Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks ... · Distribution of King Cobra in Northeastern India | Introduction King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the larg-est venomous

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOKFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Vol. XXXV : No. 4

Featuring

Vol. XXII : No. 4

October-December 2008

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relating to wildlife and national parksmanagement for theAsia-Pacific Region.ISSN 1014 - 2789

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Front cover: King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) (Photo: Manoj V.Nair)

The opinions expressed by thecontributing authors are notnecessarily those of FAO. Thedesignations employed and thepresentation of the material in theTIGERPAPER do not imply theexpression of any opinion on the partof FAO concerning the legal orconstitutional status of any country,territority or sea area, or thedelimitation of frontiers.

Distribution of King Cobra in Northeastern India.............… 1Status and Various Uses of Invasive Alien Plant Species..... 6Man-Wildlife Interaction: Understanding the Concept of Conservation Ethics in Papua...................................... 10Crop Raiding Pattern by Migratory Elephants in South West Bengal.................................................................. 13Pong Lake - An International Ramsar Site in Need of Management Intervention............................................... 15Study of Some Medicinal Plants Found in Dudhwa NP......... 23Nest and Nidification Activities of the Spoonbill in Western Ghat Region of Shimoga, Karnataka................................. 28

Meeting the challenge of timber legality verification............ 1Harmonizing reporting on forests and forestry.................... 5New project to support enterprise development in Philippine forest communities.....................................................… 6Findings and recommendations from the “Enhancing sustainable forest harvesting in Asia” project................... 7Forest recovery in abandoned grassland with ANR (Assisted Natural Regeneration) in the Philippines........................... 10RAP forestry staff movement............................................ 14Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips................................. 15FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar………………............... 16

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Vol. 35: No. 4 Oct-Dec 2008

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DISTRIBUTION OF KING COBRA (Ophiophagus hannah)IN NORTHEASTERN INDIA WITH NEW ALTITUDINALRECORD AND NOTES ON ITS HABITAT

by Abhijit Das, Manoj V. Nair, M. Firoz Ahmed and Pranjit K. Sharma

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Introduction

King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the larg-est venomous snake in the world, reaching to

a length of up to 5.85 m (Aagaard, 1924). Thismonotypic genus of the family Elapidae isconsidered as a species complex (Das, 2002).Being a large and conspicuous reptile, King cobrahas received scientific attention from variousperspectives since its first description (see Das andWhitaker, 1996). However, in comparison to theavailability of literature concerning its systematics,diet, general biology, husbandry, venom andenvenomation, there is a dearth of informationregarding its regional distributional locality records,which is a serious concern when planning outconservation strategies for the species.

Methods

The primary data used in the present study wascollected between 2002 and 2007 during the courseof our herpetological investigations at various placesin northeast India. An extensive literature surveywas done to extract the published distributionrecords available. Field records include directsightings of live individuals, freshly killedspecimens, skins, examination of museumspecimens and distinct color photographs of thespecies taken from the region. A Garmin 12-channelGPS was used to get the geo-coordinates of thelocalities. Based on these data, a distribution mapwas prepared and an attempt was made to compileand analyze the King cobra distribution in northeastIndia, based on the literature records as well asfield records.

Results of the literature survey

Globally, the species is distributed in India,Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, South

China, Macao, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia,Indonesia, Hong Kong, Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia, the Philippines, Singapore and Vietnam,(David and Vogel, 1996; Selich and Kestle, 2002).In India, the distribution range of the species isrecorded as Western Ghats, Uttar Pradesh (Terai),Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, northeast India andalso the Andaman Islands (Whittaker and Captain,2004).

It is regarded as widespread, but uncommon(David and Vogel, 1996). In its distributional range,the species is recorded from various habitat typessuch as lowland wet tropical forest, coastalrainforest, tropical and subtropical wet montaneforest, dry forest, swamps and marshes, mesicopen scrubland, plantation and cultivated areas,alluvial and terai grassland, mangrove swamps,open country and disturbed areas, and near humanhabitations (David and Vogel, 1996; Selich andKëstle, 2002; Leviton et al., 2003; Narayan andRosalind, 1989).

Due to the paucity of herpetological surveys carriedout in northeast India, exact distributionalinformation on even conspicuous herpetofaunalspecies is lacking. However, King cobra hassporadically been listed from different states ofnortheast India.

In Assam, the species has been reported fromDibrugarh, Tezpur, Margherita and North CacharHill district (Wall, 1909), Garbhanga ReservedForest (RF) and the Kulsi River side of KamrupDistrict (Sengupta et al., 2000; Mathew, 1983),Bansbari, Kasimdaha and the kuribeel grasslandof Manas National Park (Narayan and Rosalind,1989).

The literature record of the species from ArunachalPradesh includes one example from Chessa and

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two examples from around Itanagar (Borang etal., 2005). Athreya (2005) listed the species fromEagle Nest Wildlife Sanctuary and Pakke TigerReserve. Pawar and Birand (2001) confirmed thespecies in the primary forests of Nengpui NationalPark of Mizoram.

In Meghalaya, Wall (1908) reported the species fromGhat road below Shillong at 909 m (3, 000 ft) andone killed in Shillong bazaar. From the same state,Mathew (1983) reported the occurrence of thespecies from Umthan and Shillong woodlandcompound – both in the East Khasi hills.

Results of the present study

During the course of our herpetological field work(2002-2006) in different parts of northeast India,we came across new distributional localities of Kingcobra.

In Assam, the species was sighted in the Holalpathcamp area of Kaziranga National Park (KNP); onewas killed and one rescued from Panbari villageadjacent to Panbari RF; another was rescued froma fishery tank at Lakhojan Tea Estate. One freshlykilled male individual was recorded from DiringChariali. All reports were from the fringe areas ofKNP in Golaghat district of Assam.

Other locality records in Assam include one road-kill specimen on National Highway 37 passingthrough the semi-evergreen forest of NamborWildlife Sanctuary, one rescued from Guijan villageat the periphery of Dibru Saikhowa National Park,one sighting record from the evergreen forest edgeof Kakojan RF (Duarmara side) adjoining a teagarden, and one photographic record from Potasalicamp of Nameri Tiger Reserve. Similarly, tworescued individuals of the species were seen inBihara village of Cachar district, Assam.

In Arunachal Pradesh, we encountered the speciescrossing a trail in evergreen forest in Pangsu PassRF and one dead juvenile of the species was foundnear Rusa-Chopsa village RF, both in Tirap District.In the lower Dibang Valley districts, one of studyteam encountered the species while it was crossingthe Roing-Myodhia road. The vegetation on bothsides of the motor road is secondary evergreenforest in different stages of degradation. In the

same district we examined the skin of onespecimen from Koronu village, which hadreportedly been killed inside a bamboo forestbeside Mehao Nullah (stream) at the periphery ofMehao Wildlife Sanctuary.

One individual was encountered while basking ona rocky outcrop near a stream in Rottung, WestSiang district of Arunachal Pradesh.

Before the present study there were no localityrecords for King cobra from Nagaland state (seeAo et al., 2005). In November 2006, local villagersshowed us the skin of a freshly killed specimenfrom the outskirts of Khonoma village. Thisconstitutes the first scientific report of the speciesfrom Nagaland; however, the species is wellknown among local villagers who call it Nüga(Snake eater).

In Manipur, we came across a preserved specimenat Manipur Museum located at Imphal ZoologicalPark. The individual was collected from Moreh,situated at the India-Myanmar border.

Discussion

Habitat preferences

In Northeast India, King cobra was found tooccupy a wide variety of habitats. Out of a totalof 17 direct sightings, 6 were from primary wetevergreen and semi-evergreen forests, 3 fromsecondary evergreen forests, 2 from tall alluvialgrasslands, 6 from in and around humanhabitations, and 1 from mid-elevation broad-leaved forests. Thus, although it seems that thespecies is a generalist with a wide ecologicalamplitude, a more incisive analysis of the recordsindicate that the majority (76%) of the sightingshave been either inside or adjoining protectedareas with large, intact undisturbed forests andnot from small, degraded, fragmented forests. Itthus follows that conservation of the speciesrequires large contiguous tracts of forests withminimal biotic disturbance.

Altitudinal distribution

Regarding altitudinal distribution, an analysis ofthe records indicates that the species occupies a

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wide range of altitudinal zones, ranging from sea-level to high mountains. It has been recorded from150 m to 1,530 m in Nepal, and from sea level to1,800 m in Sumatra (Selich and Kestle; 2002; Davidand Vogel, 1996). Waltner (1972) mentioned aspecimen which he obtained from a site located atan altitude of 2,181 m at Mussoorie in 1967.During the present study, the lowest altitudereported for King cobra was at 40 m above sealevel at Bihara village of Cachar, Assam. Forty-one percent (N=7) of the recorded sightings wereat altitudes between 55-100 m, followed by 35%(N=6) between 100-500 m, and 11% (N=2)between 500-1,000 m (mid-elevation hills). It isworth mentioning that the highest altitude withrecorded sightings during this study was 1,700 mabove sea level at Khonoma, Nagaland, which isthe highest known altitudinal record withinnortheast Indian limits.

Threats to the species and conservation status

During the course of study, the following threatswere identified:

habitat destruction and fragmentation from lossof forest cover due to swidden cultivation andlogging;hunting, as King cobra meat is eaten in manyparts of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland;deaths by autos, especially on the nationalhighways passing through or along large forestpatches; andwanton killings by humans when sighted nearhabitations – especially when the serpentsventure out of degraded forests in the searchof better habitats.

Although the exact status of the species innortheastern India is not known, it is certain thatits numbers are dwindling rapidly due to large scaledestruction of its habitat. The existing protectedarea network no doubt holds the key to maintainingsafe and viable populations. But given thesubstantial areas of forested land under the directcontrol of local communities, any effective long-term conservation strategy has to focus on intensiveawareness campaigns and sensitization of localpeople towards the requirements of this magnificentreptile.

AcknowledgementsThe authors are grateful to the Departmentsof Forests and Environment of the Governmentsof Assam and Arunachal Pradesh forpermission to conduct the study. Thanks alsoto the Animal Ecology and Wildlife BiologyLab, Department of Zoology, GauhatiUniversity, Primate Research Center,Deshabandhu Club, Assam, and the KhonomaVillage Council, Nagaland, for financial andlogistical support respectively.

References:

Aagaard, C. J. 1924. Cobras and King Cobras.Nat. Hist. Bull Siam. Soc. 6:315-316.

Ao, J. M., David, P., Bordoloi, S. and A. Ohler.2004. Notes on a collection of snakes fromNagaland, northeast India, with nineteennew records for the state. Russian J. ofHerpetol. 11 (2): 155-162.

Athreya, R. 2005. Eagle nest BiodiversityProject. clsp.jhu.edu/people/zak/ramana

Das, I. 2002. A Photographic Guide to Snakesand Other Reptiles of India. New HollandPublishers Ltd., London, UK. 144 pp.

David, P, and G. Vogel. 1996. The Snakes ofSumatra: An Annotated Checklist andKey with Natural History Notes. EditionChimaira, Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany. 260pp., 33 col. photo

Leviton, A.E., Wogan, G.O.U., Koo, M.S., Zug,G.R., Lucas, R.S. & J.V. Vindum. 2003. Thedangerously venomous snakes ofMyanmar. Illustrated checklist with keys.Proc. of the California Acad. of Sci., 54(2), 407–462.

Mathew R. (1983) On a collection of snakesfrom northeast India (Reptilia-Serpentes). Records of Zool. Sur. of IndiaXII: 343-354.

Narayan, G., and L. Rosalind. 1989. King cobrain grassland; an unusual habitat. J. ofBombay Nat. His. Soc. Vol 87 (2): pp-309.

Pawar, S., and A. Birand. 2001. A Survey ofAmphibians, Reptiles, and Birds inNortheast India. CERC (Centre forEcological Research and Conservation),Technical Rept. 6. Mysore, India. 115 pp.

Selich, Hermann and Werner Kästle, EDS. 2002.Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal. A.R.G.

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Table I: Primary data locality records with details No.

Date Locality District & State Co-ordinates Altitude (m)

Habitat type Remarks

1 10/01/03 Roing-Mayodia Rd

Roing, Arunachal Pradesh

28° 13’N, 95° 50E

750 Secondary evergreen forest

Landscape dotted with jhum patches; very low human density.

2 20/04/05 Koronu Village Lower Dibang Valley, Arunachal Pradesh

28° 03.933’N,

95° 56.493” E

357 Secondary bamboo growth near stream

Killed and eaten.

3 02/11/05 Pangsu Pass

Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh

27° 14'50" N,

96°08'21" E

630 Wet evergreen forest

Encountered basking on an evergreen forest trail

4 13/07/05 Russa-Chopsa VRF

Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh

27°04.280N,

95°18.17 E,

230 Selectively logged evergreen forest

Juvenile killed

5 24/05/02 Eagerstream, Rottung

West Siang, Arunachal Pradesh

28°08.376’N,

95° 08.876’ E,

310 Rocky evergreen forest stream

Seen basking on a rocky outcrop

6 13/11/06 Nameri NP Tezpur, Assam 27° 00' N, 92°40'

-93° 00' E

110 Grassy patch near rocky river bed

Record from photograph by authority of Nameri eco camp.

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12/03/04 Kaziranga NP Nowgaon, Golaghat, Assam

26° 33'- 46'N,

92°55'- 93°40' E

55 Alluvial grassland with cane brakes

Encountered on a forest trail. It retreated inside the cane brake with a raised hood.

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27/05/04 Panbari village Golaghat, Assam

26° 37.334’N,

93° 32.395’

80 Village at the fringe of Semi evergreen forest

One individual rescued from a thatched roof and one killed by villagers.

9 01/06/04 Diring Chariali Golaghat, Assam

26° 37’N; 93° 23’E

70 Paddy field near human habitation

Local villagers killed male individual

10 31/08/02 Lakhojan tea estate

Golaghat District, Assam

26° 38' 13.3"N

93°37' 43.9"

77 Near tea garden in fishery tank

Rescued from a fishery tank.

11 23/04/03 Nambor WS Golaghat, Assam

26° 20'-25' N,

93°48' -54'

90 Semi evergreen forest

Road kill on NH 37 passing through Sanctuary

Authors’ addresses: Abhijit Dad, M. FirozAhmed and Pranjit K. Sharma, c/o Division ofHerpetology, Aaranyak, Somonwoy Path,Survey, Beltola, Guwahati, India; Manoj V.Nair, Deputy Director, Similipal Tiger Reserve,Baripada, Mayurbhanj, Orissa, India.

Gantner Verlag V.G., Ruggell (distributed byKoeltz, Koenigstein, Germany). 1201 pp., 127pls. (including 374 col. figs).

Sengupta, S., Barua, M., Choudhury, N K., and J.Gogoi. 2000. Herpetological investigationat Garbhanga Reserved Forest Assam.J. of Assam Sci. soc. 41 (4): 372-378.

Wall, F. 1908. Notes on a collection of snakesfrom Khasi hills, Assam. J. Bombay Nat.Hist. Soc. Xviii, pp. 312-337. text fig.

Wall, F. 1909. Notes on snakes collected inupper Assam-Part I. J.Bombay Nat. Hist.Soc xix, pp. 608-623. Part II. Ibid. xix, pp.825-845.

Waltner, R.G. 1975d. Geographical andaltitudinal distribution of Amphibiansand reptiles in the Himalayas. Part IVCheetal 16: 12-17.

