venados a cola blanca pueden variar a través de diferentes estaciones del año

(Kearny y Gilbert, 1976; Larson et. Al 1978; Suring y Vohs 1979). Como tal, los resultados de

esta investigación deben estar considerados con precaución cuando hacemos la predicción de

comportamientos y usos durante el año. Además, las irregulares particularidades del clima de

este año pueden haber afectado los resultados debido a la intensa y anormalmente larga

temporada húmeda. Eso pudo haber tenido impactos directos o indirectos en las poblaciones de

mamíferos (Letnic et al. 2005)

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Usos y Comportamientos asociados actuales en el Area Reforestado y de Bosque Maduro

En la actualidad, el área de reforestación es sobre todo espacio abierto, con algunos

árboles pequeños y árboles más grandes. La mayor densidad de reforestación se puede encontrar

en el lado sur del área. Con la revisión de la literatura, es evidente que las áreas abiertas a

menudo ofrecen oportunidades de alimentación para la población de venados. Por lo tanto, la

hipótesis de que los venados del P.N.M. tienen un uso similar de la zona reforestada. La

alimentación también puede explicar por qué el 80% de los grupos heces fecales se encontraron

en el área reforestada. Además, estudios anteriores han demostrado que los venados

alimentándose en las zonas abiertas se mantuvieron no más lejos de 50 metros fuera del bosque

cubierto (Hirth 1977) Eso también explica la concentración de heces en la parte dicha de la zona

de reforestación con árboles de mayores densidades. Esto es compatible con los datos que tienen

correlaciones significativas con ciertas características de la zona como la cobertura del suelo y la

cualidad del área. En particular, nuestros datos apoyan los resultados de Kearny y Gilbert (1976)

y de Suring y Vohs (1979), que encontraron una correlación significativa con cualidades de las

áreas que son intermedias entre un espacio abierto y un área reforestada. En contraste, el área de

bosque maduro, aunque hubo una falta de evidencia de signos de venados, debe notarse que la

falta de señales no implica que no utilizan el hábitat, sino que sugieren un uso diferente de este

hábitat (Carbaugh et. al 1975). Estudios anteriores han destacado que las áreas forestales a

menudo proporcionan cubierta contra depredadores durante el reposo durante el día hasta la

noche cuando transitan para ir alimentarse en áreas abiertas (Carbough et al;. 1975 Schmitz,

1991). Por lo tanto, es supuesto que el área de bosque maduro ofrece oportunidades similares a la

población de venados en el P.N.M. Pistas de venados también se encontraban comúnmente en el

área de bosque maduro, a menudo en lugares específicos como en patrones que se parecían a

pequeños senderos. Sin embargo, debido al hecho que el suelo no era muy bien expuesto en el

área de reforestación, el aumento de encuentros de las pistas de venados puede haber sido por la

simple razón que era más fácil de ver pistas en el área de bosque maduro.

La diferencia de frecuencias de algunos comportamientos de venados entre las dos áreas

puede ser explicada más que por la alimentación y el movimiento. También puede ser que los

árboles en el área reforestada ofrecen una oportunidad para marcas específicas durante

comportamientos de territorialidad. Aunque no obvios rasguños estuvieron encontrados en los

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árboles, porque su encuentra no figuraban en nuestros objetivos de investigación, marcas

individuales se observaron en el suelo y podrían ser el resultado de comportamiento territorial.

Se sugiere a través del estudio de Beier y McCullough (1990) que el área de bosque maduro

también podía ser utilizada con más frecuencia por los venados machos que mujeres. Además el

comportamiento de agrupación también puede ser mayor en la área de reforestación que en la

área de bosque maduro, con distancias más largas entre individuos en la área de reforestación

como investigaciones previas mostraron (grupos de venados son más grandes en áreas abiertas)

(Hirth 1977; Kie y Bowyer 1999). El comportamiento para evitar los depredadores, como huir,

se supone de ocurrir a distancias más largas dentro del bosque maduro porque la cubierta densa

reduce la visibilidad de los venados que deben tener estar más alertas (Kie y Bower, 1990;

LaGory 1987). Los comportamientos agresivos también se esperan a frecuencias más altas en el

área de reforestación que en la zona de bosque maduro, con base en los resultados de LaGory

(1986) y estudios comparativos de Hirth (1977) en espacios abiertos y zonas boscosas.

También se presume que la frecuencia actual y los usos del área de bosque maduro y de

reforestación varían con edades y sexos de los venados, así como diariamente y también sobre

una escala temporal. Por razones anteriormente mencionadas, casi todos los comportamientos

analizados tienen estas variaciones, de manera indirecta o directas, a diferentes escalas de

variaciones dentro de su hábitat (Rongstad y Tester 1969, Hawkins y Kilmstra 1970; Carbough

et al;. 1975 Kearny y Gilbert, 1976; Hirth 1977; Kile y Marchinton 1977; Suring y Vohs 1979;

Gavin et al. 1994; LaGory 1986; Beier y McCullough 1990; Kie y Bower, 1990).

