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Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries

Country Reports of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka

mmmm UNESCO sponsored “Regional Training Programme on Biodiversity Systematics: Evaluation and Monitoring with

Emphasis on Medicinal Plants” held at NBRI, Lucknow from 3‘(1 to 13Ih September, 2001

Edited by P. Pushpangadan, K.N. Nair and M.R. Ahmad

MAN b Biosphere Programme

- UNESCO

National Botanical Research Institute (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research) Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow-226 001, India.

Disclaimer The designations employed and the presentation of the

material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the publishers concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory.

The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the organization. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form without

permission from the publishers except for the quotation of brief passages for the purpose of review.

Y

0 UNESCO, 2004 Cover design: Alok Kumar Published by the Director, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow-226001, India. Printed at Army Printing Press, 33 Nehru Road, Cantt, Lucknow.

Foreword

Improving scientific understanding of natural and social processes relating to humanity's interactions with its environment, providing information useful to decision-making on resource use, promoting the conservation of genetic diversity as an integral part of land management, enjoining the efforts of scientists, policy-makers and local people in problem-solving ventures, mobilizing resources for field activities, strengthening regional cooperative frameworks - these are some of the generic characteristics of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

Realizing that much of the biodiversity and natural resources are located in the South Asian region, and the need for its conservation and sustainable utilization, a regional training programme on "Biodiversity systematics: evaluation and monitoring with emphasis on medicinal plants", was organized by UNESCO- Ne w Delhi, jointly with the National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, from 3Id to13'" September, 2001. The main objective of this Training Programme was to equip scientists who are actively involved in medicinal plants research both with better tools and methods. Participation in this Training Programme was from South Asian region - Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The present volume is an outcome of this initiative, and contains presentations made by participants and experts in the Training Programme.

It is a pleasure for UNESCO to thank the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), N e w Delhi, for co-sponsoring this training programme. Our very special thanks are due to Dr. P. Pushpangadan, Director, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, for his agreement and enthusiasm to organize this Training, and to his colleagues, who worked behind the scene for its success.

It is hoped that this volume may be of value to scientists, planners and decision-makers in the participating countries.

Prof. M. Tawfik Director, UNESCO-New Delhi

Preface

The South Asian region is endowed with a remarkably rich biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge systems. The countries in this region together share about 115 of the known vascular plant species of the world. About 80 % of the people in South Asia are still dependent on traditional medicine systems for their primary health care needs. The medicinal plant species spectrum of the South Asian countries includes more than 8000 species of higher plants that are used in various systems of medicine. Medicinal plants and traditional/ indigenous medicine systems of South Asia, particularly that of the Indian subcontinent, are the vital resource base for building up biodiversity-based and biotechnology-driven bio-prospecting and bioindustrial enterprises, including herbal drug and pharmaceutical industries.

Well-documented knowledge and information system on the current status of biodiversity including the extent of occurrence, diversity, actual uses or potential values of medicinal plant genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge are the prerequisites for effective conservation and sustainable use of such important natural resources to ensure health, food, nutritional, economic and livelihood securities of the millions of poor people living in the South Asian region. Despite having rich biodiversity in medicinal plant resources, strong traditional knowledge base as well as relevant international and national legal and policy framework, the South Asian countries have failed to make any significant contribution to the global herbal and pharmaceutical market. Lack of comprehensive data and information on the inventory and other relevant aspects of biodiversity, including traditional knowledge systems, and inadequate S&T infrastructure and expertise in advanced areas of biotechnologies, herbal technologies, biodiversity conservation and other relevant areas are the major constraints confronted by many of the South Asian countries.

Training and capacity building in the emerging areas of biodiversity and bio prospecting are the immediate priorities of the South Asian countries, so as to equip and enable these countries to venture into prospective bio-industrial regimes capable of generating, protecting and managing intellectual properties (IPR) in the domains of herbal technologies and other natural product development technologies. It was against this background the National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow, UNESCO, N e w Delhi and IDRC, N e w Delhi have jointly organized a regional Training Programme on “biodiversity systematics: evaluation and monitoring with emphasis on medicinal plants” at NBRI during 3-13 September, 2001. Delegates from eight South

iv Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries

Asian countries, viz. -Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka participated in the Training Programme. The main objectives of the Training Programme were to build scientific and technological capabilities of those scientists engaged in medicinal plant research by imparting training to them on latest techniques in )biosystematics, bioprospecting, genetic enhancement and value-addition in medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge systems. The training curriculum covered both theory and practice of a wide range of subjects, including inventory, documentation, collection and assessment of biodiversity, ecology, distribution, biomoniioring, ethnobotany, bioprospecting, pharmaconosy, ethnopharmacology, data basing, development of value added herbal products, standardization and development of herbal drugs. Experts drawn from diverse fields of biodiversity and bioprospecting from NBRI and other R & D institutions in India served as the resource persons for the training.

The deliberations and interactive discussions by the experts and the participants at the Training helped identify the following problems and priority actions for the South Asian countries: (a) Protection / conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, (b) Protection and promotion of the rights of local communities, including farmers and indigenous people with respect to their biological resources and knowledge systems, as well as equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the commercial use of traditional resources and associated knowledge of the local communities, (c) Protection of intellectual property rights associated with the use of biodiversity and traditional knowledge, (d) building scientific and technological capacity in dealing with inventory, documentation, conservation, value-addition, particularly through modern biotechnological intervention to convert the rich biodiversity into economic wealth.

The present volume entitled “Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries” is the outcome of the presentations made by the participants / experts at the Training Programme on the status of medicinal plant biodiversity and traditional medicine systems in their respective countries. The representative of each participating country gave concise account on the traditional medicine systems, current research on documentation, inventory, conservation and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants, R& D infrastructure and expertise available, constraints faced, and future prospects in biodiversity and medicinal plant research in their countries. The country reports presented in this volume are not exhaustive, but they are intended to provide a birds’ eye view of the medicinal plant biodiversity and the traditional medicine systems

Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries V

and strategies for their effective conservation and sustainable use for the present generation and posterity as well.

I have great pleasure to place on record m y warm appreciation and gratitude to Prof. M. Tawfik, Director, UNESCO- New Delhi for his keen interest and support extended to us not only for conducting the Training Programme at NBRI, but also for bringing out the present publication. I also thank Prof. Tawfik for kindly writing a foreword to this volume. Mrs. Sudha Mehndiratta, National Officer in Ecological Sciences, UNESCO- N e w Delhi has been instrumental in providing us with the conceptual frame work and the operational modules of the Training Programme. I take this opportunity to extend m y sincere thanks to Mrs. Sudha Mehndiratta for her unfailing enthusiasm, commitment and continuous support given to us for conducting the Training Programme successfully. I a m indeed grateful to all m y fellow scientists and colleagues at NBRI, who have helped us in various ways to conduct the Training smoothly and successfully. A special word of thanks is due to Dr M R Ahmad, Honorary Consultant &

Convener of this UNESCO- Training Programme for all his painstaking efforts to make the training a grand success. Finally, I thank Dr. K. N. Nair, Scientist for his valuable editorial inputs that helped to bring out this publication in the present format.

The views expressed in the reports are those of the authors. I hope this volume will be useful for further planning and execution of biodiversity -related projects and programmes in the South Asian countries.

Lucknow 2WMarch 2004

P. Pushpangadan Director

National Botanical Research Institute

Contents

Foreword 1

Preface Ill

1. Status of Plant Biodiversity in Bangladesh 1

...

M. N. Amin 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Status of the Traditional Medical System and Medicinal Plant Diversity in Bhutan

Usyen

11

Biodiversity of India with special focus on Survey, Inventorying and Documentation of Medicinal Plants in India - A Status Report

26

F! Pushpangadan Introduction to Plant Biodiversity in Iran 32 Tahereh Efekhari & M. Ratnezani

reference to conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources

Ahmed Saleem

Status of Traditional Medicine Systems in Maldives with special 34

Biodiversity of Nepal- A Status Report 39

Dhruv Raj Bhattarai

Medicinal Plant Biodiversity in Pakistan - Opportunities and Threats Bina S. Siddiqui & M. Iqbal Choudhary Medicinal Plant Wealth and Traditional Medicine Systems in Sri Lanka Preethi Wickremasinghe

Conclusions and Recommendations 60

43

56

Status of Plant Biodiversity in Bangladesh

M.N. Amin

Physical Geography Bangladesh is located in the north-eastern part of South Asia between 20"34'

and 26"38' north latitude and between 88'01'and 92O41'east longitude. About 80% of the country is low land, comprising an alluvial flood plain dissected by the three major river systems (Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna) and their tributaries that flow into the Bay of Bengal. Rest of the country consists of about 12% hills and 8% terrace lands (include Madhupur and Barind tracts). Typically, at least one-half of the land is inundated annually, with one-tenth subject to severe flooding. The entire flood plain was well vegetated, but much of the forest has been replaced by cultivation and development activities in recent decades due to mounting pressure from dense human population. The only extensive tract of natural forest remaining in Bangladesh is the Sundarbans. Hills are confined chiefly to the east and south east, notably the Chittagong Hill Tracts where forest cover (natural and secondary) is among the most extensive in the country.