Whitaker, R. & A. Captain. 2004. Snakes ofIndia, the field guide. Draco Books,Chennai. Xiv + 481 pp.

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Introduction

During past two decades “invasive alienspecies” (IAS) have gained wider recognition

by scientists for their severe ecological andeconomic impacts worldwide, and have beenidentified as one of the greatest threats to nativeecosystems, habitats and species. In fact, suchspecies are introduced for their rapid growth,efficient dispersal capabilities, large reproductiveoutput and tolerance to a broad range ofenvironmental conditions (Campbell, 2005).Although it is has been widely believed that suchcharacteristics of IAS frequently threaten the nativebiodiversity, still there are some contradictions inthe definition and the use of the term IAS, andnot all of these species are harmful (Wittenbergand Cock, 2001). Recently, Dr. Parvez Harris, aBangladeshi scientist, observed that the powderobtained from the dried root of water hyacinth,one of the major IAS of Bangladesh and othercountries of the tropics, can considerably reducethe arsenic contaminants from water and renderit unobjectionable for human drinking. Bangladesh

STUDY ON THE STATUS AND VARIOUS USES OFINVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES IN AND AROUNDSATCHARI NATIONAL PARK, SYLHET, BANGLADESH

by Sharif Ahmed Mukul, Mohammad Belal Uddin and Mashiur Rahman Tito

is thought to have more than 300 alien species,some with invasive natures which grow eitherwildly or are widely cultivated throughout thecountry (Hossain and Pasha, 2001). Among them,most of the herbs and shrubs were introducedduring the British colonial period for their aestheticvalue and most of the timber species wereintroduced in the country from the late 1880s toearly 1890s to meet the country’s rapidly growingdemand for timber. A number of studies havebeen conducted on the ecological and economicimpacts of IAS at both national and regional levels,but very few studies have focused on their useand role to local livelihoods. Our study attemptsto demonstrate the status and various uses of theseso-called invasive alien plant species in and aroundSatchari National Park, located in the northeasternhilly regions of Bangladesh.

The study area

Satchari National Park is one of the newest amongthe eighteen protected areas of Bangladesh. Thearea of the park is about 243 ha and is comprised

12 Kakojan RF Tinsukia, Assam 27° 30'N, 95°40 E

137 Semi evergreen forest

Sighted on forest-tea garden edge

13 25/04/03 Guijan Ghat Tinsukia, Assam 27° 38'N 95° 21'E

98 Human habitation

Rescued

14 23/01/07 Bihara Village Cachar, Assam 24° 57.283 'N

92° 39.263' E

40 Human habitation

One rescued from brick pile near house; another from old temple.

15 09/12/03 Koliabhomora Nowgaon, Assam

26° 33’N, 92° 56” E

56 Human habitation

Rescued in molting condition

16 ? Moreh Chandel, Manipur

24° 15’N, 94° 18’E

181 Evergreen forest patch

One preserved specimen seen at Imphal Natural History Museum

17 10/11/06 Khonoma Village

Kohima, Nagaland

25° 37.923 N,

94° 01.433 E,

1,700 Subtropical forest

Killed and eaten

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of the Raghunandan Hills Reserve Forests (RF)within the Satchari Range. The park is situatednearly 130 km northeast of Dhaka and is locatedin Chunarughat Upazila (administrative unit) ofHabigonj District.

The southern part of the park is bordered by India;other adjacent areas are covered by tea estates,rubber, agar plantations and paddy fields. Althoughthis forest classically belongs to the evergreen type,the large-scale conversion of the indigenous forestcover to plantations has changed its forest typeentity (Choudhury et al., 2004). Now only 200 hahave natural forest; the rest is secondary-raisedforest. It is also one of the last habitats of Hoolockgibbons (Bunopithecus hoolock) and the rare birdspecies Hooded Pitta (Pitta sordida), in thecountry.

The topography of the Satchari area is undulating,with slopes and hillocks ranging from 10 to 50 min elevation. The climate is tropical in general. Thetotal annual average rainfall is 4,162 mm. A numberof small, sandy-bedded streams drain the forestduring the rainy season. The maximum andminimum temperature of the area is 32ºC and 12ºCrespectively. The relative humidity fluctuates from74% to 90%.

Methodology

The data for this paper was collected during acourse of intensive field visits undertaken toSatchari during February to June, 2006. Duringthe course of the field visits the authors surveyeda number of sample plots in and around the nationalpark boundary to identify the IAS plants availablein the locality. Specimens and photographs ofunfamiliar species were also collected. Some groupdiscussions were also arranged with the localinhabitants to learn the various uses of the identifiedspecies in the Satchari area.

Several authors (e.g. Barua et al., 2003; Islam etal., 2003; and Hossain and Pasha, 2001) havestudied various aspects of IAS in Bangladesh; toclassify a plant species as an invasive alien speciesthe authors have followed the available literature.

Results and discussion

Invasive alien plant species of Satchari

During our intensive field survey we recorded atotal of 19 alien species belonging to 12 differentfamilies; 15 of them were found to have beenreported as IAS from various literature. Specieswere mostly found to belong to the FamilyFabaceae (26%), followed by the FamilyAsteraceae (11%), Meliaceae (11%) andVerbenaceae (11%). Most of the recorded specieswere trees (47%), followed by some herbs, shrubsand others. Most of the species were found growingin natural forest (i.e. in the national park andadjacent reserved forest), while rest were foundalong roadsides, in waste and fallow lands, teagardens and agricultural fields.

People’s use and perception of various IAPS

We have documented twelve diverse uses of theidentified species in and around Satchari NationalPark. However, most of the species were foundto be of multipurpose use. For example, waterhyacinth is considered as one of the 100 worstIAS of the world (Lowe et al., 2000), but is usedby the local people for 3 different purposes. Themajority of identified species were found to beused for fuel, followed by timber production,medicinal or curative uses, fodder, and manyothers.

Our study also revealed that the majority of theidentified tree species in the locality were introducedto meet the increasing demand for timber. Mostof the weeds, both aquatic and terrestrial, andshrubs are reported to have been in the localityfor a long period of time. Although the people ofthe Satchari area not conversant with the term IAS,they prefer such species of timber for their fast-growing nature. However, during our survey theyreported 5 species as being very harmful to thelocal ecosystem, another 6 species that weremoderately harmful, and 4 species that were lessor least harmful.

Conclusions and recommendations

It is true that the so-called invasive alien specieshave some negative impacts on local ecosystems,but not all of them are harmful or useless. Besides,of the many alien species in the country, their uses

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and impact on local ecosystems have yet to beidentified. Therefore, a national programme mustbe initiated to distinguish the harmful from theharmless species and to identify the use andimpacts of the former and latter. The Governmentshould be cautious in introducing alien species inplantation programs and should establish clear andeffective quarantine regulations for alien (invasive)species. In addition, a standard andcomprehensible procedure for the introduction andmonitoring of alien species is necessary.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Mr. Joydip Royfor his support during our field visits. Fieldassistance of Nobel and Pranto are alsoacknowledged. The literature support fromGlobal Invasive Species Programme (GISP),Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), TheWorld Conservation Union (IUCN) and

Figure 1. Location map of the study area

Secretariat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity (SCBD) is thankfully acknowledged.Finally, we are grateful for the cooperation ofthe residents of Satchari area during the time ofour field data collection.

References

Barua, S.P., M.M.H. Khan and A.H.M.A. Reza.2001. The Status of Alien Invasive Speciesin Bangladesh and their Impact on theEcosystems. In: P. Balakrishna (Ed), AlienInvasive Species - Report of workshop onAlien Invasive Species. IUCN RegionalBiodiversity Programme of Asia, Colombo, SriLanka.

Campbell, S. 2005. A global perspective onforest invasive species: the problem, causes,and consequences. In: McKenzie, P., Brown,C., Jianghua, S. and Jian, W. (Eds). Theunwelcome guests - Proceedings of the Asia-

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Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference.FAO-RAP, Bangkok. 9-10 pp.

Choudhury, J.K., S.R. Biswas, M.S. Islam, O.Rahman and S.N. Uddin. 2004. Biodiversityof Shatchari Reserved Forest, Habiganj.IUCN Bangladesh Country Office, Dhaka,Bangladesh.

Hossain, M.K. and M.K. Pasha. 2001. AlienInvasive Plants in Bangladesh and theirImpacts on the Ecosystem. In: Assessmentand Management of Alien Species thatThreaten Ecosystems, Habitats and Species(CBD Technical Series No. 1). Secretariat ofthe Convention on Biological Diversity,Montreal, Canada. 73-75 pp.

Islam, M.M., A.S.M.R. Amin and S.K. Sarker.2003. National Report on Alien InvasiveSpecies of Bangladesh. In: Pallewatta, N.,Reaser, J.K. and Gutierrez, A.T. (Eds)Invasive Alien Species in South-SoutheastAsia: National Reports & Directory of

Figure 2. Some common IA plant species of Satchari (clockwise: lantana; oil palm; siam weed andwater hyacinth)

Resources. Global Invasive SpeciesProgramme, Cape Town, South Africa. 7-24pp.

Lowe, S., M. Brown, S. Boudjelas, and M. DePoorter. 2000. 100 of the World’s WorstInvasive Alien Species: A selection from theglobal invasive species database. TheInvasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) ofSpecies Survival Commission of IUCN,Auckland, New Zealand. 12 pp.

Wittenberg, R and M.J.W. Cock. 20001. InvasiveAlien Species: A Toolkit of BestPrevention and Maagement Practices.CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.228 pp.

Authors’ address: Department of Forestry,School of Agriculture and Mineral Sciences,Shahjalal University of Science andTechnology, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh; *E-mail:[email protected]

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MAN-WILDLIFE INTERACTION: UNDERSTANDING THECONCEPT OF CONSERVATION ETHICS IN PAPUA

by Freddy Pattiselanno

Introduction

Hunting is one of the mortality factors that playa role in maintaining wildlife populations in

the wild. In population dynamics, hunting (sport)is legally accepted for applying toward thesustainable harvest of wildlife as a part of wildlifemanagement.

Culturally, hunting has been one of the traditionalways of life for the local tribes in West Papuafrom the time of their ancestors. Hunting activitiesare conducted for the purpose of obtaining foodand for gathering material for the traditional attireand for customary rituals.

Some studies (McKinnon, 1984; Petocz, 1994)have indicated that the hunting activities by localcommunities in West Papua are important forcatching animals for food and to obtain materialfor ceremonies. People often use traditionalweapons and traps to catch animals for subsistencehunting (Wibowo and Suyatno, 1998). Accordingto Beehler (1985), some birds were hunted notonly for food, but also for their plumes that wereused as accessories in their traditional costume.

To some extent, there are several differencesbetween sport hunting and traditional hunting suchas the purpose of hunting, time frame, regulationsand the number of target animals hunted. However,other studies show that among the local community(traditional tribes) the common traditional conceptsderived from their ancestors are still widely inpractice, and could be considered as the lawenforcement among local communities (hunters)in West Papua.

This paper reviews the available informationgathered during field surveys in West Papuarelating to the conservation ethics universallyapplied by local communities as an approach to

wildlife management. In particular, this paperwould like to emphasize the relevance ofconservation principles trusted from the past upto now, and still extensively practiced by localcommunities in West Papua, that have a role inthe management of hunting practices.

Purpose of hunting

Based on their daily activities, the local inhabitantswho live in coastal areas, or in areas commonlyrelated to wetlands including lakes, rivers andswamps, derived most of their income fromtraditional forms of fishing. They also occasionallyhunt when they are unable to fish due tounfavorable weather. Whatever is caught isusually used for food and shared with theneighborhood in the village. In this circumstance,it seems that the purpose of hunting is mainly foranimal protein sources (Pattiselanno, 2004a).Petocz (1994) stated that people trap and huntmammals and birds everywhere in West Papua tocomplete their menu.

In contrast, people living far from the coast inremote areas predominantly engage in traditionalagriculture and hunting. This way of life is inheritedfrom their ancestors, who had a semi-nomadiclifestyle. They practice rotational agriculture of rootcrops – mainly taro and sweet potatoes. Thosepeople who occupy the swamp areas utilize sagofor their food. Anything caught by hunting ismainly used as food source, although it is alsoacknowledged that some bush meat (wild boar anddeer) is sold to generate income (Pattiselanno,2004b).

Hunting methods

People in West Papua often use traditionalweapons and traps to catch animals (Wibowo andSuyatno, 1998). Paijmans (1976) stated that hand

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nets and longer nets are used to catch pigs, birdsand bats and that simple hand-operated snaresmade from rope and rattan and baited with wildfruits, sago or bananas are commonly usedthroughout New Guinea. Spring-snares are usuallymade from bamboo or flexible wilties of Syzigiumsp., Aglaia sapindina and Dodonea viscosa.

Instead of using traditional weapons, some tribesalso hunt animals using dogs. The number of dogsvaries, but is usually more than one. Localcommunities of Lorentz National Park (Dani’s tribehunters) work with their dogs during their huntingactivities (Flannery, 1995).

In Kebar and Wasur, the traditional way of huntingcombining fire, dogs and blades is usually practicedin the dry season. In Wasur, hunting was firstpracticed to catch wild boar, but in the last fewyears, deer and wallaby are hunted as well.Groups of more than 10 people are involved inthis traditional method of hunting.

Concept of conservation

Our findings indicate that different communitieshave different conservation concepts, e.g., peoplein Teminabuan believe that they will lose their skillsin war (passed on from their ancestors), if theycatch and kill cockatoo birds. Villagers inCenderawasih Bay and the Northern Tamrauhighland believe that there are some sacred placesin the forest and they are not allowed to hunt there.

Pattiselanno et al. (1999) indicated that villagersin Cenderawasih Bay still practice “sasi”, in whichhunting ceases for a period of time in specifiedareas. However, in Wasur, it is practiced in relationto the death of a clan member. Local inhabitantsin Jandurau village (Kebar highland) prohibit eatingsome of the catch killed by hunting dogs.

Local communities in all places are applying thecommon traditions passed on by their ancestors.The practices of traditional hunting are still widelyfollowed such as using traditional weapons forhunting. Hunting in the forest is mainly influencedby ownership of the land (hunting is usuallyrestricted to areas belonging the clan). In this case,outsiders have to ask permission from landownersand share the catch with the landowners of the

forest. Wanggai and Kilmaskossu (1999) statedthat traditional rights usually belong to the clan/tribe in the forest in the territory where localcommunities hunt in the remote areas of WestPapua.

Constraints

Due to the development of the province, localcommunities are increasingly exposed to migrantswith different attitudes toward resources use. Oneconsequence of social interactions between localinhabitants and migrants has been changingattitudes towards hunting practices by local people.For example, the exploitation of some valuablebirds (e.g., Bird of Paradise and Crowned Pigeon),crocodiles and turtles by local people to supplythe smuggling trader is increasing. A studyconducted by Bodmer (1995) in ReserveCommunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo (Peru) indicatedthat the preferences of hunters were correlated withthe economic value of species (combining bothmarket and subsistence value).

In some areas, improved access to markets hasled to a shift in hunting activities from subsistenceto commercial purposes. In addition, this makesthe practice of using guns more popular, eventhough it is prohibited. The Environment StudyCenter of Cenderawasih University (2000) reportsthat in Wasur, modern hunting practices using gunsand motorcycles is widespread.