Predicciones de los Impactos de Reforestacion sobre el Comportamiento

Mientras el proyecto de reforestación continuará en P.N.M., se puede suponer que el

comportamiento de los venados también va a cambiar y así como sus usos de las áreas abiertas y

zonas boscosas. El tamaño del hábitat, la variación de la fidelidad, los comportamientos, las

frecuencias de venados pueden cambiar a medida que los recursos, beneficios y peligros,

cambian con el crecimiento de la reforestación. También es importante recordar de nuevo que el

comportamiento varía en muchas escalas temporales, entre los géneros y individualmente. Los

cambios que se esperan dentro de estas áreas de reforestación, con base en el análisis de la

literatura, son:

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1) disminución del comportamiento de forrajeo y aumentación del uso de la cobertura contra los

depredadores y para el tránsito hasta áreas de forrajeo

2) disminución del tamaño del grupo y aumentación la distancia entre los individuos en los

grupos

3) aumentación del uso de estas áreas por los machos, menos por las mujeres y los cervatillos

4) una mayor vigilancia dentro de estas áreas y una mayor distancia de huir cuando vean

depredadores

5) cambios en frecuencias de venados y frecuencias de diferentes tipos de marcas (por ejemplo,

disminución de rasguños)

6) Aumento de la frecuencia de la conducta agresiva.

Aunque los estudios de casos anteriores sobre los cambios en poblaciones de venados son

predecibles a través de zonas de deforestación y reforestación (Crouch, 1979), es difícil predecir

la dirección del cambio en el comportamiento de ciertos comportamientos, debido a la

características desconocidas y/ o su relación con el comportamiento. Por ejemplo, porque no hay

pruebas de que el comportamiento de frotamiento para la territorialidad depende de las especies

de árboles disponibles, es difícil determinar si habrá un aumento o una disminución en este

comportamiento. No ha habido ningún estudio sobre la relación de las especies seleccionadas

para la reforestación y comportamiento de territorialidad. También es importante de señalar que

el proyecto de reforestación implica una gran cantidad de mantenimiento humano (Amelia

Muñoz de Batista, comunicación personal, 26/03/2011). La presencia humana se ha demostrado

negativa sobre los venados, que disminuyen sus visitas a estas zonas. Eso puede alterar su

comportamiento (Jones y Witham, 1990). Por ejemplo, el venado, con un encuentro con seres

humanos puede reducir la distancia a la cual huyen porque se habitúan a su presencia. (Jones y

Witham 1990) Eso es el oposito del cambio esperado con el crecimiento de la área de

reforestación. Este ejemplo muestra una otra dimensión de los factores que aumentan la

dificultad de predecir los efectos de esta área sobre el comportamiento de los venados. Además,

como se ha indicado anteriormente, porque esos animales viven una relación bi-direccional con

su hábitat (Crouch 1976), los impactos de la reforestación es más difícil de predecir. La

reforestación puede no ocurrir según lo que fue predicho o deseado por los administradores. El

estudio de caso en el noroeste del Pacífico hizo por Crouch (1976) enfatizo que la reforestación

es a menudo obstaculizada por la presencia de venados. Además, como los venados tienen la

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Payette and Tran 2011 83

capacidad de reorganizar su entorno (Rooney y Waller 2002), es difícil de predecir y proyectar

las características de la reforestación que también impactan el uso del hábitat por el venado y su

comportamiento.

Este estudio estuvo limitado por el tiempo. Teníamos solo 4 meses para establecer la

investigación y luego recoger datos. Estos resultados podrían haber sido más significativos y

poderosos si el estudio había sido repetido más veces y en una escala de tiempo más grande.

Además, comparando la frecuencia de los venados en otros tipos de ambientes en el parque, tales

las alturas e inclinaciones, podría ayudarnos a entender mejor el uso de los diferentes hábitats por

el venado. A medida que el proyecto de reforestación se expande y crece, también eso hará un

efecto sobre los venados. Usando este proyecto de investigación como punto de referencia, otros

estudios podrán llevarse con el fin de investigar la relación y el impacto de la reforestación en el

comportamiento de los venados. En comparación con los datos de referencia, el cambio de uso

del hábitat por el venado puede ser registrado y analizado. Cualquier futuro en esta área puede

aumentar nuestro conocimiento de los patrones de uso de hábitat y tal vez los eventuales cambios

debido a la perturbación humana sobre los ecosistemas y, finalmente, ser capaz de predecir con

mayor precisión los resultados de dichas perturbaciones.

Agradecimientos

Nos gustaría dar las gracias, en primer lugar, a nuestra supervisor, Amelia Muñoz de

Batista, por sus sugerencias y su dirección a lo largo del proyecto. También para toda la ayuda

que nos ha dado para su logro. Además, nos gustaría dar las gracias a Elías Estrada, por su ayuda

y participación en el campo, así como a toda la gente del Parque Natural Metropolitano, que han

sido de gran ayuda a través de nuestra investigación. Realmente han hecho de este proyecto una

experiencia inolvidable.

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