Climate, Agro-ecological Zones and Bio-geographic Units Bangladesh enjoys generally a sub-tropical monsoon climate. While there are

six seasons in a year, three namely, Winter, Summer and Monsoon are prominent. The average temperature ranges from minimum of 7°C in winter to maximum of 37°C in summer. The country has 30 distinct agro-ecological zones with diversified agriculture systems and rich crop genetic resources. There are about 50 major crops, of which many have several varieties, cultivars and landraces. Only in rice alone the country had about 8000 varieties about three decades ago. But the number is now reduced to less than 100, which are cultivated in about 80% of the arable lands. The vegetation of Bangladesh is distributed among four major bio-geographic units, and 80% of the country falls within biounit 17b (lower gangetic plain). Rest of the country falls within the units 19b (north-east hills), 9c (Burma transition zone) and 4 (Indo Chinese coasts), respectively under Sylhet region, Chittagong region and coastal region.

Department of Botany, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh E-mail: [email protected]

2 Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries

Summary of the essential Facts on biodiversity status: Country size Population

Natural vegetation

Forest cover

Description of existing forests :

Annual deforestation Percentage of country area protected

Expected target for protected area : Biodiversity index .

Conservation index (actua1,expected protected area) Gaps in protected area system :

Total flowering plant species

Threatened plant species

Biodiversity status

Factors affecting forest loss

56,977 sq. miles or 147,570 sq. km. ca. 70.0 million in 197 1,111.4 million in 1991 and it is now 129.3 million (>850/sq. km. ; BBS, 1998; Census 2001). 80% of the country falls within biounit 17b (lower gangetic plain), and rest of the country falls within units 19b (north-east hills), 9c (Burma transition zone) and 4-(Indo Chi- nese coasts), respectively under Sylhet region, Chittagong region and coastal region. 6.9% according to FAO (including 2. 30% mangroves); 9.7% according to W C M C ’ s biodiversity mapping library (including secondary forest); 14.7% according to BBS. There are patches of evergreen forest in the north and south-east in the Chittagong and Sylhet regions; vestiges of tropical moist deciduous (monsoon) forests in the Madhupur Tract stretching to northern frontier; and degrading mangroves in the south- west in the Khulna region 2.6-4.9% of forests and wood-land Totally 0.0% +Partially 0.7% (WCMC); +0.9% (MacKinnon 1997). IUCN category I-IV 0.6% IUCN category V-VI 0.3% (MacKinnon 1997). 6.3% (according to MacKinnon 1997) 5.9 (with conservation target of 8.5%) 0.1 % (very low score)

Very small in area and not well protected, although these include at least examples of all major forest types but do not include freshwater swamps, coastal char lands (?), etc. ca. 5,000 (include wild relatives and land races of many crop plantsj. 60 in 1994 and 176 in 1999 (according to WCMC). Diversity was formerly high but it is now very reduced, biological richness is moderate and endemism is low. Over 90% of original forest cover has been

Biodiversitv and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries 3

cleared. Shifting cultivation, agriculture expansion, rapid urbanization and illegal and unsustainable harvest of plant resources are the main causes of forest loss. 32% (it indicates what percentage of the country’s total protected area is included in the BML and, therefore, gives an indication of the reliability of the figures mentioned under protected areas).

Percent cover in BML (Biodiversity Monitoring Library)

:

Source: FA0(1987), lUCN(1990), C01li1i.s et al. (1991). WCMC(l994;1999). MacKirinori, (1997), BBS(1998), CCF(2000)

Natural Vegetation The major forest types are semi-evergreen to evergreen rain forests found in the

eastern districts of Sylhet, Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts, mangroves found in the south-western Khulna region, and tropical moist deciduous [monsoon or Sal (Slzorea robusta)] forests, restricted to the Madhupur Tract and northern frontier with Meghalaya of India. A small tract of freshwater swamp occupies the basins of the north-east region. Wetlands of about 50% of total land area support a variety of wildlife, and have enormous economic importance. Actual forest cover has been estimated to be 6.9% of total land area while WCMC’s mapping indicates about 10% forest that includes secondary forests as well. Estimated forest area of the country also varies according to different sources, as Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics ibdi- cates it is about 14%. A n estimate of forest type and extent is shown in the Table- 1. Table-1 : Estimates of Forest Extent in Bangladesh (Reserve Forest)

Forest type Area % of country’s (m.ha.) total land area

€Id1 Forest (Tropical wet evergreen to semi- 0.67 4.7 evergreen forest) Natural Mangrove (Littoral rain forest) 0.59 4.0

Man-made Mangrove (Littoral rain forest) 0.14 1 .o Sal Forest (Monsoon/tropical moist deciduous 0.12 0.8 forest) Total 1.52 105

According to M.G. Habib (2000), former CCF of Bangladesh

4 Biodiversitv and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries

Biological Richness Although physically small and mostly deforested, Bangladesh is of moderate

biological richness with the largest mangrove system in the world, some very important wetlands (e.g. Tarigor Haor, Chalari Beel, etc) and rich evergreen forests in the Chittagong Hills. The Sundarbans (mangroves in Bangladesh) were enumerated with 334 species, 245 genera in 75 families of plants; of which some are endemic to the mangroves. The forest is rich in epiphytic ferns, parasitic plants and orchids along with the commercially important tree and shrub species. The country has seemingly about 125 mammals, 684 birds, 29 amphibians, 129 reptiles, 94 fresh water fishes, 10 swallowtails and about 5,000 higher plants. WCMC has listed 24 endangered mammals, 24 endangered birds, and 176 endangered plants. Of particular interest are the many commercially important fish and turtle species dependent on the wetlands of the country, some 150 species of migratory winter birds (mostly wetland birds) and other aquatic species (e.g. Gangetic dolphins). Khan (1994) has mentioned that at least 8 species of higher plants are endemic to Chittagong forests. The reason behind the low number of endemic species in Bangladesh is that the country is a part of the main land of the Indian subcontinent that favours distribution of many species beyond the political boundary of the country. However, the biodiversity index of the country is calculated at 5.9, resulting in an ultimate protection target of 8.5% (MacKinnon 1997).

Medicinal Plant Diversity Being naturally gifted by a suitable tropical climate and fertile soil, Bangladesh

possesses a rich flora of medicinal plants. Out of 5000 species of higher plants more than a thousand have been claimed to possess medicinal andor poisonous properties, of which about 550 have recently been enumerated with their medicinal and therapeutic values. In addition to having various other medicinal properties, about 250 of these medicinal plants have been identified as efficacious remedies for diarrhoeal diseases (most common ailments in Bangladesh) and 47 for diabetes. Despite having vast resource of medicinal plants, Bangladesh has spent more than 1500 crore taka for importing chemicals, raw materials and semi-processed drugs of plant origin only during the last five years, and the import value is on the increase. Although the country has well-established systems of traditional medicines (Ayurveda and Unani) and folklore treatments, both the herbal treatment systems and medicinal plant resources are on the verge of extinction due to lack of proper knowledge about cultivation, conservation and sustainable utilisation of medicinal plants.

Changes in Land Utilisation and its Effects on Plant Diversity Large scale depletion of forests, grass and scrub-lands, destruction of ecosys-

tems, conversion of aquatic habitats and replacement of natural vegetation by arable farming, mostly with rice monoculture, have greatly accelerated the genetic erosion of plant diversity in Bangladesh. Data presented in Table -2 show glimpses of land use pattern and indicate a major change in the recent past. During the period


of one and half decades (1972-1987) forest area decreased by 10.9%, waste land by 11.2% and fallow land by 54.3% while areas not available for cultivation and crop production increased by 20.6% and 23.8% respectively.