In fact, there is no law assigned by the localcommunities restricting hunters to killing adult maleanimals (bucks) only. Due to some restrictions suchas the lack of knowledge about the breeding season,animals are trapped randomly. More informationand planning is needing regarding the managementaspect.

Conclusion

Unlike sport hunting, traditional hunting by localpeople is not subject to legal requirements such aslicenses or hunting season. Target animals arerandomly killed (using trap and traditional weapons)and the number of animals taken is not limited.Subsistence needs are the main purpose of hunting,

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and it is difficult to identify the times when thereis a harvestable surplus.

However, it is obvious that, to certain extent, thelocal communities in West Papua are alreadyapplying a form of wildlife management specificallyto manage hunters. Their traditional rules thatinclude utilizing traditional weapons, prohibitinghunting in some sacred areas, restricting huntingto areas belonging to certain clans, forbidding thecapture or killing of certain animals in some areas,should all be considered as parts of wildlifemanagement.

In the future, considering the limitations intraditional hunting regulations and the developmentof the province, it will be important to develop awildlife management program for conservationpurposes. The relevant information can beobtained through the education and research.

References

Beehler, B. 1985. Conservation of New Guinearainforest birds. ICBP Technique Publication4: 233-247.

Bodmer, R.E. 1995. Managing Amazonianwildlife: biological correlates of gamechoice by detribalized hunters. EcologicalApplications 4: 872-877.

Environment Study Center CenderawasihUniversity. 2000. Study of protected areain Merauke Irian Jaya. Proceedings of theNature and Conservation Seminar 3: 87-90.

Flannery, T. 1995. Irian Jaya’s New TreeKangaroo: Just the tip of the Ertzberg.Nature Australia 12: 47-52.

Mackinnon, K. 1986. The Nature of Indonesia:Flora, Fauna and Equilibrium. Second

edition. Gramedia Pustaka Utama PressJakarta, Indonesia

Paijmans, K., (Editor). 1976. New Guineavegetation. The Australian National UniversityPress, Canberra.

Pattiselanno, F., Murwanto, A.G., Maturbongs, R.and J. Wanggai. 1999. Hunting systemconducted by local people in the area ofNational Marine Park “Cenderawasih Bay”Irian Jaya. Irian Jaya Agro Scientific JournalVol 6 (2): 1-6

Pattiselanno, F. 2004a. Wildlife utilization andfood security in West Papua, Indonesia.Paper presented at the SEARCA Agricultureand Development Seminar Series, SEARCALos Baños 13 April 2004.

Pattiselanno, F. 2004b. Berburu rusa di rimbaPapua. Majalah Pertanian BerkelanjutanSALAM Edisi 8, September 2004: 33

Petocz, R.G. 1994. Nature conservation and thedevelopment of Irian Jaya. Fourth edition.Graffitti Press Jakarta, Indonesia.

Wanggai, F., and M. St. E. Kilmaskossu. 1999.Community participation in theconservation of Cenderawasih Bay MarineNational Park. Proceedings of IndonesianNational Park Conference 3:15-22.

Wibowo P., and N. Suyatno. 1998. An overviewIndonesian Wetland Sites II. DirectorateGeneral of Forest Protection and NatureConservation and Wetlands InternationalIndonesia Programme, Final Program ReportWS 98-02, Bogor, Indonesia.

Author’s address: c/o Animal ProductionDepartment, Universitas Negeri Papua, GunungSalju St., Amban, Manokwari 98314; Email:[email protected]

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CROP RAIDING PATTERN BY MIGRATORYELEPHANTS IN VAST AREAS OF SOUTH WEST BENGAL

by A.K. Santra, A.K. Samanta and S. Pan

Introduction

Crop damage by elephants is reported to bevery severe in south, east and northeast India.

Elephants may encounter cultivable fields in thecourse of their natural seasonal movements. Sincemany cultivated crops such as cereals, millets,vegetables, sugarcane, oil palm, and coconut areanalogous to their wild counterparts, elephantsconsume these crops as any other wild plants.Raiding of highly palatable agricultural crops bythese animals is common over most of their rangeand therefore it has become a serious problem.At present, farmers across Asia and Africa losemillions of rupees worth of crops each year due toelephants’ depredations.

A group of elephants has been migrating fromDalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Jharkhand to vast areasof South Bengal forests during August-Septembersince 1987, where they remain for 6-7 months.During their stay, elephants become a subject ofgreat concern in terms of economic loss and lossof human lives. Although elephants have startedcrop raiding intensively since 1987, old recordsindicated that in 1790, wild elephants destroyedagricultural fields in South Bengal (Anon., 1954).No explanation is yet available for the sudden spurtin crop raiding since 1987. Crop availability andraiding patterns were studied in order tocomprehend their selection of a particular crop tobe consumed with the seasonal conflict pattern.

Materials and methods

The study area is located in the three administrativedistricts of West Midnapur, Bankura and Puruliabetween latitudes 22°25’ to 23°15’ North andlongitudes 86°30’ to 87°49’ East. The geographicalarea covers about 11,000 km2, with forests spreadover 1,850 km2, and is bounded by Burdwandistrict in the north and Jharkhand and Orissa in

the west. Dalma forest, home of migratoryelephants, is located at the west of the study areawithin Jharkhand state.

The depredation pattern on different agriculturalcrops viz. paddy, sugarcane, potato, cabbage andwheat by elephants was monitored by directobservation. The data on different types of cropsdamaged, parts consumed, stages of crops, etc.were recorded by visual appraisal and damage areameasurement (Manakadan and Rahmani, 1998).A total of 400 paddy fields in the vegetative stage,200 paddy fields in the ripening stage, 40 sugarcanefields, 20 potato fields and 80 cabbage fields thatsuffered depredations by elephants were assessedfor damage. A total of 300 hills of paddy and 300standing sugarcane samples were assessed for partsconsumed by elephants. Measurements of thedamaged areas within the sampled plot wererecorded to obtain the mean percentage damagein the sampled area.


Elephant herds used the forest for daytime shelterand raided crop fields from dusk to dawn,depending on the local situation. They movednearer to the forest boundary in the evening –usually between 18.00 hr and 19.00 hr. However,one breakaway group of seven elephants wasobserved entering between 15.00 hr and 16.00 hrat Lalgarh forest areas. There were instances ofelephant herds entering into the fields located inNayagram range between 20.30 hr and 21.30 hr.In one instance the elephants were delayed incoming out of the forest as their movement pathswere blocked by highly enthusiastic villagers.Finally, the herd led by the tusker becamebelligerent and aggressive towards intruders andentered into the crop field at 21.15 hr.

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l | In 2001, a herd was stationed at Mararchaiti forestof Patrasayer for more than a week and visitedthe Golsi area in search of highly palatable foodsuch as potato and sugarcane. The herd leftMararchaiti forest at about 21.00 hr for Golsi andreturned the next day at 9.00 hr to the same forest.Elephants invariably raided the agricultural fieldsbordering the forests. For a few consecutive daysthey would repeatedly raid a cluster of fields locatednear the forest where they took shelter in thedaytime. This practice continued until theelephants turned their attention to other locationsor they were driven away by the determined effortsof the driving parties. Migratory elephants do havea higher preference for agricultural crops,obviously due to their better taste. They usuallydevour crops in a typical attacking style and thepattern is termed “raiding”.

The crop raiding pattern of migratory elephantsin South Bengal during 1982-2003 revealed thatelephants were almost totally dependent on paddyup to December. During this period (August-December) elephants moved into vast areas ofpaddy fields spreading over different forestdivisions viz. East Midnapur, Rupnarayan Planningand Survey, Panchet Soil and Conservation andBankura (north and south). However, during lateFebruary the elephants moved into Nayagram,Chandabilla and other ranges of West Midnapurforest division where rabi crops are cultivated onthe bank of the river Subarnrekha. It was observedthat six cultivated crops viz. paddy (Oryza sativa),sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), potato(Solanum tuberosum), cabbge (Brassica oleraceavar.capitaria), wheat (Triticum aestivum) andgourd (Cucumbita maxima) were the major dietaryitems of elephants, with paddy being the mostimportant. Initially, they were dependent on thevegetative and booting stages of this crop, and lateron switched over to the flowering stage, followedby fully ripe grain.

It was observed that out of the total number ofpaddy fields (vegetative stage) studied, 60% ofthe fields suffered up to 25% damage. However,only 2.5% of the fields were damaged by morethan 75%. In the case of ripening paddy, 45% ofthe fields were damaged between 51%-75%. Quitenaturally, fields located in the vicinities closer tothe forests were more prone to depredations by

elephants, irrespective of the stage of maturity ofthe crop. The mega-herbivores always made thebest effort to consume the maximum amount ofbiomass in the minimum time. This was obviouslyto cut short the exposure time, an innate behavioramong wild species. However, on many occasionselephants covered long distances in search of morepalatable paddy fields with better vegetative growthor ripe grains.

Sugarcane was the second most preferred cropof elephant after paddy. The major part of theirdietary requirement comes from sugarcane duringthe final part of their stay in South Bengal. Theyusually consumed 0.98 ft of the upper most partof the stem just below the leaves. Elephants avoidedthe lower part of the stem, perhaps due to thehigher fiber content. Surprisingly, leaves were alsodiscarded. It was observed that 92.5% of the fieldssuffered damages up to 25%. Interestingly not asingle field was damaged beyond 75%. Togetherwith sugarcane, potatoes were also an attractivefood item for migratory elephants. Visual estimatesrevealed that they inflicted more than 75% damageto the raided fields. Interestingly, elephants avoidedwet potato fields with immature crops. Cabbagewas also chosen by elephants as a food item andthey inflicted heavy damage to the crop due tothreshing. Mature cabbage fields were moreattractive to the elephants. In the presentinvestigation, 40% of the fields were damagedbeyond 75%. Wheat plants at different stages ofgrowth were also attractive to elephants. Wheatfields with milky exudates grain were the mostfavored.

Depredations of gourd, brinjal, pea and cashewfields were also noted during the study period butwere not very commonly except for gourd.However, it is difficult to conclude whetherelephants had any special affinity for these cropsor whether they accidentally they came into contactwith these crops during their movement.

It appears from the study that the crop raidingpattern by migratory elephants was largelydetermined by the availability of different crops.On entering into South Bengal during last week ofAugust or first week of September, they have torely on the vegetative stage of paddy. Theyoccasionally searched for an early variety of paddy

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sown in June which would be bearing grains bythat time. Though paddy in the vegetative stagesupplied bulk biomass to the pachyderms, theymade constant efforts to avoid the same, possiblybecause of the progressively higher fiber and silicacontents.

Elephants were attracted to highly palatable andnutritious crops by virtue of their keen sense ofsmell in selecting food plants (Sukumar, 1985).The feeding pattern in South Bengal clearlyindicates that the crop raiding strategy definitelybenefited the elephants by providing morenutritious food than foraging on wild plants. Ripegrain, for example, provided more energy and thesucrose in sugarcane appealed to the elephant’ssweet palate (Sukumar, 1985). Moreover,agricultural crops are either low or practicallydevoid of toxic compounds viz. tannins and otheralkaloids. The optimal foraging theory whichpredicts that animals will maximize the quality oftheir nutrient intake whenever possible (Begon etat, 1986) offers the most plausible explanation forthe unpredictable nature of elephant raids (Osborn,1988; Hoare, 1999)

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to many forest staff andlocal people for their cooperation andencouragement during the study in South WestBengal.

References

Anon. 1954. The District Hand Book ofBirbhum. Government West Bengal.

Begon, M., Harper, J.R and C.R. Townsend. 1986.Ecology: individuals, population andcommunities. Blackwell ScientificPublications, Oxford.

Hoare, R.E. 1999.Determinants of human-elephant conflict in a landuse mosaic.Journal of Applied Ecology, 36:689-700.

Manakadanana, R and A.R. Rahmani. 1988. Cropdamage by blackbuck Antilope cervicapraat Rollapadu wildlife sanctuary, AndhraPradesh. Journal of Bombay Natural HistorySociety, 95(3): 408-421.

Osborn, F.B. 1988. The ecology of crop raidingelephants in Zimbaabwe. Ph.D thesis.University of Cambridge.

Sukumar,R.1985. Ecology of the Asian elephant(Elephas maximus) and its interaction withman in South India. Ph.D thesis. IndianInstitute of Science, Bangalore.

Corresponding address: Ajit Kumar Santra,Associate Professor, Department of LivestockProduction & Management, College ofVeterinary Science and A.H., Anjora, Durg-491001, P.B.-6, Chhattisgarh, India, e-mail:[email protected].

PONG LAKE - AN INTERNATIONAL RAMSAR SITE INNEED OF MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS

by D.S. Dhadwal

Introduction

Himachal Pradesh is nature’s paradise, repletewith beautiful landscapes, river catchments

and forest wealth. A hill state, part of the Hindukush Himalayas, it abounds in natural herbalwealth, has a large population of wildlife and variedclimatic zones and topography. The hilly and semi-hilly areas are capable of sustaining a very large

number of animal species and globally threatenedbirds.

Pong wetland, situated in Kangra District ofHimachal Pradesh, was formed by the constructionof Pong Dam in 1974 across the Beas River, andis one of the largest man-made wetlands of northernIndia. It is the first major wetland to potentiallyoffer a transitory resting reserve for the migratory

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| birds coming from the trans-Himalayan zone inthe winter season when the wetlands in Europeand North and Central Asia become frozen withthe onset of winter. Every year flocks of waterfowlthat breed in these areas in the summer migrate toPong to spend the winter in more congenialclimatic conditions during the winter season fromOctober to March. The Government of HimachalPradesh declared this wetland a wildlife (Birds)sanctuary in 1983. In 1994, it was declared a“Wetland of National Importance” by the Ministryof Environment and Forests, Government of India.

Pong Wetland Sanctuary

Pong wetland earned the distinction of beingselected as an international RAMSAR site in 2002.This is first wetland of the state to have been giventhe global arm of protection.

The Pong dam reservoir extends between latitudes31°49’ to 32°14’ North and longitudes 75°53’ to76°17’ East. The total catchment area of 12,562km2 extends over Kangra, Mandi and KulluDistricts. The reservoir is 42 km long and 19 kmwide and has live storage capacity of 7,290 millionm3. The area of the water body varies from 125km2 at minimum water level of 1,265-1,280 ft insummer to about 225 km2 at the maximum waterlevel of 1,370-1,390 ft in the rainy season. Whenfull, the reservoir has the appearance of an inlandsea with waves traveling to the shoreline.

The environs of Pong wetland support more than325 bird species belonging to more than 60 families.A large number of major and minor tributaries –some perennial and some seasonal, viz Dehar,Bhul, Gaj, Baner, Nekar, etc. from the Dhauladharranges – directly drain into Pong Dam.

The Pong reservoir has four major islands, vizRancer, Karu, Kajal-ka-tapu and Jattaan da Kual.There is also a vast, flat fringe area on the rightbank of the lake. BBMB Authority, being theowner of the land, has signed Memorandas ofUnderstanding with three states, viz: Punjab,Rajasthan and Himachal to provide water forirrigation purposes.

Below Pong dam, a barrage was constructed in1985-86 at Sathana. Sahanahar canal originates

from this barrage. This barrage constitutes ashallow water body enclosing an area of about 3km2 and is a haven for a variety of migratorybirds specific to marshy conditions. The totaldistance from Pong to the barrage is about 4 km.

Climate

The climate of the region is sub-tropical. Thesummer season extends from mid-March to mid-July and the monsoon season is from early July tomid-September. Winters are mild, starting in earlyDecember and lasting till mid-March. Thetemperatures range from a maximum 47°C insummer to a low of 3.5°C in winter. The rainfall isgenerally heavy and continuous from July toSeptember. The average annual rainfall during thelast five years was 1,207 mm.

Fauna

The main animal species found in the wetland areleopard, nilgai, sambhar, barking deer, goral, wildboar, monkeys, langurs, clawless otter andmongoose. Among the reptiles, monitor lizard andsnakes such as cobra, python and krait have beenrecorded.

Fish diversity

The major attraction for the increasing number ofmigratory birds visiting Pong is the rich bounty offish there. Fish species such as mahasheer, katla,carp, mirgal, rahoo, singhara, etc. are found in PongDam Lake and its tributaries. A total of 27 fishspecies belonging to five families have beenrecorded. Mahasheer (Tor putitora) is highlyprecious and the most sought after fish of Pongreservoir.

Commercial fishing in the wetland commencedsoon after the formation of Pong reservoir, andprovides direct employment to about 1,500fishermen

Forests in and around Pong

The right bank of Beas has small pockets of meagerforests, whereas on the left bank from Dehra to

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| Terrace are linear strips of scrub forests. Thereare several tree species that produce edible fruitsfor birds. There is also some submerged aquaticvegetation in the wetland that provides suitablehabitat for rare birds such as moorhen, jacana,etc. The main tree species in the area are Acacia,Jamun, Sisoo, Mango, Mulbery, Ficus, Kachnar,Amla, Prunus, etc. There is also a variety of shrubsviz Adatoda vesica, Indigofera, Dodonea,Woodfordia, Ziziphus, Maurraya, Euphorbia,etc.and grasses of Saccharum sp, Cymbopogan sp.,Eulopsis sp., etc. Several sub-tropical climbers arealso found in these forests.

Water birds

Pong Wetland is regularly visited by a large numberof migratory waterfowl. During 2004-05, about1.42 lakh (lakh=100,000) migratory birds visitedthe Pong wetland.

The Pong wetland has an immense potential forbird watching, ecotourism, adventure tourism,water sports, angling, etc. Bar-headed goose, ruddyshelduck, coot, cormorants, pochard, mallard,grebe and moorhen are some of the importantwater birds that visit Pong every year. The numberof bar-headed geese visiting Pong constitutes morethan 45% of the world population. Largecongregations of bar-headed geese in closeassociation with ruddy shelduck can be easilylocated feeding on wheat and gram in the nearbyfringe areas.

Wetland habitats

The man-made water body has created thefollowing five main types of habitats in the wetland:

1. Mud flats and mud splits: Mud flats and mudsplits are formed along the receding shorelinefrom during October to March. Such areasare highly preferred by sandlarks, pipits,shovellers, pintails, ducks, geese, wagtails, etc.Bar-headed geese and ruddy shelducks spendmost of their time feeding on the sproutedgrains/grass in the areas which are cultivatedby local people during winter.

2. Open deep water: Such sites are dominatedby grebes, cormorants, gulls, etc.

3. Waterside vegetation and swamps: Suchswampy conditions are an ideal sites formoorhens, coots, Gadwall, Spotbill duck,jacanas, etc.

4. Shallow water at the reservoir margins: Suchareas are important feeding areas for largenumbers of dabbling ducks and some long-necked waders.

5. Dry sand banks with little or no vegetation:The banks strewn with boulders near thereservoir margins are used by stone curlew,pratnicoles, etc.

Management interventions in Pong Lake

Management plans in protected areas need to beinstitutionalized and should be formulated by ateam of experts; sub-plans for each separate zoneshould be prepared with more emphasis onresearch and monitoring.

Water dynamics

The water level generally fluctuates from amaximum level of 1,390 feet mean sea level (msl)to a minimum 1,280 feet from October to Juneevery year. Therefore, the flora and fauna ingeneral, and the total numbers and species ofmigratory birds in particular, are significantlyaffected because of these uncontrolled/unregulated fluctuations in the water level. Itaffects the waterfowl diversity and their arrivalduring the winter season and the breeding habitatof waterfowl during the summer season.Therefore, it is crucial to maintain the criticalminimum level of water, so that the food, habitatand other requirements of flora and fauna can bemaintained. It is very important that the watershould be allowed to recede immediately whenthe birds begin their migration during October-November as the migratory birds, especially geese,need open areas to roost and graze on the newshoots of various grasses. If the area below 1,390ft is not exposed at the start of the migration, thereis the chance of fewer migratory fowls coming toPong Lake due to the following factors:

Less exposed area for roosting and grazingand subsequently, the birds will migrate toother nearby wetlands after hovering for somedays in Pong lake.

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Non-availability of newly sprouted shoots oflocal grasses below 1,390 feet, which needtime to sprout after the area is exposed afterthe water recedes.Biotic interference when the locals are rushingto sow the newly exposed area. Theirmovements and mechanical ploughing createlot of disturbance to the migrating birds duringOctober-November every year.Non-static water level during the breedingperiod (April-July) is a deterrent as manywaterfowls need to build their nests near thewater body for successful hatching. As thewater level keeps decreasing the nests endup quite far away from the water line andtherefore the breeding success decreases.Sometimes the water level drops below 1,295ft and even Ranser island is connected withthe mainland, thus increasing the chances ofpredators and habitat destruction to thebreeding ground .Decreased fish production and diversity dueto the fluctuation of water levels from year toyear. This affects the arrival of largecormorants, darters and other fish eaters.Non-availability of aquatic plants in the lakeexcept near the perennial nallas and khuds.As the water level fluctuate, the strip of

aquatic plants inside the shallow water keepson shifting after short intervals of time and donot have sufficient time to create conditionsfor the plants to grow inside the water. Theseconditions restrict the aquatic plant growth inPong Lake, which is essential for any wetland.More exposed area during the summer seasonleads to more biotic interference by the localpeople, by the cattle of the nomadic gujjarsand by stray animals, therefore increasing thechances of trampling on the eggs of manywater fowls species such as tern, lapwing,skimmers, pratincole, black-winged stilt, saruscrane, etc. which lay their eggs on the ground.

Recommendations

In order to maintain favorable conditions to supportmigratory birds, the following recommendationsare proposed:

The public should restrict their tilling/sowingactivities to areas at least 500 m away fromthe maximum water line at any time, so thatat least a 500 m untilled and undisturbed linearstrip can be maintained at all times for theroosting and feeding of these migratory birds.The sowing of rabi (winter) crops in Pong lakecontinues up to the second week of January

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water (sometimes up to 1,300 ft msl) andtherefore birds are always disturbed becauseof this unregulated way of cropping. Thewater level has to be maintained up to 1,340-1,350 ft until Lohri (harvest festival held on13 January) to discourage the public fromsowing more and more of the exposed area.Traditionally, people do not to carry out anysowing after Lohri.Water has to be released immediately afterLohri to expose more area for the birds. Thereis no harm in releasing the water immediatelyup to 1,300 ft; Ranser island will remain cutoff from the mainland and be a breedingground for water fowls during the summerseason.Nagrota Surian fringe area (from 1,390-1,320feet msl level) has to be converted into shallowponds with mounds along the contours toretain the moisture throughout the year. A fewdeep fish ponds may be created to provide analternate livelihood to the local public. Creatingmarshy land will also stop the public fromploughing the area, which would be otherwisedifficult to stop. This fringe area in Nagrota-Surian measures 30 km2, which is sufficientto create mini-Bharatpur conditions to attractbirds. At the moment there is no need to supplywater artificially to the ponds to be createdbut merely to let the water fill these pondsduring the monsoon. The water will recedeslowly on its own from one pond to other andwith the passage of time water will start toremain in these ponds.

Nagrota Surian fringe area

Nagrota Surian fringe area is near the confluenceof Gaj Khad and Minu Khad. Thousands ofmigratory birds, especially bar-headed goose,Brahminy duck and greylag goose can be sightedgrazing in the nearby drawdown areas. It is also agood habitat for coots, pintails and cormorants.

The activities that will be undertaken in the areainclude:

Terraced contour bundings all along thecontours: Swamp conditions in the area willbe created by erecting bundings along thecontours. This will help to improve/expand the

existing habitat of the waterfowls. This activitywill be taken in conjunction with theconstruction of water ponds, fishing ponds andmounds. In addition to retaining the recedingwater it will improve the existing habitat ofthe birds during winter and also help extendthe duration of swamp conditions during leanperiods as well. An area of 30 km2 between1,390-1,320feet msl will be developed underterraced swamps in different locations at thissite. The swamps may be developed in thefirst five years. The design of the terracesand the swamps will be such that top of thebunds can be utilized as walking/cycling trailsfor bird watchers, researchers and natureenthusiasts. The terraced slopes will bepitched with stones and planted with grass tocreate conditions suitable for bird activities.Food resources will be augmented by sowinggrasses or grains.It is very important to identify themicrohabitats in Greater Pong such asperennial sources of water, riverine forests,bamboo forests, etc., which are ultimatelyproviding food/fresh water to the birds in PongLake. It is important to maintain and protectsmall mounds surrounded by water whichcannot be reached by cats, dogs, etc., andkeep groups (more than 3) of unloppedbroadleaved trees during the breeding seasonfor waterfowl species.It is important to manage critical and endemicflora and fauna for habitat needs like roosting/nesting sites, etc., instead of a generalapproach which lets nature run its course.Weed control is another area which needsimmediate efforts in a phased manner. Theimportance of the micro habitat has to beprioritized.It is not wise to completely stop the grazingof various grasses in Pong Lake, as thesegrasses may turn into coarse grass and it willbe difficult for the migratory birds and otherwildlife to feed upon it. Around 5-10 strayanimals may also be kept at Ranser Island tokeep the grass under control. In case grazinghas to be stopped, then controlled burning ofgrassland has to be carried out in the futureto keep the grass under control in some of theareas which remain outside the maximumwater level during the year.

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sar site |Plantations in Pong Lake should be avoidedexcept in the area outside the 1,390 feet mslcontour and the islands so as to ensureroosting and breeding habitats for the birds.Locally available fruit-bearing plant speciesshould be planted as some birds likecormorants, egrets, heron, etc., breed ongroups of unlopped broad leaved plants.Dense plantations in the wetland may lead toeutrophication, which must be avoidedThe use of fertilizers, pesticides andinsecticides should be discouraged, not onlyin Pong lake but in Greater Pong too. As thePong wetland is acting as a sink of Greaterpong the public has to be make aware aboutthe importance of using vermi/organiccompost for the health of Pong Lake and alsomankind.

Environmental concerns

The analysis of oxygen demand may not be toounfavorable at the moment, but if unplanned/unregulated habitat extension and habitatimprovement works are carried out then thedissolved oxygen content may decrease. Theaquatic plants in the main wetland have alreadydecreased, which may not be helpful in increasingthe dissolved oxygen content in the future. Thetemperature of the lake sometimes rises up to 47°Cduring the summer season and that may alsoreduce the oxygen concentration in the waterbody. The movement of boats in the lake might tosome extent be helping to increasing the dissolvedoxygen content. Chemical analysis of lake waterhas to be carried out yearly to determine thepollutant load and water quality, otherwise all themanagement interventions carried out in Pong lakemay turn out to be futile.

As this wetland is glacier-fed, the impact of globalwarming on the wetland has to be considered andthe effects of construction of new dams abovestreams, diversion of water for drinking, irrigationand hydropower, etc., has to be analyzed.

Local cattle and the cattle of gujjars in the Pongmust be immunized and registered with localauthorities to prevent outbreaks of variousdiseases.

Socio-economics

Fish population and fish diversity is one area thatneeds improvement in Pong Lake, as is preservingthe breeding grounds of various fish in the GreaterPong since the fish generally breed upstreamoutside of the main Pong wetland. All fishingshould cease during the bird migration season(December to March) and the fishermen may becompensated.

It is very important to determine the dependencylevel of the 26,000 people living in the sanctuaryand the 11,500 domestic cattle in order to developa prevention mechanism through protection andenhancing awareness about the importance of thisfragile ecosystem.

Catchment area action

It is better to refer to “the Greater Pong” insteadof Pong Dam to conserve and maintain thebiodiversity in perpetuity. The Greater Pong mayinclude Pong Sanctuary, the watershed in generaland the buffer zone in particular, and the variousstakeholders around Pong Lake. Management ofGreater Pong is very much needed, otherwisePong Wetland will act as a sink of Greater Pong.

Extension and stakeholder participation

A Pong society consisting of all stakeholdersshould be created and a surcharge collected fromvarious user agencies such as hydro-powers,irrigation schemes, dams, etc., in the watershedarea to carry out various conservation/welfareactivities in Pong Lake.

Other concerns

Other areas which need attention include:treatment of nallahs/khads in buffer zone;soil types silt load;erosion;study of pressure, temperature and winddirection;biotic interference;quarrying outside the protected area;rain gauge to measure the precipitation;strengthening the infrastructure andcommunication facilities;

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Table 1: Water bird count in the Pong Wetland from 1999-2008

SN Year Total number of water-birds counted 1 1999-00 70,555 2 2000-01 81,848 3 2001-02 114,082 4 2002-03 115,201 5 2003-04 136,000 6 2004-05 142,292 7 2005-06 130,490 8 2006-07 111,721 9 2007-08 105,000

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Author’s address: D.S. Dhadwal, R.O (W/L), N-Surian, Pong Lake, India; E-mail:[email protected]

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY ON THE HERPETOFAUNA INTHE ANAWILUNDAWA WETLAND SANCTUARY: THESECOND RAMSAR SITE OF SRI LANKA

by Roshan K. Rodrigo, M. Sandun J. Perera, Naalin Perera, T.N. Peries, Sanjeeve de Silva andC.N.B. Bambaradeniya

Authors’ address: c/o IUCN, The World Conservation Union, Sri Lanka Country Office, 53, HortonPlace, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka. E-mail: [email protected]

Editor’s note:

This article appeared in Tigerpaper Vol.35:No.3 July-September 2008. We regret the omission of theauthors’ names under the title.

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Introduction

Plants are the basis of life on earth and arecentral to people’s livelihoods. Tribal people

are closely linked to their ecosystem and live inharmony with nature. The Indian subcontinent isinhabited by over 53.8 million tribal people in 5,000forest-dominated tribal village communities,comprising 15% of the total geographical area ofIndia’s landmass. They represent one of thegreatest emporia of ethno-botanical wealth (Sajemand Gosai, 2006).

Medicinal plants constitute a high value,remunerative crop that earns foreign exchange.The plants are the raw material used for treatingvarious ailments, as flavoring agents, and in thepharmaceuticals, perfume and cosmetic industriesof the world. Dudhwa National Park, where thepresent study was conducted, is situated on theIndo-Nepal border (28°18’ and 28°42’ N and80°28’ and 80°27’E) in Nigahsan subdivision ofLakhimpur-Kheri district in the northern Indianstate of Uttar Pradesh. The area falls under theTerai-Bhabar biogeographic subdivision of theUpper Gangetic Plain (7A) bio-geographicclassification of Rodgers & Panwar (1988). TheHimalayan foothills lie about 30 km to the northof the park. The topography is flat, with amaximum elevation of 182 m above msl. In 1977,the area was declared a national park with a corezone of 490 km2 and a buffer zone of 124 km2.The buffer zone in Dudhwa National Park (DNP)is located to the north of the core zone and includesvillages inhabited by Tharu tribes. These peopleare partly dependent on the forest for thatch, fodderand fuelwood, thus creating an importantmanagement issue (Javed 1996).