Table-2: “Changes in land use pattern affecting biodiversity of plants in Bangla- desh, during 1972-1987 (areas in 1000 acres)

Year Forest Not Culturable Current Net Area sown Total available waste fallows cropped more than cropped

for area once area cultivation

~ ~

1971-72 5507 6566 734 2101 20371 7798 28169

1986-87 4909 7920 652 961 21878 13004 34882

in Area C/iange -598 +1354 -82 -1140 +1507 +5206 +6713

Percent -10.9 +20.6 -11.2 -54.3 +7.4 +66.8 +23.8 ---

Altogether about 8 million acres of land (as shown under not available for cultivation and total cropped areas in the Table-2) is converted into either arable farming or used for building houses, communication net works, embankments, huts, ba- zaars, etc. This change in land utilization has taken a heavy toll of the wild plant diversity due to habitat destructions. The cropping intensity along with incorpora- tion of HYV crops and chemical fertilizers increased progressively from 1970 to 1990 in Bangladesh agriculture systems. It is mentioned that unless adequate soil regen- erative measures are taken, increasing cropping intensity alone may lead to environmental degradation in the long run. Modern agricultural methods involving inor- ganic fertilizers, improved seeds and pesticides are land and labour saving, but they too bring with them their own problems - negative impact on biodiversity is the major one of them. There is, therefore, an upsurge in the recent days for ecological farming to protect both the fragile land resources and poorest of the poor farmers of Bangladesh.

Currently, policy makers in Bangladesh are perhaps suffering from “hybrid- crop-syndrome” as they often embark upon expansion of hybrid rice cultivation but seldom talk about effective soil and water managements. The euphoria of bonanza through mere introduction of hybrid rice may be disastrous, if indigenous technology-and resource-based agriculture system of the country is shattered by multinational resource-based, borrowed technologies. Until establishing a proper management system for our own crop production resources, rushing for hi-tech, vulnerable genetic material would be an unwise attitude. Furthermore, the biodiversity of “Barind”, the region with no forest cover, is most critically affected typically due to agricultural expansion. However, an urgent and sustainable conservation policy is needed at least for saving the hardy land races and wild relatives of crop plants that have evolved in the region.

*Adopted and calculated front Siddiqui (1 994)


Cultural Diversity, Indigenous Knowledge and Conservation Ethno-linguistically almost homogeneous, Bangladesh has, nonetheless, a con-

siderable number of tribal population that accounts for about 28 ethnic communities with 1.2 million populations. Every ethnic group has its own linguistic andor cultural background, which is different from that of the mainstream population (BengaZi) of Bangladesh. As ethnic perception of a particular taxon is very critical for select- ing conservation strategy i.e. in situ vs. ex situ, indigenous knowledge of rural/ ethnic community, therefore, can play an important role in conserving plant diversity in general and ethno-botanically recognized species in particular. The Conven- tion on Biological Diversity (CBD) recognizes the value of local community’s involvement, indigenous knowledge and sustainable use of biodiversity. It also emphasizes that local communities embodying traditional lifestyles are relevant for determining conservation strategy and are in fact key actors for sustainability.

In a largely deforested country like Bangladesh, where incredible population pressure is the major cause of habitat and biodiversity loss, and ethno-cultural heritage of using plants and their products has firm footing, sustainable use of indigenous knowledge can act as one of the main determinants of conservation of plant diversity. The mounting population pressure and other practicalities of Bang- ladesh are not congenial for in situ conservation. Therefore, it will be relatively wise to take ex situ methods as a back-up and complementary to in situ methods for conserving plant diversity in Bangladesh. The concept of “Biocultural Restora- tion” i.e. restoration of cultures, practices and knowledge of local cotnmunities that associated with utilization and rnatiagetnent of biological resources, has also been put forward to develop an integrated conservation policy. However, in both the in situ and ex situ conservation systems, indigenous knowledge and local community can contribute in many ways and that should be ensured for taking any effort towards conservation of plant diversity.

Depletion of Biodiversity at Different levels Habitat destruction due to anthropogenic activities is the major impediment to

maintain biodiversity in Bangladesh. Very high population density (ca. 850/sq. km.) combined with poverty and annual floods place an enormous pressure on all available land resources. Despite extensive forest losses (>90%) the small remaining forest area (<lo%) is not well protected and it, in turn, results in uncontrolled extraction of forest resources. The number of threatened plant species is increasing at a very rapid rate; it was 60 in 1994 and 176 in 1999. Merely among the palms, 9 out of 18 species are under serious threat. An attempt is made to show biodiversity depletion at various levels in following flow diagram.

Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries 7

Extent of Depletion at Different levels of Biodiversity

enHighest =&,owest

Ecosystem - Diversity

Floodplain (Aquatic-Terrestrial)

Hill

Mangrove

v

U-

v

Genetic * Diversity

v Crop relatives

v Landraces

ll Others

Species =$ Diversity

Medicinal plants

Crop relatives

Minor fruits

v U-

v

Cultural Diversity

Sacred groves

Ethno- botanical uses

U.

v

Threats and Challenges The following have been identified as the major threats to biodiversity and the

challenges for its conservation in Bangladesh: 1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Habitat destruction due to expansion in agriculture, unplanned urbanization and communication network. Ever-increasing human pressure on the limited natural resources. Recurrent natural calamities (cyclone, tornado, flood and drought). Lack of knowledge about the need for plant diversity and awareness for conserving it. Persistent poverty with about 20 decimals cultivable land per capita, political instability and social fatalism. Lack of appropriate legislation with strategy and action plan for protecting plant diversity. Incredible gap between policy formulation and implementation. Lack of communication between conservationists and local communities. Increased pollution from domestic, agricultural and industrial activities, and introduction of exotic tree species for afforestation. Inadequate financial support for R & D and inappropriate international technical assistance. Passive role of mass media to make people aware of the urgent need to assess the value and protect the country’s plant diversity.

Main Findings e L;ck of czi;cnt information (inventory) of biodiversity status of the country

and assessment of threat levels of different taxa. The country has reportedly 125 mammals, 684 birds, 29 amphibians, 129 reptiles, 94 fresh water fishes and more than 5,000 species higher plants. Of particular interest are many commercially important timber and medicinal plants, fish and turtle species, land races of cultivated plants, wild relatives of the major crops such as rice, jute, banana and vegetables.

8 Biodiversity and Mediciml Plant Il/ealfh of South Asian Countries

The rain forests of Bangladesh were the richest in the whole of the Indian subcontinent. But mass deforestation of the original vegetation (c.95%) has reduced the forest diversity to a minimum level and the per capita forestland is lowest in the world (0.022 hectare). Remaining forests are restricted to the south-west (mangroves) and north to south-east (semi-evergreen + wet evergreen) regions only. About 90% of the country’s areas with no forest cover, in which ~ 9 5 % of the population live. The Sunderbans (mangroves in Bangladesh), the largest mangrove system in the world, is rich in 334 species and 245 genera in 75 families of higher plants, of which few are endemic to the Sundarbans. Top dying of the dominant tree species Heritiera foiiies and uncontrolled resource harvesting by the professional groups and poachers are identified as major threats to the forest. Almost total loss of meadows, village groves and sacred forests. Great shrink- age of bogs, marshes and others wetland habitats such as beels, haors, etc. Rapid loss of indigenous crop varieties and their wild relatives, and introduction of exotic species and varieties. WCMC has listed 24 endangered mammals, 24 endangered birds and 176 endangered plants.

Conservation Strategy for Bangladesh Bangladesh is a signatory to CBD. As a signatory country, Bangladesh should

have submitted a country report describing its socio-economic, forest cover and biodiversity conservation issues; but none was submitted to CBD (Tony Gross, CBD, Secretariat, pers. comm. on 21.9.2001). This indicates that the data and information presented in FAO, IUCN and WCMC publications are not recent. So whatever inference is drawn from this information is likely to be an under-estimate of the current situation. Nonetheless, Bangladesh has a national conservation strategy drafted during mid 1980s and it is being revised and updated till today. But so far knowledge goes the conservation strategy is not working in the country, as ho major change on biodiversity protection has been observed during the last decades. It appears that incredible human pressure, agricultural expansion, poverty, annual flooding and rapid urbanization are unavoidable causes of habitat loss for plant diversity in Bangladesh. Therefore, relying absolutely on in situ conservation (coiiservatioii of platits iii their iiatiiral habitat i.e. oil-site) of plvt diversity would not be a wise approach. The ex situ conservation (conservation of plaiits outside their natural habitat, generally wider controlled eiiviroriineiit i.e. off-site) of plant genetic resources would be a complementary approach for Bangladesh. Moreover, under both the conservation systems involvement of local communities and utilization of their ethnobotanical knowledge and practices should be ensured for establishing a sustainable conservation strategy.