During the study period (2005-2006) thetemperatures in the park varied from 9°C in

STUDY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS FOUND INDUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

by Kaleem Ahmed and Saima Bhat

January (minimum) to 45°C in May (maximum).Many of the different types of plants present inthe park are used to treat various ailments.Various workers have studied the plants froma taxonomic point of view as well as regardingfolk knowledge of medicinal plants (Dam &Hajra, 1997; Hajra & Baishya, 1997; Sharma,2003; Datta & Datta, 2005; Khumbongmayum& Tripathi, 2005). Although studies havedocumented the uses of various medicinal plantsfrom different parts of India, information on thetraditional and cultural practices of tribes isunavailable. Therefore, it was necessary togather in-depth information on the plant speciesused by the Tharu and elders of Dudhwa anddocument their traditional knowledge andcultural practices which may soon be lost dueto the influence of modernization.

Materials and methods

The present study was conducted over a periodof two years in 2005 and 2006. The informationabout plants were collected during formal andinformal meetings with old forest staff,Mahawats (elephant keepers) Tharu guides andelderly Tharu men, who have in-depthknowledge of these medicinal plants. Theinformation of these plants came in the form oflocal names and we compared these names withthe forest management plan of Dudhwa (De,2001). In addition, a herbarium of plants wasalso collected which included species notidentified in the management plan, but whichwere later identified by the Botany Departmentof Aligarh Muslim University. The study wascarried out according to the method suggestedby Sinha (1996).

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The medico-botanical survey of the area revealedthat the people of the area possess a goodknowledge of herbal drugs, but as the people ofthe societies are progressively exposed tomodernization, their knowledge of traditional usesof plants may be lost in due course. Therefore it

is important to study and record the uses of plantsby different tribes and sub-tribes for futures study.Such studies may also provide some informationto phytochemists and pharmacologists in thescreening of individual species and in rapidassessing of phytoconstituents for the treatmentof various diseases.

Following are some locally available plant species and their medicinal importance:

1. Botanical name: Acorus calamus L. Family: Araceae English name: Sweet flag Hindi name: Bach, Gorbacc Parts used: Rhizome Medicinal uses: Stomatopathy, hoarseness, mental and skin diseases

2. Botanical name: Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Family: Meliaceae English name: Neem tree Hindi name: Nim Parts used: Bark, leaves, flowers, seeds Medicinal uses: Leprosy, tumour, bronchitis, diabetes, syphilis, cough and fatigue

3. Botanical name: Asparagus adscendens Roxb. Family: Liliaceae English name: Hindi name: Satavar Parts used: Tuberous roots Medicinal uses: Dysentery, diarrhea and leprosy

4. Botanical name: Argemone mexicana L. Family: Papaveraceae English name: Mexican Poppy Hindi name: Satyanasi Parts used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Jaundice, rheumatism and all types of poisoning.

5. Botanical name: Aegle marmelos L. Corr. Family: Rutaceae English name: Holy fruit Hindi name: Bel Parts used: Roots, leaves, fruits Medicinal uses: Uropathy, intermittent fever, swellings and dyspepsia

6. Botanical name: Calotropis procera (L.) R.Br. Family: Asclepiadaceae English name: Gigantic swallow wort. Hindi name: Madar Parts used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Cutaneous diseases, paralysis, fever

7. Botanical name: Cordia dichotoma Forst. Family: Boraginaceae

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English name: Sebesten plum Hindi name: Lasora Parts used: Bark, leaves and fruits Medicinal uses: Helminthiasis, gonorhoea and opthalmodynia, chronic fever and dry cough.

8. Botanical name: Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Family: Fabaceae English name: Sissoo Hindi name: Sisam Parts used: Roots, leaves, bark and heartwood Medicinal uses: Diarrhoea, dysentery, and infections

9. Botanical name: Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Family: Euphorbiaceae English name: Indian gosseberry Hindi name: Amla Parts used: Fruit, leaves and seeds Medicinal uses: Anaemia, leucorrhoea, discharge of blood from the uterus.

10. Botanical name: Eclipta prostrate L. Family: Asteraceae English name: Eclipta Hindi name: Bhangra, Babri, Mochkand Parts used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Antidote for snake venom, antihepatotoxic, anti- inflammatory.

11. Botanical name: Ficus benghalensis L. Family: Moraceae English name: Banyan Hindi name: Bargad Parts used: Aerial root, bark, leaves, buds, fruits Medicinal uses: Vomiting, leucorrhoea, ulcers, diabetes and rheumatism

12. Botanical name: Ficus racemosa L. Family: Moraceae English name: Hindi name: Gular Parts used: Bark, Fruit, root Medicinal uses: Skin inflammation, diarrhoea, dysentery, leucoderma.

13. Botanical name: Leonurus sibiricus L. Family: Lamiaceae English name: Motherwort Hindi name: Guma Parts used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Malaria, amenorrhoea

14. Botanical name: Mangifera indica L. Family: Anacardiaceae English name: Mango tree Hindi name: Am Parts used: Roots, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits and seed kernel Medicinal uses: Uteritis, dysentery, wounds, ulcers and rheumatism

15. Botanical name: Mimosa pudica Family: Mimosacae English name: Sensitive plant Hindi name: Lajwanti, chuimui Parts used: Whole plant


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16. Botanical name: Ocimum sanctum L. Family: Lamiaceae English name: Holy basil Hindi: Tulsi Parts used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Cough, haemopathy, leucoderma, fever and gastropathy in children.

17. Botanical name: Piper longum L. Family: Piperaceae English name: Idnian long pepper Hindi name: Pipli Parts used: Fruits and roots Medicinal uses: Diarrhea, indigestion, jaundice, abdominal disorders, hoarseness of voice, asthma,chest conjestion, throat infections

18. Botanical name: Santalum album L. Family: Santalaceae English name: Sandal tree Hindi name: Safedcandan Parts used: Heart wood Medicinal uses: Skin diseases, gastric troubles, cystitis

19. Botanical name: Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Family: Dipterocarpaceae English name: Sal. Hindi name: Sal Parts used: Bark, leaves, fruits and resin Medicinal uses: Tubercular ulcers, dermatopathy.

20. Botanical name: Solanum nigrum L. Family: Solanaceae English name: Black night-shade Hindi name: Makoy Parts used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Swellings, bronchitis, fever, skin diseases, cough and asthma.

21. Botanical name: Syzygium cumini L. skeel Family: Myrtaceae English name: Black plum Hindi name: Jamun Parts used: Bark, leaves and fruits Medicinal uses: Diabetes, diarrhoea, splenopathy

22. Botanical name: Terminalia arjuna Roxb. ex DC Family: Combretaceae English name: Arjun Hindi name: Arjun Parts used: Bark Medicinal uses: Cardiopathy, tumours, hypertension

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Conclusion

Dudhwa National Park is famous for itsendangered fauna such as tiger (Panthera tigris)and barasingha (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli),but it is also rich in medicinal plants. However,their use by local communities has remainedunknown to the scientific community. In veryremote areas where modern health care systemsare unavailable, local communities, especially thetribals, heavily depend on medicinal plants for theirday-to-day use. They use these medicinal plantsfor curing diseases, healing wounds, etc.Documentation of these medicinal plants and theiruse is important for their conservation andmanagement. The present study was aimed togenerate first hand information on variousmedicinal plants and their use by local communitiesin DNP. It will also provide research input for theiruse in modern medicine.

ReferencesDam, D.P and P.K. Hajra. 1997. Observations

on ethnobotany of Monpas of Kamengdistrict, Arunachal Pradesh. In: Jain SK.(Ed.) Contribution to Indian Ethnobotany.2. Vol. 1. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers; 1997.pp. 153–160.

De, Rupak. 2001. Management Plan of DudwaTiger Reserve (2000-2001 to 2009-2010). Wildlife Preservation Organization,Forest Department, Uttar Pradesh. 407pp.

Dutta, B.K and P.K. Dutta. 2005. Potential ofethnobotanical studies in North EastIndia: An overview. Indian Journal ofTraditional Knowledge 4:7–14.

Hajra, P.K and A.K. Baishya. 1997.Ethnobotanical notes on the Miris(Mishings) of Assam plains. In: Jain SK.

(Ed.) Contribution to Indian Ethnobotany.2. Vol. 1. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers. pp.161–168.

Javed, S. 1996. Structure of the BirdCommunities of the Terai Forest inDudwa National Park. Ph.D. Thesis. AligarhMuslim University, Aligarh, India.

Khumbongmayum A.D., M.L. Khan and R.S.Tripathi. 2005. Ethnomedicinal plants in thesacred groves of Manipur. Indian Journalof Traditional Knowledge. 4:21–32.

Hajra, P.K and A.K. Baishya. 1997.Ethnobotanical notes on the Miris(Mishings) of Assam plains. In: Jain S.K.(Ed.) Contribution to Indian Ethnobotany.2. Vol. 1. Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers. pp.161–168.

Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar. 1988. Planninga Protected Area Network in India.Volume I - The Report. Wildlife Instituteof India. Dehradun.

Sajem, A.L and K. Gosai. 2006. Traditional useof medicinal plants by the Jaintia tribesin North Cachar Hills district of Assam,northeast India. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed.Published online August 9. doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-2-33.

Sinha, R.K. 1996. Ethnobotany - therenaissance of traditional herbalmedicine. In a shree publishers Jaipur.

Sharma, R. 2003. Medicinal plants of India, AnEncyclopaedia.

Authors’ addresses: Kaleem Ahmed,Department of Wildlife Sciences, AligarhMuslim University, Aligarh UP, India. 202002,Email: [email protected]; Saima Bhat,Department of Botany, A.M.U. Aligarh, India.


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NEST AND NIDIFICATION ACTIVITIES OF THESPOONBILL (Platalea leucorodia) IN WESTERN GHATREGION OF SHIMOGA, KARNATAKA

by G.Y. Dayananda and B.B. Hosetti

Introduction

The spoonbill ( Platalea leucorodia) is spreadthroughout India. It is a colonial breeder,

nesting on moderate to tall-sized trees and shrubssuch as Vitex leucoxylon and Kirganelia reticulate,which stand amidst or near water bodies (Ali andRipley, 1983; Hancock, 1992; Gadhvi and Soni,2002). According to Ali and Ripley (1983), thebreeding season of the spoonbill in South Indiabegins during second week of July and extends upto November, depending on the monsoonconditions. These birds are characterized by havinga long neck, long legs, snow white marshyplumage, black and yellow spoon-shaped bill and

pale yellowish brown patch on the fore neck witha full nuchal crest in the breeding season. Theseare gregarious birds; they share nesting placeswith ibises, cormorants, herons and egrets. Thenesting site selection is an important factor in thebreeding success of bird species (Trevor Price andNitin Jamdar, 1991; Li and Martin, 1991;Ramachandran and Vijayan, 1994). The nestingactivity is an important component of breedingbehavior in birds. Though it is difficult to determinethe exact factors that govern the selection of siteson particular trees for nesting, there exists someevidence that preference was shown by certainwater birds. About 25 spoonbills breed every yearin Gudavi Bird Sanctuary (GBS).

Nesting activities of Spoonbill (Photo submitted by G.Y. Dayananda)

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Lack of detailed information on the species posesproblems for its conservation. Comprehensiveresearch to explain the apparent difference betweenthe known numbers of wintering and breedingindividuals is not available yet, and the spoonbillsbreeding biology itself is not known (Chang JongRyol, 2000). In this study the authors tried to fillthe lacunae on breeding behavior of spoonbills inthe GBS from courtship to nidification activities.

Study area

The Gudavi Bird Sanctuary was notified in 1989and is one of the well known bird sanctuaries ofKarnataka. It is located 13 km from Sorab Cityand 0.5 km from Gudavi village. This sanctuaryoccupies a waterspread area of 33 ha in the rainyseason, out of the total 73.68 ha area. Theremaining area is moist deciduous forestcomprising various tree species. The sanctuary islocated between latitude 14°25’ 59" to 14°26’ 41"and longitude 75° 6’43" to 75° 25’28".

Vegetation

The entire area was formerly covered with dense,moist deciduous forest and due to intensiveprotection efforts by the Forest Department thearea still has some greenery. Gudavi Sanctuaryembodies a diversified vegetation that attractsmigratory birds to take shelter and providessufficient space for them to construct their nestsfor breeding. The vegetation of GBS is comprisedof marshy plants and hydrophytes. The trees andshrubs are partially submerged and provide suitablenesting grounds for wetland birds. These nestingsites also provide the highest security frompredators.

Material and methods

The present study was carried out over threebreeding seasons (2003, 2004 and 2005) from Julyto December. Observations were made bothmorning and evening, before sunrise to sunset(spoonbill stays). The study was conducted withthe aid of 5 X 50 binoculars and available fieldguides. The breeding behavior of active pairs ofspoonbills was studied by monitoring the nest sitesfrom early morning to late evening for consecutive

days. Nidification activities, such as the numberof hours of labor for nest construction, the typeand amount of nesting material collected duringthe busy hours of nidification, average time spentin gathering sticks for nest building, average timeto carry the nesting material from its source tothe nest, nest inspection and re-arrangementactivities by nest occupants were recorded todetermine the roles of both sexes in nestingactivities.


Nesting season

Observations were made during the breedingseason (i.e., July to November) on the nesting ofspoonbill. However, in the study years (2003, 2004and 2005) observations of early nesting and latenesting were not made because the area receivedrain during the period of spoonbill breeding. Thesebirds start their nesting activity in July in GudaviBird Sanctuary. According to Lark (1968), thebreeding season is characteristic of the geographicalarea rather than species specific; accordingly, thebreeding season of the spoonbill varied overdifferent geographical areas. In general, nestingtook place after the rains and varied according tothe monsoon. Ali (1996) described the nestingseason of spoonbill as variable between July andNovember in South India. The presentobservations were recorded to determine thebreeding season of spoonbill from late July to thesecond week of December. Improvement ofbreeding conditions through good rains enhancedthe reproductive vigor (Chovda, 1997). Thecopulation process was more intensive duringnidification.

The male initiated courtship by preening thefemale’s cheek, head and neck. His materesponded by rubbing the males’ head and neck.This continued for 4-5 minutes, after which themale raised his head plumage, grasped the femalesbill about the mid point and initiated copulationfor 8-10 seconds. This process continued until theday before the final egg was laid. Extra paircopulation was not observed. The nest repairscontinued until breeding was over or until fledgingtook place.

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Nesting site selection

The nesting activities occurred in the Gudavi areaduring the 3rd week of July. The nesting siteselection was part of the courtship behavior. Uponarrival at the area each pair searched andinspected the vegetation and potential nesting spotsin the territory. The pair began to fly over theentire nesting area and then selected a suitableplace for nesting. This process took almost 4-5days and involved both the partners. Once anesting site on a tree was selected, the pairimmediately began to construct the nest. Duringthe three breeding seasons studied, the birds werefound to change their nesting sites. The selectednest sites were characterized by a significantlyhigh richness of the canopy and provided an idealnesting platform. Birds returned every year tobreed regularly at these places, which becametraditional nesting sites. This may be due to theavailability of plentiful food sources in thesurrounding area and safety for nest and nestlings(Parasharya and Naik, 1990; Carioscal et al.,1993; Gadhavi and Soni, 2002; Yahya, 2001). InGudavi Sanctuary there were 15 –16 nesting pairs,almost all of which breed in this sanctuary everyyear.