However, a concerted effort is needed to integrate government, non-government and local institutions with indigenous people’s perceptions and knowledge for developing an integrated conservation strategy with an obvious importance to understand the concept of “Biocultural Restoration” of the ecosystem, as it has been suggested recently for many countries. Of particular interest the First Na- tional Workshop on “Bangladesh National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan” was held on 4l’’ October, 2003. It is hoped that a pragmatic strategy and action plan


will be formulated soon considering all the above issues (M. K. Alam, IUCN country office, pers. comm.)

Recommendations Inventorying the existing plant populations will be done first for assessing the current status of biodiversity and its threats. The existing protected areas should be properly managed and new protected areas should be established to give fuller protection of all types of habitat. Botanic gardens activities should be promoted for conserving the threatened species. Positive steps should be taken for public awareness, education and participation in sustainable management of the biodiversity. A n integrated approach for biodiversity conservation should be taken that will include from habitat restoration and re-introduction through botanic garden system activation to establishment of effective seed and tissue banks. Integration of and co-ordination among the international agencies, national bodies and non-government organizations (NGOs) should be strengthened. NGOs’ environmental programmes should be converted into an active conservation movement for protecting the fragile biodiversity of the country. Appropriate policies should be formulated by the responsible ministriedbod- ies for an effective integrated conservation strategy with the help of specialists in this field. Appropriate organization and specialists should be identified and engaged for undertaking the specific role.

Conclusions Any action to maintain biodiversity can be focused on three levels; ecosystem

diversity, species diversity and genetic diversity. All three are inextricably interlinked, but are not synonymous. However, at whatever level the problem is looked at, it is axiomatic that the maintenance of ecosystem and species diversities in general and the prevention of species extinctions in particular are pivotal to the conservation of biodiversity. An “integrated conservation strategy” is thus essential, which aims at the use of reserves, protected areas, habitat restoration, botanic gardens, gene banks, seed banks, etc. Which strategies are the most appropriate will vary from species to species and on the socio-ecological condition prevailing in a particular regiodarea.

Moreover, new protected areas need to be established to give a fuller protection to the different ecosystems of the country. These should include marine habitats, freshwater swamps, forests outside the Chittagong and Sylhet regions, coastal chars, main land haors and beels, etc. In addition to that, habitat restoration programme can be taken into consideration, especially for the Sal forests in the country’s mainland.

However, under the alarming state of habitat destruction, Bangladesh has opted for ex situ methods for conserving the country’s remaining plant diversity. Never- theless, there is scope for developing an “integrated approach” from habitat resto-


ration, where possible, through establishment of effective botanic gardens system to management of seed and in vitro orgadtissue banks.

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Amin, M.N. and N.A. Khan. 2001. A primer on the nature and management of resources of the Sundarbans. Grassroots Voice: A Journal of Indigenous Knowl- edge &Development. 4(I): 85-101

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Gain, P. (ed.). 1998. Bangladesh: Larid, Forest and Forest People. Society for Envi- ronment and Human Development (SEHD), Dhaka.

Khan, M.S. 1994. Biodiversity in plants. In: A.A. Rahman,R. Haider, S. Huq andE.G. Jansen (eds.). Erivirorimerit arid Developrrierit iii Bangladesh, pp 196-2 16. Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies, University Press Limited, Dhaka.

MacKinnon, J. (ed.). 1997. Bangladesh. In: ProtectedArea Systerii Review of Irido- Malayari Realriz, pp 69-73. Asian Bureau for Conservation, World Conserva- tion Monitoring Centre, Canterbury, U.K.

Siddiqui, K. 1994. Land resources of Bangladesh. In: A.A. Rahman, R. Haider, S. Huq and E.G. Jansen (eds.). Eriviroriment and Developrnerit in Bangladesh. pp 1-33. Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies, University Prcss Limited, Dhaka.

WCMC. 1994. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (Compl.), Groombridge, B. (ed.). Biodiversity Data Sourcebook. World Conservation Press, Cambridge.

WCMC. 1999. Print out from the WCMC Threatened Plants Database entitled: Bang- ladesh-Coriservatiori Status Listing of Plants, compiled by the World Con- servation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge.

Status of the Traditional Medical System and Medicinal Plant Diversity in Bhutan

Background Bhutan is situated in the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalayan ranges,

extending from longitudes 88’45’ to 92’10’ east and latitudes 26’40’ to 28’15’ north. The landscape rises from an elevation of 150 metres in the south to over 7500 metres above sea level (msl) in the north. It encompasses an area of 40,077 square kilometers, which are divided into three broad physiographic zones - the southern foothills, the central river valleys of the Inner Himalayas, and the Great Himalayas. The southern foothills comprise of the sub-Himalayan hills adjacent to a narrow tract of flat plains along the Indian border and range in altitude from 150 metres to about 2000 metres. This region is characterized by hot and humid climate with dense tropical forests. The inner Himalayas lies - within the main river valleys and steep hills. It rises in elevation from 2000 to 4000 metres and has a temperate climate, and forms the economic and cultural heartland of the country. The Great Himalayas in the north (above 4000 m above msl) along the Tibetan border consists of snow-capped peaks and alpine vegetation. The country is bordered by Tibet (China) in the north and the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh in the east, Assam &West Bengal in the south, and Sikkim in the west.

The country’s physical features are characterized by high rugged mountains, an intricate of deep valleys, ravines and depressions, earmarking water courses, drain- age basins, waterfalls, glacial lakes and moraine. The wide variation in altitude has created a range of climatic conditions from hot and humid subtropical in the south and tundra conditions in the perpetual snow and ice in the great Himalaya zone in the north. The influence of altitude, concomitant with other factors such as variation in latitude, level or precipitation, slope gradient, exposure to sunlight, etc. has resulted in the existence of a great diversity of vegetation within a limited geographical area. There are 11 vegetation zones identified by Grierson &Long (1983), and six major agro-climatic zones (Gyamtsho, 1996).

_________ ~

Ethnobotanist, Pharmaceutical and Research Unit, Institute of Traditional Medicine Services (ITMS), Thimphu, Bhutan. E-mail: [email protected]


Traditional Medical System The traditional medical systems in Bhutan can be divided into two separate

streams: A. Folk Stream: Practitioners of this system comprising various types, mostly oral traditions, are known as “village/local healers” in Bhutanese society. The healers are known as bone setter, duglakhan, tsip, pawa, parno, nernjoiit, jomo, terdag, etc.

B. Classical Stream: This traditional health care system comprises of the codified and xganized medical wisdom with sophisticated theoretical foundations and deep philosophical explanations, e.g. Ayurveda, Siddha or Unani. The prevailing classical stream of medicine in Bhutan is gSo.ba.rzg.pa. The term consists of two words, “gSo. ba” to heal, feed, nourish, correct, and “rig.pa ” - meaning science, knowledge, perception, erudition. Thus gSo. ba. rig.pa means “the knowledge/science of healing (Dash, 1994). The theory and philosophy of this tradition is deeply embedded in Buddhism. There are hundreds of treatises; however, the main texts are “rgyudbzi” or four tantras: (a) the root tantra (b) the explanatory tantra (c) instructional tantra and (d) subsequent tantras.

History and Development of gS0.ba.rig.p in Bhutan Buddha is believed to have taught medicine simultaneously with the teachings

of Dharma (Rabgay, 1981) in India. gSo.ba.rig.pa spread to Tibet in the lsl half of the 7Lhcentury during the period of the famous king Strong.btsari.sgarii.po. In his reign, the physicians were invited from Persia, China, India, Nepal and Byzantine, and various medical books from their respective medical systems were translated into Tibetan (Angelo, 1984). This culminated in many years of intellectual and academic exchanges between Tibet and other countries, and has greatly influenced this medical system. gSo.ba.rig.pa has assimilated elements from the ancient Greek medical system (which came via Persia), the Ayuwedic medical tradition (from India), some forms of Chinese medicine and pre-Buddhist shamanistic traditions.