Nesting habits

In Gudavi Bird Sanctuary, 12 species of plantswere used for nesting. These included three treespecies and four species of shrubs; all were foundwithin the waterspread area. The spoonbill mainlyutilized two species for nesting and the remainingspecies were present in and around the sanctuary.The spoonbills preferred Kirganelia reticulata andVitex leucoxylon for nesting, because it was easyto construct nests on them and they provided densecanopy and an ideal nesting platform for thesebirds.

The spoonbills usually built nests at the top levelof trees that are standing in or around the waterbodies. However, nests were also observed ontop of partially submerged shrubs (Ali and Ripley,1983). Sometimes the thick canopy also preventedthe chicks from falling directly into the water oron the ground. In the case of GBS, the canopycover of Kirgenelia reticulata also providedprotection by minimizing the direct heat from the

open sun. The well-shaded nest does not requirewing shading by the parents for their chicks, whichbenefits the parents in conserving the energy(Gadhvi and Soni, 2002).

Nesting materials

The nesting material varied from nest to nest andwas dependent on the nesting site. The birdsseldom brought materials to the nest, but insteadutilized whatever materials were available aroundthe nest location. The spoonbill collected nestingsticks from Acacia nilotica, Kirganelia reticulata,Bombax aroundinaceae, Phylanthus polyphyllus,Lantana india, Vitex leucoxylon and Eupotoriumodoratum. The nesting material was availablenearby the sanctuary. Other materials like feathers,grasses and leaves were also seen in the nests.The bulk of the nest material was twigs of treesand shrubs. The parents collected different sizedtwigs from different trees. In nest construction,the large twigs were used in the basal part for afirm platform support or as a basement; medium-sized twigs were then placed just above this. Thesmall and thin twigs were placed in and aroundthe nest cup. The other materials like feather,grasses and leaves were used inside the nest cupto provide a soft bed for the eggs and chicks andsometimes used for patching work.

Nest size

The nest size varied from species to species andwas dependent on the size of the birds. Amongspoonbills the weight of the nest ranged from 1,750gms to 3,050 gms (X=2480, SD=480.20, n=5); thelength of the nest was 59 to 90 cm (X=74,SD=10.52); and the diameter of the nest rim was48 to 56 cm (X=51.2, SD=2.71). The diameter ofthe nest cup was 23 to 31 cm (X=27.4, SD=3.00)and the depth of the nest cup was 2.5 to 4 cm(X=3.06, SD=0.55). Based on the study it wasrevealed that this area is very suitable for spoonbillswith a very rich canopy and sufficient amount rawmaterials for nesting.

Nidification

Sometime breeding pairs have helpers to constructthe nest, but in the present case there were nohelpers assisting the spoonbills. Nests were built

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on well-branched trees and shrubs of Vitexleucoxylon and Kirganelia reticulata. Thespoonbills were observed to construct the nest byplacing 15-20 twigs as the basement substratebefore egg laying commenced and they continuedto add more twigs during incubation. The spoonbillin GBS started the nest building process just aftersunrise and work continued until the pair left toforage at around 10:30 to 11:00 am. It wasobserved that the male brought twigs to the nestand passed them to the female, who arranged themin order in the nest with the help of her bill. Theaddition of twigs was carried out in such a way toinsure that the chicks do not fall out as the nestsdeteriorate during the progress of the nestingperiod. These birds collected about 22-24 twigsevery day from the nesting trees and shrubs.

Summary

Figure 1: Gudavi Bird Sanctuary

The Gudavi Bird Sanctuary provides nesting sitesfor about 35 of spoonbills every year. The nestingsite selection is the part of courtship behavior andnesting activity is an important component ofbreeding behavior. These birds return to theirbreeding home regularly, making them traditionalnesting sites for them. The availability of suitablefood resources in the surrounding area and safenesting sites attracted these birds to the same site.The nesting materials varied from nest to nest andwere influenced by the nesting site or canopy. Nestsize also varied from species to species and wasdependent on the size of the birds. The nest andnesting site selection is a most important factorfor breeding success.

References

Ali, S. 1996. The book of Indian birds. OxfordUniversity Press, Mumbai.

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of India and Pakistan. Oxford UniversityPress, Delhi. 110-112.

Carrascal, L.M., L.M. Bautista and E. Lazaro.1993. Geographical variation in thedensity of the White Stork Ciconia ciconiain Spain: Influence of habitat structureand climate. Biol . Conserv. 65: 83-87.

Chavda, P.B. 1997. Studies on some ecologicalaspects of the Indian Black ibis(Pseudibis papillosa Temminck) atJunagadh and its surrounding area. Ph.D.thesis, Saurashtra University, Rojkot, India.

Chong Jong- Ryol., Pak U-II., Tim chyu-Yon andKim Tok-San. 2000. The breeding biologyof the Black-faced Spoonbill Plataleaminor. Wild bird society of Japan, Tokyo.Japan.(II edn) .11-18.

Gadhvi, I.R and V.C. Soni. 2002. Nest andnesting activities of the White ibis(Threskiornis melanocephalus Latham) inBhavnagar, Gujarat. Tigerpaper 29(2).

Hancock, J.A., Kushlan, J.A and M.P. Kahl. 1992.Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills of theWorld. Academic Press, London. 217-220.

Lark, D. 1968. Ecological adaptations forbreeding in birds. Muthuen and Co., London.

Li, P and T.E. Martin. 1991. Nest site selectionand nesting success of cavity-nesting

birds in high elevation forest drainage.Auk 108: 405-418.

Parasharya, B.M. and R.M. Naik. 1990.Ciconiforus birds breeding in Bhavnagarcity, Gujarat; a study of their nesting andplea for conservation. In: J.C. Daniel andJ.S. Serrao (eds): Conservation in developingcountries: Problems and prospects. Pp.429-445. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Prakash, M. and C.K. Arora. 1997.Encyclopaedia of LaboratoryTechniques,Vol.3. Birds in Laboratory.Anmol Publication.NewDelhi.

Price, Trevor and Nitin Jambar. 1991. Breedingbiology of the yellow browned leafwarbler Phylloscopus inornatus onKashmir. JBNHS, 88(1): 1-16.

Ramachandran, N.K and V.S. Vijayan. 1994.Distribution and general ecology of theSarus crane (Grus antigone) in KeoladeoNational Park, Rajasthan. JBNHS. 91: 211-222.

Yahya, H.A.S. 2001.Biology of Indian Barbets.Authors Press, New Delhi. 97-99.

Authors’ address: Department of Applied Zoology,Biosciences complex, Jnana Sahyadri,Shankaraghatta – 577 451, Shimoga, Karnataka,India.

Nesting activities of Spoonbill (Photo submitted by G.Y. Dayananda)

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Vol. XXII: No.4 October-December 2008

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FOREST NEWSFOREST NEWS

Vol. XXII: No. 4 Oct-Dec 2008

Meeting the challenge of timber legality verification

Prepared by Eva Muller, Chief, Forest Policy Service, FAO HQs ([email protected])

Worldwide, interest in timber legality is growing.The hand-wringing that has sometimescharacterized debate on illegal logging is giving wayto practical measures designed to increase theproportion of timber that is harvested and tradedaccording to the law. Arguably, the verification oftimber legality can not only ensure access tomarkets that might otherwise be restricted, it canalso encourage good forest governance.

The FAO/VERIFOR International Workshop onLegality of Traded Timber: the DevelopmentChallenges took place at FAO Headquarters inRome, 24-26 November 2008. The meetinggathered about 100 forest governance practitionersfrom 32 countries and several internationalorganizations to discuss issues surrounding legalityverification, including multi-stakeholder dialogueprocesses and their management; the economicsof legality assurance of traded timber; the role ofnew technologies in forest governance reform;mechanisms and structures for independent forestmonitoring; legality standards and their definition;and the convergence of policy processes at nationaland international levels.

The workshop marked the end of four years ofresearch under the VERIFOR project, an appliedresearch collaboration headed by the OverseasDevelopment Institute (ODI) and involving partnersin Africa, Latin America and Asia(www.VERIFOR.org). It also provided alaunching platform for a new EC-funded projectby which FAO will provide support for FLEGT-related issues to countries of Africa, the Caribbeanand the Pacific (ACP countries) (www.FAO.org/forestry).

The outcomes of the workshop are summarizedhere in the form of key messages based on thelessons learned from country efforts and fromthe research by the VERIFOR project.

Timber legality verification can be aneffective policy option for improving forestgovernance and market access, providednational ownership conditions are met

The verification of timber legality will helpreassure consumers that by buying tropicaltimber they are not supporting illegal loggingwhile, at the same time, also providingproducers with access to markets that mightotherwise close altogether. Initiatives to providetimber legality verification typically combinesupport for governance reform and improvedforest law enforcement with the leverage thatcan be provided by market demand for verifiedtimber.

Some analysts suggest that timber legalityverification can be a stepping stone to the wideruptake of certification because it focusesattention on global wood product tracking andlabelling and primes the markets. Others arguethat timber legality verification could makecertification redundant as long as it guaranteesmarket access. However, European publicprocurement schemes will soon requiresustainable as well as legal timber, so the twomovements are likely to converge, at least formarkets such as these.

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Multi-stakeholder processes are anessential component of effective forestgovernance reform

Recent experience has shown the value of multi-stakeholder processes (MSPs) in building the trustthat is needed for public confidence in officialdecisions and better policy outcomes. MSPs arenot simply about getting stakeholders to sit at thesame table; they are also about improvingtransparency and accountability, raising awareness,and increasing knowledge.

By bringing a greater range of views andexperiences – including those of previouslymarginalized groups – to the table, MSPs are alsolikely to lead to more efficient and effective policies.MSPs can be expensive and time-consuming. Inthe long run, however, policies developed throughan effective MSP are likely to be more cost-effective than “top-down” policies that ultimatelyfail to resolve conflicts.

For MSPs to be successful, there needs to be clarityas to who is participating and why, and who isbeing excluded. They work best when they have aclear mandate, defined rules of engagement,accountability and a commitment toimplementation. MSPs are not a substitute for goodgovernment, but can lead to better governance.

Forest illegality is not just a matter of moralitybut also of economics

If all interest groups value the forest equally, aneffective forest policy would ensure that each paysan equal share of the costs associated withmanaging the forest. In reality, however, manystakeholders do not pay their share of the cost,which then fall disproportionately on the forestowners or traditional users. In forests that areundervalued in this way, illegal logging anddeforestation inevitably become prevalent.

In some places, more than half the economic rentof a forest can be wasted through processinginefficiency. Nevertheless, even in efficientoperations the rent obtained from timber alone isstill often insufficient for profitability. Laws mightbe required to ensure that other forest stakeholders,

including the public at large, pays their share ofthe forest management costs.

Unnecessary barriers are often put in the way ofoperators, particularly those that are small-scaleor marginalized. Legality verification mechanismsneed to be implemented in ways that enable suchstakeholders to both act within the law and makea profit. The regulations with which they mustcomply should be kept simple, and the costs ofthe verification mechanism must be as low aspossible. Governments could also establish facilitiesto assist small operators to do their business legally.

Forest law enforcement should aim to reduceharm and ensure the optimal payment of forestrent

Most laws operate on the principle of deterrence– the inhibition of criminal behaviour by fear ofsanctions or penalties. The level of deterrence is afunction of the probability of detection and theseverity of the sanction. High sanctions with lowdetection rates would be inefficient. Thus, legalsystems should aim to set “reasonable” penaltiesthat are proportionate to the level of harm and toadjust enforcement accordingly.

Forest-related tax evasion and corruption areintimately linked to the structure of the forestlicensing and revenue system and to other fiscalpolicies. Reducing tax evasion requires increasedmonitoring and a system of fines. Since monitoringcan be costly, lawmakers should aim for a systemin which the increased revenue produced bymonitoring is at least greater than the cost ofmonitoring.

In countries where the legal system is functioningwell, the perceived probability of detection is higherthan the actual risk. Increasing information aboutefforts being made to enforce forest laws cantherefore help to increase compliance.

In the development of legality standards,simplicity should be the aim

A timber legality verification system requiresstandards against which legality can be assessed.Important considerations for the development ofsuch standards are which legislation should be

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included in the standard and which actors shouldbe held accountable.

An illustrative example is the Indonesian standardfor legal verification which comprises origin oftimber and traceability. Timber must be harvestedby the rightful party in the designated forest areas,with due regard for traditional forest users; timbercompanies must comply with all laws andregulations pertaining to environmental and socialsafeguards; and harvesting activities must complywith all legal felling systems and procedures,including – but not limited to – the payment of allfees. Moreover, all timber must be traceable to itslegal source. The government and an independentthird party will work together in managing theverification process.

Similar processes have also been under way inother countries. A guiding principle in most hasbeen to make the legislation that sets out legalitystandards as simple as possible and to reduce thecost of compliance.

The independence of timber legality monitoringmust be guaranteed by the state

A paradox of timber legality verification is the needto ensure both its independence and itscompatibility with national sovereignty.Independence has three dimensions: autonomy indecision-making; impartiality; and neutrality.

Most timber verification models involveindependent forest monitoring (IFM), which canbe defined as activities undertaken by third parties(non-governmental or private sector) on behalf ofthe state to monitor official processes of resourceutilization and assessment. It is designed to givecredibility to the legality verification system andto provide data for improving the system over time.True independence is difficult to achieve, but asystem of checks and balances – such as the useof external observers – will help reduce the risk ofundue political interference. Ultimately,independence cannot be assumed; it must beconferred by the state through contract, agreementor law.

New technologies are helping forest lawenforcement, transparency and better

governance. Institutional support, however,is essential for their effective deployment

Technological tools available today include: remotesensing; digital photography and videography;radar; lidar; geotracking; geodatabanks;communication technologies such as the internetand mobile phones; and software that enables theintegration and analysis of large quantities of data.Well used, they can facilitate transparency, improveresponse times against transgressors, decrease thecosts of monitoring, and democratise access toinformation.

Technology is useless, however, unless appliedwithin a framework that guarantees: 1) the capacityto analyze the data generated by the technology;2) political commitment to law enforcement; and3) a management system that leads to action onthe ground.

Technology tools need to be organized intosystems. Systems to detect deforestation and forestdegradation, for example, can be integrated withsystems to track logs. When combined withsystems for the authorization of forest operationsand species identification they can be used to alertauthorities to illegal activities and to verify timberlegality.

There is significant potential for convergencebetween timber legality verification and thelikely demands of REDD in post-2012arrangements on climate change

There is a high probability that reducing emissionsfrom deforestation and forest degradation (REDD)will be included in post-2012 arrangements onclimate change. Many of the drivers of forest lossand forest degradation are illegal, to varying degrees,so there is a clear overlap between REDD andtimber legality verification.

Under most concepts of REDD, payments willbe made to help reduce deforestation and probablyalso forest degradation, although it is unclear ifthis will be through a market-based or fund-basedmechanism (or both). Some of the drivers ofdeforestation and forest degradation can beaddressed by payments. It is difficult, however, todirectly address illegal activities through payments,


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so where such activities are prevalent there willbe a need to address underlying causes, includingpoor forest governance.

Many of those involved in negotiations over climatechange know little about forests and the forest law

enforcement issues that need to be addressed. Theforest sector needs to build links with such peopleand to promote better understanding among them.