In Bhutan, the science of healing, perhaps, might have started after the advent of Buddhism in the 8“’century. It is also plausible that there were sporadic instances of Bhutanese being sent to Tibet to study this art before the 171h century. However, information is sketchy and historical data has not been verified. According to Dorji and Morisco (1989), this system was established permanently only after 1616, i.e. after Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal came to Bhutan from Tibet.

gSo.ba.rig.pa medical tradition was officially recognized and included in the National Health Care System by the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGOB) in 1967. In the same year a dispensary was opened at Dechencholing in Thimphu (Dorji and Morisco, 1989). In the successive year, the center was relocated to Kawangjangsa, Thimphu, and in 1998 it was renamed into “Institute of Traditional Medicine Serv- ices” or ITMS. At present there are traditional medicine dispensaries in all the 20 districts, all attached to the modern hospitals (except the center at Thimphu), providing alternative medical services choice to local people. ITMS at Thimphu comprises of four departments: the Training Centre for imparting training to traditional

Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealrh of South Asian Countries 1 3

doctors and compounders; Out patient Department; Modern Pharmaceutical; Qual- ity Control and Research Laboratory.

Not long ago, traditional doctors in Bhutan determined the quality and purity of drugs by means of taste and smell. Now, the quality control laboratory subjects the drugs to rigorous quality control procedures. Every batch of raw material and fin- ished products are critically examined. To promote and perpetuate the sustainable harvest of useful medicinal plants, interested farmers in some selected regions of Bhutan are encouraged to domesticate medicinal plants, and the results are indeed very promising. Some important medicinal herbs are now cultivated even at above 4000m msl in farmers’ fields, e.g., Lingshi in the north. Drying houses were con- structed in two traditional collection sites, Trongsa for low elevation and in Linshi for high altitude medicinal herbs. In order to facilitate production of drugs and enhance the quality, a new pharmaceutical and research unit with modern machin- ery and equipment was built. However, the growth of interest in traditional medicine, complemented by the introduction of modern processing facilities lead to an increased demand of medicinal plants, which resulted in over-exploitation of some important and rare species.

Biodiversity and the Resource Base of Traditional Medicine Bhutan with its unique geographical setting has very high levels of biological

diversity at the ecosystem-, species- and genetic levels. It is recognized as one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots in the Eastern Himalayas. Because of the great geological relief and climatic heterogeneity, the country’s ecosystem diversity ranges from sub-tropical forests in the south at an elevation of 150m msl to the alpine zone in the north at above 7000m msl, and temperate forests in the mid-elevation. Bhutan has the highest proportion of forest cover with 29.045 km2 of the total land area or 72.5% of the country under forest (Biodiversity Action Plan for Bhutan, 2002). The main types of forests are: Dry alpine scrub, JuniperRhododendron scrub, fir, mixed conifer, blue pine, chir pine (Grierson &Long, 1983), broad leaf mixed with conifEr, upland hardwood (evergreen Oak, Maple and different species of Cool Broad Leaves), Lowland Hardwood and tropical lowland forest (Bhutan Biodiversity Action Plan,

Similarly, the country’s diverse aquatic ecosystem ranges from perennial torren- tial rivers to seasonal rivulets or streams, high altitude lakes and springs to lowland lakes, swamps, marshy lands, man-made reservoirs and ponds.

Bhutan is very rich in fauna. However, in general, the mammalian and avifauna remains still poorly recorded, whereas the invertebrate and herpetofauna are poorly known or documented. There are only around 180 species of mammals listed. In terms of avifauna, about 770 species are recorded (Mackinnon, 1991; RGOB, 1996). Some of the important wildlife in the three distinct zones are: (a) Alpine zone: snow leopard, blue sheep, red panda, Himalayan musk deer, takin, Tibetan wolf, and ante- lope (b) Temperate zone: grey langurs, common leopard, red panda, wild pig, black bear, barking deer (c) Tropical forest: one horned rhinoceros, tiger, Asiatic water buffalo, golden langur, clouded leopard, pygmy hog, swamp deer, etc.

In terms of floristic diversity, 5446 species of vascular plants are recorded, with 750 endemic to Eastern Himalayas and 50 to Bhutan alone (Grierson &Long, 1983).

2002).


Many plant species are of high conservation value. Interestingly most of the species with high conservation value have medicinal properties and are used in the traditional medicine.

The main resource base (around 90%) of the prevailing traditional medicine is medicinal plant. The remaining part originates from minerals and animals. A lot of medicinal plants are also believed to be used by local healers. There is, however, no systematic inventory and documentation exist about ethno-medicinal uses. Be- cause of the country’s wealth in medicinal flora, it was referred to in the past, as “sman.jong”, meaning the land of medicine. Yet there is no approximate estimate or checklist of medicinal plant species. Currently, ITMS uses about 300 plants - derived ingredients from 400 medicinal plant species in its medicine formulations. Almost all the plant ingredients collected in Bhutan are from wild resource, and many species are of high conservation value, e.g. Saussurea gossypiphora, Podo- pliyllurn Iwxandrirm, Delphinium brunonianum, Dactylorliizu hatagirea, Picro- rhiza kurroa, Swertia chiruyita, Nardostacliys grartdi$oru, Aconitum spp., Taxus baccata, Aquilaria agallocha, and an alpine fungus (Crodyceps sinensis) and a caterpillar. (See Annexure 1 for some medicinal plant list).

Conservation Strategies and Efforts Recognizing the importance of biodiversity and to achieve the primary objec-

tives of biodiversity conservation as envisaged in the World Conservation Strat- egy, the RGOB is making concerted effort and careful planning to assure that the process of socio-economic development is consistent with maintaining the environmental integrity. The 73rd National Assembly has ratified both the UN Conven- tion on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

In situ Conservation In an effort to translate the ideals of the Rio convention into action, the RGOB

revised the protected area system and placed 26.23% of the land area representing all climatic and biodiversity zones under protected area management. The protected areas consist of four National Parks, four Wildlife Sanctuaries, and one Biosphere Reserve. The ultimate objective of protected area is to implement in situ conservation of biodiversity, especially the flora and fauna. In addition, six conservation areas are created to ensure the protection of local species of conservation importance.

In situ conservation of medicinal plants in the protected areas includes involvement of local people in the planning and implementation of integrated conservation and development programmes, e.g. in Lingshi under the Jigme Dorji National Park.

Ex situ Conservation To date there has been extensive efforts on ex situ conservation of biodiversity.

However, the National Biodiversity Centre has initiated a comprehensive and sys-


tematic programme. It has established a Royal Botanical Garden, and is in the process of building the infrastructure for a National Herbarium and Gene Bank.

Ex situ conservation of medicinal plants was initiated in 1994 as a joint programme between ITMS and the Renewable Natural Resources Research Centres (RNRRC), with the aim to improve the quality of medicinal plants, diversify the income of rural population and to conserve medicinal plant species. Since then, herb gardens were established in various research stations, at different elevations and in farmers’ fields.

Conclusion and Recommendations Bhutan emerged in the 21’‘ century with much of its forests and ecosystems

intact. This was possible mainly because of its early isolationism and small population. The nature conservation effort in today’s Bhutan encounters greater challenges. The major threats to ecological integrity of habitat and the species stemmed from (a) high population growth, (b) land conversion and (c) over exploitation of selected species through inappropriate harvesting methods.

In order to address the challenges, the Government of Bhutan undertakes immense efforts to develop a legal framework including the Biodiversity Action Plan; protected area management plans with peoples involvement, which shall contribute significantly to conservation and development. To facilitate the successful planning and implementation of the biodiversity conservation, especially the medicinal plant diversity, it is recommended to: (a) (b)

(c)

(d)

Initiate a comprehensive inventory of biological diversity in the country. Conduct a detailed inventory of medicinal plants used in the formal (gSo.ba.rig.pa) and the folk systems. Encourage more local participation in the process of planning, decision-making and implementation. Update the conservation activities timely and make them an ongoing process.

References Angele, E. 1984 (No. 8). ‘Notes on History of Tibetan Medicine’ In Tibetan Medi-

Bhutan Biodiversity Action Plan, Ministry of Agriculture, 2001. Dash, V.B. 1994. Encyclopaedia of Tibetan Medicine -I, Indian Books Centre,

Delhi. Dorji, P. & Morisco, P. (1989). An Introduction to Traditional Medicine in Bhutan,

NITM, Tiiitnpliu. Grierson, A.J.C. and Long, D.G. 1983. Flora of Bhutan -volume 1, part 1, Royal

Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Gyamtsho, P. 1996. Assessment of the condition and potential for improvement of

high altitude rangelands of Bhutan, Zurich. Mackinon, J., 1991. National Conservation Plan for Bhutan (draft.) Annex Repot

No. 1, Master Plan for Forestry Development. Department of Forestry. Rabgay, L. 1981 (No. 30). ‘The Origin and growth of medicine in Tibet.’ In: Tibetan

works andArckives, Dharamsala, pp. 1-20

cine, Library of Tibetan Works and Archives: New Delhi, pp. 1- 14.


Annexurel: Medicinal Plants in Bhutan (list not exhaustive)

laciniatum

orochryseum

Aconi tum 13. I viol aceum

Aconogonon tortuosum

(5. (Acarus calamus

L pauciflora

Allium sativum L subulatum IL rivularis

racemosus

Transliter.

nag-po

Ranunculaceae Bong-nga- I dkar-po

Ranunculaceae Bong-nga- I dniar-po

Polygonaceae Sina-lo I nag-po

~~

Zingiberaceae Ka-ko-la

Primulaceae Sga-tig- nag-po

Ranunculaceae Srub-ka

Thymeliaceae a-ga-ru

Thymeliaceae Ar-nag I Go-yu I Palmae

krong

Aristolochiaceae Ba-le-ka 1 Asparagaceae Nye-shing I

Leaves Region

Root HA Herb Endemic?

Region

Region

litan Root Herb Cosmopo-

Whole HA Herb Himalayan region

Bulb LA Herb Cosm3p-

Fruit LA , Herb Cultivatedin hilly regions

of the Himalayas

Whole HA Herb Himalayan

olitan

-- Region

region

-- Seed HA I Herb Himalayan

-- Hard LA Tree India, Bhutan wood Indonesia

wood Indonesia

Seed I LA

Flower HA I Stem I LA

.Root I LA

Palm Cultivated in I Asia

Grass Tibet I Vine Himalayan I Region

Shrub 1 Cosmopo- litan

I I I

~~~ ~

* HA =High Altitude, LA = Low Altitude


26

27

S1. Species name Family Bhutanese Part NO. I I 1TrZ;:ir-l used

Capsella bursa- Cruciferae So-ka-pa Aerial pas toris

Caragana Leguminosae Mdzo-mo- Stem

Type* Life I Form

33 Choenomeles Rosaceae Bse-yab Fruit LA lagenaria

HA Herb

HA Shrub

LA Vine

HA Herb

HA Herb

LA Tree

HA Herb

LA Shrub

Tree Semi- cultivated

- 1 Distribution

Himalayan 1 Region

Himalayan Region

Nepal to Bhutan

Himalayan Region

Himalayan Region

Tropics

Cosmopo- litan

India

HA I Herb HA I Shrub I ljubuta I shing I I I I

I Cosmopo- litan

India, Bhutan1

I Umbelliferae 1 Go-snyod I &;:i 1 HA 1 Herb I Cosmopo- I litan 28 Carumcarvi l l

tanguensis

7 Tree

Chrysosplenium 1 Saxifragaceae 1 g.ya:kyi- I Aerial 1 HA I Herb 1 Himalayan forres tii Region


S1. Species n a m e Family Bhutanese Part No. Transliter- used

ation

35 Cinnamonium Lauraceae Shing-tasha Bark tamala

36 Clematis Ranuncul-aceae Dbyi-mong- Debark connata dkar-po ed

stem

Type* Life Distribution F o r m

LA Herb Himalayan Region

Region HA Herb Himalayan

I Canipanul-aceae I Klu-bdud- I Whole I HA I Herb 1 Endemic? Codonopsis bhu tanica I rdo-rje

~- ~- ~~~~~~ ~ ~~

50 Diospyros spp. Ebenaceae rgun-'brum- Fruit LA Tree Himalayan nag-po Region

51 Dracocephalum Labiatae pri-Yang-ku Aerial HA Herb Tibet tangui ticum

I I Campanul-aceae I Snyi-ba 1 Bulb I HA 1 Herb 1 Himalayan Codonopsis convolvulacea Region

Umbelliferae I 'U-su 1 Seed I HA-LA 1 Herb I Cosmop- olitan

40 Coriandrum I t sativum I Fumariaceae 1 Re-rdzun 1 Aerial 1 HA I Herb I Himalayan

Region 41 Corydalis I t flabellate

~~~~~

42 Corydalis gerdae Fumariaceae Stong-ri-zil- Whole HA Herb Pa

43 Corydalis Fumariaceae Ba-sha-ka Aerial HA Herb

44 Cotoneaster Rosaceae Bya-pho- Fruit HA Shrub

45 Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Yung-ba Rhizo LA Herb

s trachey i

microphyllus tsi-tsi

me

Endemic to Bhutan and Chumbi

Himalayan Region

Cultivated

46 Cynoglossum I Boraginaceae I ;a;;; 1 I t glochidiatum to Bhutan 1 HA 1 Herb I Afghanistan

I Orchidaceae 1 dbang-lag 1 Root I HA I Herb 1 Himalayan Region

47 Dactylorhiza I t ha tagirea 1 Ranunculaceae 1 by;;-r;d- 1 Aerial 1 HA 1 Herb I Himalayan brunonianum Region

49 Delphinium Ranunculaceae bya-rkang Aerial Herb Endemic to E. I Idrepanocentrum 1 1 I I HA 1 1 N;gl;d 1


ISI. ]Species n a m e INo. I -

cardamomurn

54 Ephedra gerardiana

55 Eriophyton ti- wallichiana - griffithii

59 Euphorbia sp. 1 1 60 Euphrasia

himalaica

61 Fragaria sp.

62 Fritillaria delavayi

gardneri 63 Fritillaria

64 Gallium aparine

65 Gentiana algida

66 Gentiana sp. 1 167 IGentiana urnula

Transliter,

Zingiberaceae sug-smel

Ephedraceae mtshe-Idun I Labiatae ("'sh"I,:"pu. spang-

Luguniinosae ~

rnkhal-nia- zho-sha

Euphorbiaceae thar-nu I le-dkar-po

Saxifragaceae 'bri-r-ta-sa- --I-- chig-thub

'dzin

Liliaceae dkar-po-

~

Liliaceae a-bhi-kha

Rubiaceae zangs-rtsi- dkar - po

Gentianaceae spang- rgyan- sngon-po

rgyan-dkar Gentianaceae spang-

DO

,Aerial I HA 1 Herb

Cosmopo- litan

Cultivated in sub tropical climates

Afghanistan to Bhutan

W.Nepa1 to S.W. China

Uttar Pradesh to Bhutan, China,

Himalayan

Genus widely distributed in the troDics

Genus widely distributed in the tropics

Afghanistan to Bhutan

Genus worldwide distributed

I Himalayan Region

Himalayan

Himalayan

Kashmir to S.W. China

Region

Region


;2

13

Luffa aegyptiaca Cucurbitaceae Ka-bed Seed LA Vine Worldwide in the Tropics

Malva sylvestris Malvaceae Icam-pa Aerial HA Herb Himalayan region


94 Oreosolen wattii Scrophulari-aceae khron-bu

95 Oxytropis lapponica

Luguminosae srad-dkar

Part used

Life Form

Distribution

Pakistan to Bhutan, India, Temperate Eurasia, Africa

Himalayan region

Uttar Pradesh to S.E.Tibet

Himalayan region

C. Nepal to S.E. Tibet W. Nepal to S.W.China

INa. I Transliter,

Seed

- Aerial

- ;lower

- Aerial

- 4erial

Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

84 Malva verticillata

85 Meconopsis

86 Meconopsis

horridula

paniculata

primulina 87 Meconopsis

mdeu’- ‘byin

HA simplicifolia

nepalensis

sngon-po

tsher-lo-ma phra-ba

Aerial HA Herb

~~

Aerial HA Shrub C.Nepal to S.W. China South-East and far East

Asia

Uttar Pradesh .o S.W. China

Himalayan region

W. Nepal to Bhutan

Pakistan to Kashmir, Temperate Eurasia

Himalayan region

Himalayan region

Himalayan region

Pakistan to S.W. China

Tamaricaceae chu-shing- ‘om-bu

Myristicaceae dza-ti

Valerianaceae spang-spos

Boraginaceae ‘bri-mog

Seed LA Tree

Root

- Root

- Root - ?ewer

- Whole

- Aerial

- Aerial

- Aerial

-

HA - HA - HA - HA

Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

-

grandiflora

I ‘ HA

- HA - Ha

- HA -

flagellaris


~ Aerial HA Herb

Aerial HA Herb

Aerial HA Herb

Stem LA Vine

Fruit LA Tree

SI. Species n a m e No.