Illegal logging in the Philippines (Photo: Patrick B. Durst)

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Harmonizing reporting on forests and forestry

Masahiro Otsuka1, Mette Loyche Wilkie2, Monica Garzuglia3, Masakazu Kashio4

A dizzying array of international conventions andorganizations request national governments toregularly provide up-to-date data on the status oftheir forests and on activities related to therespective conventions and action programs.There’s no doubt that such reporting is important,but many countries face considerable difficultiesin reporting to various processes because of limitedtechnical and financial capacities and because ofthe divergence of forest-related terms, definitionsand reporting methods used by the variousconventions and processes. In addition, sincedistinct national agencies are often responsible forreporting under different mechanisms – usingdiffering methodologies, definitions and procedures– inconsistencies and confusion are commonwithin the data being reported by individualcountries.

FAO is actively working with countries and otherforest-related organizations to enhance capacity inforest monitoring, assessment and reporting. Keyobjectives are to harmonize forest-related termsand definitions and to strengthen consultation,communication and collaboration among agenciesresponsible for reporting forest-related informationand data.

As part of this effort, a regional workshop on“Strengthening of Harmonization of National

Reporting to the Global Forest ResourcesAssessment (FRA) 2010 and Other InternationalProcesses on Forests in Asia” was held in KualaLumpur, Malaysia, 13-16 October 2008, incollaboration with the Forestry Department ofMalaysia. Sixty-two persons participated in theworkshop, representing 24 Asian countries and 5international organizations. The workshop aimedto facilitate harmonization and streamlining ofnational reporting to international processes andto provide technical assistance to the NationalCorrespondents to the FRA 2010.

Presentations were made and discussions held onvarious international reporting processes related toforests, efforts to harmonize national reporting,initiatives to harmonize and streamline thematicindicators for reporting processes, and future stepsfor harmonizing forest-related reporting.

Participants discussed challenges in overcominginconsistent terminology and definitions amonginternational processes, limited reporting capacitiesfor specific thematic aspects, dispersion of dataamong various agencies and lack of communicationand coordination. They also identified problemsrelated to major indicators in thematic reporting(e.g., forest extent/health, biodiversity, soil andwater protection, forest production, biomass/carbon, socio-economic and institutional aspects),including: (i) inconsistent assessment of forest areasand other variables and their changes over time;(ii) lack of effective tools and methodologies; (iii)inconsistent terms, definitions and classifications;(iv) deficiencies in data collection; and (v)insufficient coordination among national agencies.

Coordination among different agencies is criticallyimportant to ensure effective reporting by eachcountry. Workshop participants emphasized theneed to keep forest terms, definitions andclassifications as simple and flexible as possible,to allow them to easily be adapted to nationalconditions and needs. The value of sharing

1 Forestry Officer, Strengthening Monitoring,Assessment and Reporting on Sustainable ForestManagement in Asia (GCP/INT/988/JPN), FAO/RAP;E-mail: [email protected] Senior Forestry Officer, Global Forest ResourcesProgramme 2010, FAO HQs;E-mail: [email protected] Forestry Officer, Global Forest ResourcesProgramme 2010, FAO HQs;E-mail: [email protected] Forest Resources Officer, FAO/RAP; E-mail:[email protected]

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experiences and lessons learned and buildingnational capacity through various projects andthematic assessment initiatives (e.g., biomass,carbon, biodiversity, etc.) was also recognized.Workshop participants also noted the importanceof linking action-oriented reporting and outcome-based reporting (situations and trends). Nationalgovernments were urged to adopt consistentterminologies, developed through technicalconsultations with the various internationalprocesses.

Workshop participants acknowledged on-goingefforts of international and regional organizationsfor streamlining and harmonizing internationalreporting. At the global level, FAO is spearheadingsuch harmonization together with many of themembers of the Collaborative Partnership onForests. For example, FRA 2010 will encompassthe reporting requirements on quantitativeindicators for the MDG, CBD and UNFF. It willalso help countries report on carbon stocks inforests for the UNFCCC and incorporate many ofthe ITTO criteria and indicators. For theseaspects, definitions have already been harmonized.At the regional level, FRA 2010 also incorporatesmany of the indicators established by the ASEANC&I process.

In Asia and the Pacific, the Japan-funded FAOproject “Strengthening Monitoring, Assessment,and Reporting (MAR) on Sustainable ForestManagement (SFM) in Asia” (GCP/INT/988/JPN)was established to facilitate harmonization andbroadening of national forest monitoring,assessment and reporting to enhance sustainableforest management.

The workshop encouraged internationalorganizations to continue efforts to furtherharmonize terms, definitions, classifications, andindicators for coherent reporting by countries andthe development of joint reporting guidelines.Participants expressed the need for technical andfinancial assistance from international organizationsin clarifying methodologies, collecting field data,and interpreting updated remote sensing imagery.Coordination should also be strengthened amongnational agencies and other stakeholders topromote national- and regional-level harmonizationof forest-related reporting. Regional cooperationamong countries is expected to improve nationalcapacities for forest-related reporting by sharinginformation and expertise. Participants welcomedthe initiative by ASEAN to establish a commonregional data base on forest-related information.

New project to support enterprise development in Philippinesforest communities

The Government of New Zealand will provide$302,399 to FAO to support the implementationof the Department of Environment and NaturalResources (DENR) project “Enhancing NaturalResources Management through EnterpriseDevelopment in the Philippines.”

The project, backed by the New Zealand Agencyfor International Development (NZAID), will runfor three years and will aim to enhanceenvironmental management and development oflivelihood opportunities for forest dwellers throughimproved forest use. Six sites will be piloted bythe project.

DENR Secretary Jose Atienza Jr. said that forestcover is a special concern in the Philippines –estimated at only 7.17 million hectares. At the sametime, poverty occurs in upland areas on a largescale due to the lack of economic opportunities,unemployment, poor infrastructure and lack ofbasic services.

The DENR also acknowledged that the Philippinesis among countries in the tropics with the fastestrate of forest cover loss due to unsustainableharvesting and logging activities and the conversionof forestland to non-forest use.

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Findings and recommendations from the “Enhancingsustainable forest harvesting in Asia” project

Contributed by Patrick Dugan, Project Coordinator ([email protected]) and Patrick Durst, SeniorForestry Officer, FAO/RAP ([email protected])

Project background

Harvesting is a major element of forestmanagement. Efficient and environmentally-soundharvesting methods are crucial to achievingsustainable forest management. In this context,more than 10 years ago, FAO lent its support to adecision by the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission(APFC) to develop a Code of Practice for ForestHarvesting in Asia-Pacific. Published in 1999,the Code provided a model for the preparation ofnational codes across the region.

The “Enhancing sustainable forest harvesting inAsia” Project (GCP/RAS/192/JPN) was approvedfor implementation in May 2003. Grant fundingwas provided by the Forest Agency of Japan. FAOwas designated as executing agency at the regionallevel, working in collaboration with counterpartagencies at country levels (i.e., in Lao PDR,Myanmar and Vietnam). The project becameoperational in June 2003 and was completed on30 June 2008.

Objectives of the project

The overall objective of the project was tostrengthen national capacities for developing andimplementing national codes of practice for forestharvesting to achieve sustainable forestmanagement.

Specific objectives were to:raise awareness of the need and opportunitiesfor sustainable forest management and betterforest harvesting;facilitate improved forest harvesting; andstrengthen national and local capacities forimproved forest harvesting.

Results and conclusions

Framework established for participation ofstakeholders in planning and implementation

Sustainable forest management partnershipcommittees (SFMPCs) were organized in eachcountry. These committees met regularlythroughout project implementation. They providedvenues for concerned sectors to discuss and helpshape policy, while also serving as oversight bodiesto keep track of project progress. SFMPCmembership included government, privatebusiness, media and non-governmentalorganization (NGO) representatives. Organizationof SFMPCs has created a framework upon whichadditional participatory initiatives can build in thefuture.

Discussions at SFMPC meetings increasedawareness of the benefits that can be derived fromsustainable forest management (SFM) and therealization that SFM is an achievable goal. Insightsalong these lines were particularly relevant forSFMPC members who lacked exposure to real-world conditions prevailing in the forests and hadminimal or no appreciation of the forest dynamicsthat bring about natural regeneration andrestoration.

Increased awareness of the need and opportunitiesfor sustainable forest management and betterforest harvesting, existing experiences reviewedand relevant information produced

National experts and international consultantscollaborated on targeted studies that: (i) examinedthe status of forest harvesting practices in eachcountry; (ii) assessed training needs; and (iii)formulated recommendations for improvement inboth of these areas.


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Local and national workshops and seminars wereorganized to review and discuss results of thestudies conducted to highlight successful examplesof SFM and reduced impact logging (RIL), whilealso identifying problems that needed to beaddressed.

Appropriate national codes for forest harvestingprepared, approved and disseminated

Prior to project implementation, Lao PDR andMyanmar had already produced draft harvestingcodes. However, neither of these drafts had beenformally approved for implementation. Theproject assisted further refinement and approvalof the earlier drafts in Lao PDR and Myanmar.Project assistance enabled Vietnam to also developa code. Application of code provisions hascommenced in all three countries, but additionalyears of effort are required before nationwideimplementation is achieved.

Appropriate RIL guidelines prepared anddisseminated

Simple illustrated handbooks (i.e. guidelines) wereproduced to explain RIL in graphic, easily-understood terms. In this regard, the projectbenefited from collaboration with an ITTOinitiative in Indonesia that provided a model foradaptation to conditions in the project countries.

Suitable project areas and demonstrationestablished for operational activities and research

Demonstration-cum-training sites were identifiedin each country, and plans were formulated foroperational activities and research. “Hands-on”training was the principal activity conducted atthese sites with participants applying what theylearned from lectures and training manuals. Thesites also provided visitors and media withopportunities to observe forest harvestingoperations and become aware that SFM is arealistic objective.

Capacity strengthened through training

The project provided RIL training for 1,877government forestry officers, private sectorsupervisors and forest workers (i.e., Lao PDR:

435 trainees, Myanmar: 735 trainees, Vietnam: 707trainees). Training agendas included all phases ofharvesting operations, beginning with thepreparation of harvesting plans, and movingonward to identification and marking of buffersand “no-cut” zones, tree marking, road and skidtrail layout and construction, directional felling,proper bucking, skidding and transport to logdecks.Each phase of the training emphasized how bestto reduce impact on the forest and therebycontribute to successful regeneration for futureharvests. Training on preparation of harvestingplans and road/skid trail layout and constructionhighlighted the potential to reduce costs by avoidingmistakes. The objective was to help dispel themistaken notion that RIL merely increases costsbut does not provide financial benefits.

Two special training topics were conducted inclassrooms (i.e., application of the RILSIMsoftware and utilization of protocols to monitorand audit compliance with provisions of harvestingcodes). Additionally, in respect of training, forestharvesting codes and guidelines were successfullyintegrated into the curricula of forestry educationinstitutions in the three project countries.

Overall conclusions

With support from the project, national codes arenow in place in the three project countries,Sustainable Forest Management PartnershipCommittees (SFMPCs) are operating, and almost2,000 individuals have received RIL training. Eachcountry now has a core of persons equipped withthe knowledge required to train others. Mediacoverage, workshops, seminars and SFMPCmeetings have helped increase awareness of thebenefits of RIL and SFM.

Recommendations

The initiatives listed below are recommended tosustain and build on the progress achieved duringimplementation of Project GCP/RAS/192/JPN:

Country level

Ensure conscientious implementation ofmonitoring and audit procedures that assessthe extent to which code provisions are applied.

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From among persons trained by the project,identify individuals who express interest intraining others, and have the capability toimpart knowledge and skills effectively.Selection of trainers should not be confined topersons from government agencies and theacademe. It will be important to identifytrainers with extensive “hands-on” skills suchas experienced chainsaw operators.Preparation of harvesting plans should be givenextra emphasis in training, particularly forprivate sector entities.Reduce impediments to animal-powered/labor-intensive harvesting.Review and revise scaling regulations andprocedures to facilitate increased applicationof animal-powered skidding.Clarify and simplify the ground rules for activecommunity participation in (and benefit from)RIL and SFM.Countries should continue to plan andimplement field trips for key decision makers

to help increase awareness, understandingand appreciation of forest management issues,as well as benefits from RIL and SFM.Develop and put in place incentives for privatesector implementation of RIL.

Regional/international level

Provide financial assistance and resourcepersons for workshops that combine trainingand/or development of tools with the exchangeof lessons learned.Working in collaboration with NGOs, hire localexperts as full-time, in-country coordinatorsto promote RIL and code implementation.Seek to include presentations on lessonslearned and experiences in implementing codesof practice in international meetings to enhanceawareness and understanding of issues andopportunities.

Training in tree felling is important to ensure greater safety and to minimize damage to the log andresidual forest (Photo: Graham Wilkinson)


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Forest recovery in abandoned grassland with Assisted NaturalRegeneration (ANR) in the Philippines

By Kikang Bae1, Patrick B. Durst2, and Ernesto A. Cadaweng3

Introduction

In the Philippines, the conversion of primaryforests into grasslands has increased dramaticallyin the last 30 years. For example, degraded areasin the Philippines are largely covered with cogon(Imperata cylindrica) grass and the total area isabout 5 million hectares (Gerrits et al., 1997). Oncethese lands are abandoned it is unclear if they willrevert to forests or if they will become permanentgrasslands, but it is known that grassland areaswill naturally revert to secondary forests throughthe process of plant succession if fires areprevented (Friday et al., 1999). However, in recenttimes this may not be a regular process due to thehigh population density in upland areas and manygrassland areas being used for farming or grazing(Rebugio et al., 2005). For this reason, manyrehabilitation strategies, such as agroforestry, treeplantations, and assisted natural regeneration(ANR), have been carried out to restore degradedforest lands in the Philippines.

More recently, the Philippine government has trieda novel approach through assisted naturalregeneration (ANR). ANR is a compromise methodin that it better protects biodiversity thanconventional plantations and requires lessinvestment. Therefore, ANR aims to strike abalance between high-cost efforts to restorebiodiversity to small areas and the establishmentof commercial plantations over large areas focusedon productivity (Shono et al., 2007).

This study focused on: 1) the processes of forestdestruction and rehabilitation or restoration, fromforests to grassland and vice versa; 2) impacts ofANR application in the Philippines; and 3) thepotential for expanding ANR implementation in thePhilippines.

Process of forest destruction – forest tograssland

The Philippines was originally covered mostly withprimary forests. Through human intervention, theforests have become “logged-over” or degraded,and new vegetation – second growth forest – hasemerged because of the opening of the canopy.Moreover, through continuous humaninterventions made in the second-growth forest,the bigger trees left over from logging operationshave been steadily removed. Areas graduallybecome reduced to a young forest and require alonger time to recover if left alone. The need foragricultural lands further destroys these youngforests as they are cleared for slash-and-burnfarming. These areas, if left alone, will alsoultimately recover, but it will take a much longertime if trees and root stock are removed and thearea is continuously farmed. The time period offorest destruction largely depends on the influx ofpeople into the forest areas. Inevitably, however,the time period for the return of the forest will bemuch longer.

1 E-mail: [email protected] Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP([email protected])3Bagong Pagasa Foundation, Inc., BarangayKalatagbak, Quezon Municipality, Province ofPalawan, Philippines ([email protected])

________________________ Process of rehabilitation or restoration –grassland to forest

Grasslands are normally burned every dry season,either accidentally or purposefully. They are burnedfor grazing purposes, and sometimes because ofhunting, as young grasses are very palatable tograzing animals and hunted animals such as deer

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(Figure 1. Framwork of process of forest destruction, forest to grassland)

and wild pigs. After burning, the grasses growmore vigorously, and in the case of cogon moretillers emerge from the ground after burning.Accidental fires also occur through untendedcampfires or lighted cigarettes thrown into drygrasses.