100 Pedicularis megal an th a

101 Pedicularis siphonantha

102 Phloniis rotata

103 Pholidota recurva

' Family

Scrophulariaceae

Scrophulariaceae

Labiatae

Orchidaceae

esculanta

Bhutanese Transliter.

ation

lug-ru- dmar-po

lug-ru- smug-po

rta-lpags

pu-shel-rtsc

LO8 Plantago rosea I 109 Pleurospermum

amabile

110 Pleurospermum hookeri

1 I 1 Podophyllum

112 Polygonatuin

hexandrum

singalilense

113 Polygonatum verticillatum

114 Potentilla peduncularis

11.5 Pterocephalus I hookeri

Euphoi-biaceae skyu-ru

Phytolaccaceae dpa'-bo- -I- dkar-po

~ Scrophulariaceae hong-len ,

Plantaginaceae tha-ram

Umbelliferae Rtsad

~ ~~

Umbelliferae tang-kun- , dkar-po Podophyllaceae '01-mo-se

Liliaceae lug-mnye

Liliaceae ra-mnye

Rosaceae gro-ma

Dipsacaceae spang-rtsi- do-bo

Punicaceae se-'bru

Part Type* Life wed I 1 Form

Whole Herb

Distribution



W. Nepal to S.W. China

Himalayan region

Cultivated

-

Cultivated

I Pakistan to Uttar Pradesh

Southem foot hills of

Himalaya

Cosmopo- litan

Himalayan region


Afghanistan to S.W. China Himalayan region

Pakistan to S .E.Ti bet W. Nepal to S.W. China W. Nepal to S.W. China

Semi- cultivated in the Tropics


chu-rtsa

sro-lo- dmar-po

iva-ti-dkar- PO

dva-ti-nag- PO

da-trig

dan-rog

se-rgod

se-bai’-me- tog

sga-skya

- Life Form

Root HA

Root HA

Flower HA

Leaves HA

Fruit LA

Seed LA

Fruit HA

Flower HA

Rhizo LA me

Family Distribution

‘O. I ation

Ranunculaceae Herb Kashmir to S.E. Tibet, North

Temperate Zone

tricuspis

Polygonaceae Herb

- Herb

- Shrub

- Shrub

- Tree

- Shrub

- Shrub

- Shrub

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

Himachal Fradesh to E

Nepal

Crassulaceae Kashmir to S.W. China

Ericaceae Pakistan to S.E. Tibet


~~

Ericaceae

Anacardiaceae Kashmir to S.W. China, Mayanmar,

Japan

Cultivated in the tropics

Himalayan region

Himalayan region

3ndemic to C N e d

alota

23 Ricinus +- communis Euphorbiaceae

24 Rosa I macrophy Ila Rosaceae

25 Rosa sericea I Rosaceae 26 Roscoea capitat; I Zingiberaceae

27 Rubia cordifolia I Rubiaceae Brtsod 1 Stem 1 LA Pakistan to S.E. Tibet

28 Salvia Castanea I Labiatae ‘jib-rtsil- I Root I HA chen-po

Himalayan region

Caprifoliaceae iu-gu-shing Aerial HA l l Shrub W. Nepal to S.W. China adnata

Composi tae Herb Kashmir to S.W. China

-~ ~

Composi tae

Saxifragaceae

Herb

- Herb

-

Cultivated ir :he Himalaya

Pakistan to S.W. China moorcroftiana

I I


Type* - Part used

' HA

Distribution

Uttar Pradesh to Bhutan

Cosmopo- litan

Himalayan region

Himalayan region

Pakistan to E. Nepal

Himachal Pradesh to S.E. Nepal Himalayan region

Himalayan region

Uttar Pradesh to S.W. China Uttar Padesh to Bhutan

EuropdAsid North

America



C. Nepal to Bhutan

Kashmir to S.W. China Cosmopo-

litan

-

- Life Form

' HA

I - LA - LA

HA

HA - HA

k. 1Syrries name 1 Family Bhutanesc Transliter

ation

gser-tig Whole Herb 33 Saxifraga Saxifragaceae parnassiflora

34 Scopolia lucida Solanaceae I I thang- phrom-nag

PO

Seed HA Herb

Selaginell-aceae I 35 Selaginella I pulvinata chu-srin- sder- mo

Aerial Moss/I ern

Tree - ~

sops-dkar Resin

- ~~

37 Silene Caryophyllaceae satisperma

38 Soroseris Composi tae hookeri

39 Swertia chirata Gentianaceae

40 Swertia kingii Gentianaceae

Whole

- Whole

- Whole

- Flowei

- Fruit

- Whole

Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Herb

- Tree

- Herb

ra-sug

srol-gong- serpo

rgya- tig

kyi-ice- dkar-po

Symplocaceae I 41 Symplocos I ramosissima b yi-tang-ki

Composi tae I 42 Tanacetum I nubigenum 'khan-pa- dkar-po

~ ~ ~-

43 Taraxacum Composi tae officinale

44 Terminalia Combre taceae bellerica

45 Terminalia Combre taceae chebula

46 Thalictrum Ranunculaceae renifornie

47 Thermopsis Leguminosae harbata

khur-moq Whole

- Fruit - Fruit

- Aerial

- - Whole

Herb

- Tree

- Tree

- Herb

- Herb - Herb

ba-ru

a-ru

sngo-sprin

gla-ba-sran m a

bre-ga 48 Thlaspi arvense Cruciferae I I sle- tres Debark

stem LA Tree India,

Himalayan Menisperm-aceae

cordifolla

Biodiversitv and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries 25 - Family

150 Verbascum

stab-seng Inner I 1 I bark

thapsus

' Liliaceae byiu'-la- Whole I Phug I 152 Unidentified I 153 Unidentified I

Scrophulariaceae gser-bye

Moraceae seng-ldeng W o o d I 1

Type* Life f HA I Herb LA I Tree

Distribution

Afghanistan to S.W. China,

Temperate Eurasia

Himalayan region

Himalayan region

Himalayan region

I

Biodiversity of India with special focus on Survey, Inventorying and Documentation of Medicinal Plants in India- A Status Report

P. Pushpangadan

Influenced predominantly by unique physiographic, edaphic, climatic and altitudinal gradients, India abounds in her biological diversity. The occurrence of diverse types of ecosystem at different altitudinal ranges from tropical to temperate and alpine zones (eg. forests, grasslands, wetlands, mountains, deserts and fresh water and marine ecosystems) together with an impressive array of species diversity and genetic diversity makes India one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries of the world. The country falls under the “Indo-Malesian biotic realm” and has 10 distinct biogeographic zones that are further divided into 25 biogeogrphic provinces and over 426 biomes. The ten biogeographic zones in India are: (1) The trans- Himalayan (2) Himalayan (3) Indian Desert (4) Semi-arid (5) Western Ghah (6) Deccan peninsula (including Eastern Ghats) (7) Gangetic plains (8) North-East India (9) Coasts and (10) Islands.

Forests represent one of the dominant components of the vegetation of India and forest floras constitute an invaluable reserve of economically important species and genetic resources of many crop plants and their wild relatives. Forest diversity in India is very remarkable, which according to Champion and Seth (1968) comprises of 16 major forest types and 221 minor forest types. The total forest cover of India, as per the latest State of Forest Report (SFR) 1999 of the Forest Survey of India (FSI), is estimated to be 63.73 million hectares i.e. 19.39% of the geographical area of the country. Wetlands (including mangroves), the coasts and islands, fresh water and marine systems, and the hills and mountain ecosystems in India are characterized and supported by distinct biological communities and species diversity.