If these grasses are not disturbed for some time,the growth of bigger grasses like talahib(Saccharum spontaneum), bamboos or brushspecies will start to appear in the area. At the sametime that these species appear, some vines will alsocome in. Through time, if these areas are notdisturbed, pioneer tree species such as Macarangasp. will come in and then hardier pioneers such asanabiong (Trema orientalis) follow. The entry ofclimax species or permanent forest cover willevolve later – the rate of which will be dependenton the availability of mother trees as well as seeddispersants such as birds and animals.

Definition and history of ANR

Assisted natural regeneration (ANR) is a strategyfor rehabilitating degraded forests by takingadvantage of existing wildlings, including pioneerspecies and residual climax trees. The mainprinciple being followed in the implementation ofANR is vegetative succession. ANR has been used

in many countries (sometimes under various othernames) to restore degraded forest areas. ThePhilippines is often cited as advanced in terms ofinstitutionalizing ANR as an official forestlandrehabilitation approach (Dugan Jr., 2007). In 1989,DENR (Department of Environment and NaturalResources) issued Memorandum Circular No. 17that specifically encourages the use of ANR forforest rehabilitation.

Environmental and socio-economical impactsfrom ANR

In response to the forest rehabilitation needs, overthe past decade, considerable efforts were madeby governments, the private sector and non-governmental organizations in the Philippines(Rebugio et al., 2007). One of the most commonapproaches has been tree plantation establishmentby national governments. This conventionalapproach is often carried out on a large scale –usually using a small number of fast-growing exoticspecies – and the value of the plantation is usuallysufficient to justify the cost of excludingdisturbances (Lamb, 2003). However, the successof such reforestation is questioned byenvironmentalists because of poor species-sitematching, low species diversity, and inadequatemaintenance. ANR is considered an attractive


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alternative because it relies on natural processesthat are influenced by the prevailing conditions inthe area, relies mainly on native species, andpromotes species diversity.

There are several socio-economical benefits fromANR. In comparison with conventionalreforestation methods the cost of ANR issignificantly lower because it requires far fewerseeds/seedlings and less site preparation. In its mostbasic form, ANR does not involve planting, whichmeans ANR may cost from 60-90 percent lessthan conventional forest regeneration andrehabilitation practices. For this reason, morereforestation can be implemented and serve severalenvironmental services such as biodiversity, soilhealth, carbon sequestration, and improvement ofair/water quality (FORRU, 2005). ANR can alsoimprove the quality of life of the local people. ANRhas been successfully implemented in villageprojects on national lands and individual farms,and it is reported that on-site restoration activitiescreated jobs and generated revenues in many earlyANR sites (FORRU, 2005).

Conclusions and recommendation

The implementation of ANR has had positiveenvironmental and socio-economical impacts, ascurrently assessed. However, documentation ofANR areas and follow-up support is limited.Research in ANR is also very minimal, and recordsrelated to the application or implementation of ANRhave not been standardized.

To promote more successful implementation andcontinuity of ANR, the following arerecommended: 1) Base line information onenvironmental and socio-economical parametersis critical for monitoring ANR in the future; 2)ANR training and follow-up activities are necessaryto manage ANR areas sustainably; and 3) Studieson income-generating opportunities in communityforests for local development are needed.

References

Dugan Jr., C. H. Patrick. 2007. Assisted naturalregeneration and low-cost forestregeneration and rehabilitation

approaches: Small GPPTE Initiatives.UNDP-SGPPTF.

FORRU (Forest Restoration Research Unit).2005. How to plant a forest: Theprinciples and practice of restoringtropical forests. Biology Department,Science Faculty, Chiang Mai University,Thailand.

Friday, K. S., M. E. Drilling and D. P. Garrity.1999. Imperata grassland rehabilitationusing agroforestry and assisted naturalregeneration. International Center forResearch in Agroforestry, Southeast AsianRegional Research Programme, Bogor,Indonesia. 167 p.

Gerrits, RV, JNM Garcia and RA Cramb. 1997.Hedgerow adoption in the hinterland ofCebu City: A reconnaissance survey.SEARCA-UQ Uplands Research Project,Working Paper No. 20, January 1997, 40 p.

Lamb, D. 2003. Large-scale ecologicalrestoration of degraded tropical forestlands: The potential role of timberplantations. Restoration Ecology 6: 271-279.

Rebugio L. Lucrecio, Juan M. Pulhin, Antonio P.Carandang, Eleno O. Peralta, Leni D.Camacho and Nathaniel C. Bantayan. 2007.Forest restoration and rehabilitation in thePhilippines. In: Keep Asia Green Vol. I“Southeast Asia”, p.127-170IUFRO.

Rebugio L. Lucrecio, Rex Victor O. Cruz, WilfredoM. Carandang, Enrique L. Tolentino Jr.,Loretto U. Dela Cruz, Rodel D. Lasco,Roberto G. Visco, Josefina T. Dizon, FlorenciaB. Pulhin, Roberto V. Dalmacio, Mathaniel C.Bantayan, Margaret M. Calderon and Leni D.Camacho. 2005. Forest restoration in thePhilippines: A review of research anddevelopment initiatives. AKECOP (ASEAN-Korea Environmental Cooperation Project),Seoul, Korea.

Shono Kenichi, Ernesto A. Cadaweng and PatrickB. Durst. 2007. Application of assistednatural regeneration to restore degradedtropical forestlands. Restoration Ecology.15(4): 620-626.

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Assisted natural regeneration (ANR) in the Philippines. Grass pressing and protection against fire tosuppress Imperata grass to allow tree seedlings to establish and eventually to shade out the grass.(Photo: Patrick Durst)


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RAP forestry staff movement

Beau Damen, a national of Australia, joined theRAP forestry group in July 2008 as a BioenergyOfficer under the Australian Youth Ambassadorsfor Development (AYAD) Programme. He hasbeen charged with supporting RAPO’s variousbioenergy related activities over the coming year,including a regional project on renewable energyfor rural development in the Greater Mekong sub-region, the FAO Bioenergy and Food SecurityProject in Thailand, and a number of thematicworkshops on bioenergy and climate change.

Prior to joining forestry group, Mr. Damen was asenior officer within the Australian Government’sDepartment of Resources, Energy and Tourismalternative fuels team, specializing in biofuels. Hehas also worked for the Australian Governmenton major resources and energy projects, naturalresource management issues and regional tradeagreements.

Sverre Tvinnereim, a national of Norway, joinedthe RAP forestry group in October 2008 as anAssociate Professional Officer with special focuson bioenergy. Among his duties will be to helpcoordinate the Bioenergy and Food Security(BEFS) project with FAO Headquarters in Rome,organize workshops related to bioenergy, preparea thematic paper on the outlook for bioenergy inthe Asia-Pacific region for the next decade andassist in the organization of APFC events, includingthe second Asia-Pacific Forestry Week to be heldin China in 2010.

Mr. Tvinnereim holds a Candidatus Magisterli fromthe University of Bergen, Norway, and aCandidatus Mercatorius in Business Administrationfrom the Norwegian School of Economics andBusiness Administration, Norway. Before comingto RAP, he worked as an international adviser atthe University of Tromsø in Norway and as atrainee on economic/political analysis at the RoyalNorwegian Embassy in Athens, Greece.

Tattanakorn Moekchantuk, a national ofThailand, joined the RAP forestry group inDecember 2008 as a Coordination Consultant forthe Bioenergy and Food Security Project (BEFS).Her main duties include coordinating with involvedorganizations and organizing meetings/workshopsrelated to the project.

Ms. Moekchantuk was formerly a consultant forFAO’s Integrated Pest Management (IPM) projectand provided backstopping on Non FormalEducation to the Department of AgriculturalExtension, Thailand and FAO IPM, Lao PDR.Before joining FAO/RAP, she worked as an IPMtrainer at the Thai Education Foundation, was aThai language teacher at the Thai-ChineseInternational School, a Language and Cross-Culture trainer with the US Peace Corps/Thailand,and a teacher at a refugee camp.

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ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

INDONESIAN FORESTS SUFFER FROMLACK OF SUPPORTAn official from the Indonesian Forestry Ministryhas indicated that community forest programs inthe provinces of West Nusa Tenggara, Yogyakartaand Lampung are unlikely to meet their targetedgoal of 400,000 hectares of community-managedforest by 2009. The official alleged that only 8,600hectares of forest have been dedicated to theprogram since its launch in December 2007.Inadequate support from local administrations wascited as the reason for slow progress.– The Jakarta Post –

BIODIVERSITY BANK ESTABLISHEDA biodiversity bank has been established to raisefunds to protect and conserve the biodiversity-rich34,000 hectare Malua Forest Reserves on the eastcoast of Sabah, Malaysia. The Malua WildlifeHabitat Conservation Bank, or Malua BioBank,will be jointly managed by New Forests, aninternational environmental investmentmanagement and advisory services firm, and theSabah state government. The bank is believed tobe the first of its kind in Asia.– The New Straits Times –

RM25 MILLION BOOST FOR FORESTRESTORATION IN SABAH, MALAYSIAPlantation giant Sime Darby committed RM25million for conservation work in Sabah, Malaysia.The project encompasses the rehabilitation of theforests in one of the largest orangutan conservationareas in the world. The contribution will be spreadover the next 10 years.– The Star –

CRUNCH TIME FOR INDIA’S TIGERSIndia has lost more than half of its tiger populationin the past five years, a new government tigercensus showed. The National Tiger ConservationAuthority estimates the population around 1,160tigers, down from 3,642 tigers in 2002. Experts

warn that tigers will be lost altogether from Indiaif attention is not paid to their conservation.– Environment News Service –

INTERNATIONAL DAY AGAINSTMONOCULTURE PLANTATIONSA number of environmental and socialorganizations declared 21 September 2008 as“International Day against Monoculture TreePlantations.” The organizations hoped to drawattention to the potential for industrial treeplantations to cause social upheaval andenvironmental degradation.– Monganbay.com –

ALMOST HALF OF AUSTRALIAUNTOUCHED BY HUMANSA study has found that more than 40 percent ofAustralia, an area the size of India, remainsuntouched by humans. The study purported thatAustralia’s three million square kilometers ofuntouched wilderness makes the country as criticalto the world’s environment as the Amazonrainforests.– Reuters –

MAPPING MYANMAR FORESTS FORWILDLIFEResearchers have built up a bank of valuable dataon Myanmar’s tiger population and other smaller,lesser-known carnivores. The researchers, from theWildlife Conservation Society’s Myanmarprogramme, used camera traps to survey the 3,250square kilometer core area of the Hukaung tigerreserve for evidence of the big cats. Other surveysalso confirmed the continued existence of 18 smallercarnivores in a variety of habitats across Myanmar.– The Economic Times –


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FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. This issueof FOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

4-6 January 2009. Bangalore, India. Invasive Plants in the Tropics: Ecology, Management and Livelihoods- An International Conference. Contact: ATREE, [email protected]

March 2009 (dates tba). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Regional training on ASEAN Criteria & Indicators.Contact: Masahiro Otsuka, Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra AtitRoad, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; Tel.(662)697-4130; Fax:(662)697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

16-20 March 2009. Rome, Italy. Committee on Forestry (COFO) - 19th Session and World ForestWeek. Contact: Douglas Kneeland, Chief FOEL and Secretary COFO, FAO Forestry Department, Viadella Terme di Caracalla, 00100, Rome, Italy; E-mail: [email protected]

6-8 April 2009. APFSOS Scientific Committee Meeting. Chiang Mai, Thailand. Contact: Patrick Durst,Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200,Thailand; Tel.(662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail. [email protected]

26 May 2009. Rome, Italy. Advisory Committee on Paper and Wood Products – 50th Session. Contact:Joachim Lorbach, FOIP, FAO Forestry Department, Via della Terme di Caracalla, 00100, Rome, Italy;E-mail: [email protected]

18-25 October 2009. Buenos Aires, Argentina. XIII World Forestry Congress. Contact: Olman Serrano,Associate Secretary General; E-mail: [email protected]

23-28 August 2010. Seoul, Korea. XXIII IUFRO World Congress. Contact: Secretariat, IUFROHeadquarters;, Mariabrunn (BFW), Haupstrasse 7, A-1140, Vienna, Austria; E-mail: [email protected]

Forest and clouds formation in East Kalimantan. (Photo contest entry by Christoforus Terry)

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONALOFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm

APFC - The unwelcome guests: Proceedings of theAsia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference(RAP Publication 2005/18)Helping forests take cover (RAP Publication 2005/13)Elephant care manual for mahouts and campmanagers (RAP Publication 2005/10)Forest certification in China: latest developmentsand future strategies (RAP Publication 2005/08)Waves of hope – report of the regional coordinationworkshop on rehabilitation of tsunami-affectedforest ecosystems: strategies and new directions(RAP Publication 2005/07)Forests and floods – drowning in fiction or thrivingon facts? (RAP Publication 2005/03)In search of excellence: exemplary forest managementin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2005/02)What does it take? The role of incentives in forestplantation development in Asia and the Pacific.Executive summary (RAP Publication 2004/28)What does it take? The role of incentives in forestplantation development in Asia and the Pacific (RAPPublication 2004/27)Forests for poverty reduction: opportunities forClean Development Mechanism, environmentalservices and biodiversity (RAP Publication 2004/22)Forests for poverty reduction: can community forestrymake money? (RAP Publication: 2004/04)Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR) inAsia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19) - 2nd

editionBringing back the forests: policies and practicesfor degraded lands and forests (RAP Publication2003/14) out of printCommunity forestry – current innovations andexperiences (CD-ROM included)Community-based fire management: case studiesfrom China, The Gambia, Honduras, India, the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic and Turkey (RAPPublication: 2003/08)Practical guidelines for the assessment, monitoringand reporting on national level criteria andindicators for sustainable forest management in dryforests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05)

Giants on our hands: proceedings of theinternational workshop on the domesticated Asianelephant (RAP Publication: 2002/30)Communities in flames: proceedings of aninternational conference on community involvementin fire management (RAP Publication: 2002/25)Applying reduced impact logging to advancesustainable forest management (RAP Publication:2002/14)Monograph on benzoin (Balsamic resin from Styraxspecies) (RAP Publication: 2001/21)Proceedings of the International Conference onTimber Plantation Development, 7-9 November 2000,Manila, PhilippinesTrash or treasure? Logging and mill residues in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16)Regional training strategy: supporting theimplementation of the Code of Practice for forestharvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/15)Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness oflogging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific:executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10)Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness oflogging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific (RAPPublication: 2001/08)Regional strategy for implementing the Code ofPractice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific (July 2000)Development of national-level criteria and indicatorsfor the sustainable management of dry forests of Asia:background papers (RAP Publication: 2000/08)Development of national-level criteria and indicatorsfor the sustainable management of dry forests of Asia:workshop report (RAP Publication: 2000/07)Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission: the first fifty years(RAP Publication: 2000/02)Decentralization and devolution of forest managementin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication: 2000/01)Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - report of theAsia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook StudyTrees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: anillustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAP Publication:1999/13)Code of Practice for forest harvesting in Asia-Pacific(RAP Publication: 1999/12)

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