India has about 126,756 species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms already identified and classified (Table 1). And it is likely that there could be another 400,000 species, most of them microbes or lower invertebrates, yet to be identified and described taxonomically (MoEF, 1998). The flora of India is both rich and diverse due to wide range of variations in climate, altitude and ecological habitats. It is estimated that the floristic spectrum of India comprises of over 30000 species (excluding fungi, which are now being treated as a separate kingdom), of which the flowering plants with about 17,500 species constitute the dominant group- representing about 7% of the flowering plant species of the world. Endemism in Indian flora is now almost well documented. It is estimated that out of 17,500

National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow - 226 001, U.P., India. E-mail: pushpangadan @satyam.net.in


Table -1 Documentation of Biological Diversity of India

Taxa Number of species in India

Bacteria Viruses Algae Fungi Lichens Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms Pro tis ta Mollusca Arthropoda (Insecta, Crustacea, etc.) Other Invertebrates (including Hemichordata) Protochordata Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

850 Unknown 6,500 14,500 2,000 2,850 1,200 64

17,500 2,577 5,050 60,383 8,323

116 2,546 206 485 1,228 372

Total 126.756 Source: UNEP - GBA (1995). MOEF (1997), ZSI & BSI species of flowering plants, 140 genera and 5285 species are endemic to the country. The endemic flora is concentrated mainly in three major hot spot centers of flora viz. the Eastern Himalayas (3500 species), the Western Ghats (1600) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (185). Based on the uniqueness of the phytogeographical zones and the pattern of endemism, 25 micro hot spot centers of endemic flora have been identified by Nayar( 1996). The East Himalayas and the Western Ghats are the two identified ‘global hot spots’ of biodiversity.

In India species richness is complemented by enormous genetic diversity found within individual species. India is one among the 12-mega gene centers of the world. The Indian Gene Centre (Vavilovian ‘Hindustani’ Centre) is considered the center of origin and domestication of as many as 356 major and minor crop plant species and as many 326 wild relatives of crop plants.

The rich biodiversity is matched with equally rich cultural diversity and a unique wealth of indigenous knowledge system associated with the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. The native tribals of India make use of about

I


Flowering Plants used in Traditional Systems of Medicine in India

0 Modern Medicine 30 spp. 0 Siddha 800 spp.

0 Unani 700spp.

0 Amchi 300 spp.

0 Ayurveda 900 spp.

10000 wild plants species for primary health care, food, and other material require- ments. Out of these 10,000 wild plant species, 8000 species are used as medicine (with over 1,75,000 specific preparations/application). About 3000 wild plant species are used in the codified systems of Indian medicine like Ayurveda, (900 species), Siddha (SOO), Unani (700) and Amchi (300) [Pushpangadan 2002; SeeTable 21. Medicinal plants thus constitute an important component of the plant resource wealth of our country. Unlike any other country with similar geographic or physiographic dimensions, the medicinal flora of India exhibits enormous intraspecific variability and chemical polymorphisms. The occurrence of several ecotypes, chemotypes and cytotypes even within a single plant species offer ample opportunities to systematically survey, study, characterize and evaluate the economic uses and potentials of the plant resources of India, particularly the medicinal plants.


Survey and Documentation on Medicinal Plants of India Survey, inventory and documentation including establishment of database on

medicinal plants of India are being undertaken by a number of organizations in the country. Important among them are Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata and its regional circles (IO) located in different parts of the country; laboratories under Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) like Regional Research Labora- tory (RRL), Jammu, Central Institute of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow, National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow, RRL- Jorhat and RRL, Bhubaneshwar; Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) centers, Ag- ricultural Universities, Botany Departments of various Universities, Ayurvedic Uni- versity of Gujarat; Govt. Ayurvedic Colleges, and State Government R&D institutions like Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI), Trivandrum; Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), Peechi (Kerala). Many voluntary organizations are also engaged in this programme. Most important organization among them is the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore. FRLHT was established as an autonomous voluntary organization by an initiative of Ministry of Environment & Forests. FRLHT has been generously funded by Danida for inventory, documentation and conservation of medicinal plants used in Traditional systems of Medicines. The Headquarters of FRLHT is at Bangalore and their current work is focused on the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. FRLHT also is in the process of developing a database on medicinal plants.

When we speak about medicinal plants we have to consider three important sectors i.e. (I) Modern medicine which utilize hardly 30 to 35 medicinal plants, (2) Classical systems of traditional medicine which are organized, codified with written treatise texts like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Amchi and Tibetan systems of medicine. All these five classical systems put together use about 1200-2000 plant species, and (3) The Local Health Traditions which are mainly the oral traditions practiced by villagers (folk healers and vaidyas) and tribal people who use over 8000 species of plants for medicinal purposes.

Ministry of Environment & Forests, Department of Science & Technology (DST) and Department of Biotechnology (DBT) have launched many project programmes for inventory, documentation, conservation, cultivation and sustainable utilization of medicinal plant wealth of India. Important among them are: All India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology (AICRPE), originally launched by DST in 1982 and then transferred to Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. This was a massive All India multi-institutional (27 centres) and multidisciplinary research progrmme, which was concluded only in 1998. It has documented over 8000 plant species used by the tribal communities for medicinal purpose. [Pushpangadan 19971. The whole data is now available with the Ministry of Environment & Forests. A Digitized Data Base of the vast information generated from AICRPE about the wild plants used by the tribal communities of India is now being taken up at NBRI, Lucknow under the guidance of this author who functioned as the Chief Coordina- tor of the AICRPE. DBT had launched a gene bank programme in 1993 and established 4 major Gene

Banks for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants at TBGRI, Trivandrum; CIMAP, Lucknow and National Bureiu of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Delhi and RRL, Jammu.


These centers are focusing on ex situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic plant wealth of India. Both in vitro as well as field gene banks have been established at all the four centers.

Very recently another major effort for establishing a comprehensive national database on medicinal plants was launched under the National Bioresource Devel- opment Board NBDB) constituted by Ministry of Science & Technology, Govt. of India.

The expert group on medicinal plant bioresources reviewed the scenario of medicinal plant research in India and identified the gaps in knowledge. The expert group noted that out of about 8000 plants reported to be used by different traditional communities only 1800 are well studied and documented. Also many drugs mentioned in the classical medical texts of Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Amchi are not correctly identified. The expert group also observed that a complete inventory of medicinal plants with quantified details with respect to their intraspecific variability, distribution and extent of their extraction etc. from wild sources is lacking. There- fore, it was decided to initiate an All India Coordinated Project on Inventorizing the Medicinal Plant Resources of India with the participation of 6 major organizations in the country namely, Botanical Survey of India (BSI, Kolkata; NBRI, Lucknow; CIMAP, Lucknow; NBPGR, New Delhi; Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, Pune; J.N. Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore. The project has been approved and the work has been initiated in the above centers. The author is the Coordinator and Principal Investigator of this project. The major objectives of this programme are: 1. 2. 3.

4.

To prepare an inventory of the medicinal plant genetic resources of India. To identify the gap in inventory and take steps to fill the gap. To collect and document the use of the medicinal plants and various systems of medicine including the local health traditions. To collect and document all the scientific information pertaining to the reproductive biology, breeding behaviour, chemical composition, pharmacology, toxicology, etc. of medicinal plants. To prepare a database with digitized map of selected medicinal plants of India- plants used in both the classical systems of traditional medicine like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Amchi and the local health traditions, including the tribal medicine and home remedies. The database also will have information pertaining to the medicinal plant species along with their genetic variability, distribution and their status as rare, endangered, endemic, potential value as well as scientific literature on the species (phytochemical and pharmacological information).

From the above said facts it is clear that extensive work on medicinal and aromatic plants are either completed or being undertaken in the country by various prominent national R&D organizations. The project that deals with development of cultural practices, pre and post harvest technologies and development of value added products or chemical/drug/gene prospecting of medicinal plants are areas which need further research inputs.

5.


References Champion, H.G. &Seth S.K., 1968. A revised Survey of Forest Types of India. Delhi

PP. 404 MoEF, 1998. Implementation of Article 6 of the Convention on Biological Diversity

in India - National Report, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Nayar, M.P. 1996 Hotspots of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal and Bhutan, pp. 254 (Thiruvananthapuram; Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute)

Pushpangadan, P. 1997. Ethnobiology in India - A Status Report, All India Coordi- nated Research Project on Ethnobiology, Ministry of Environment &Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Pushpangadan, P. 2002. Biodiversity and Emerging Benefit Sharing Arrangements - Challenges and Opportunities for India. Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad. (PINSA). B68 NO. 3 pp. 297 - 314.

Introduction to Plant Biodiversity in Iran

Tehereh Eftekhari' and M. Ramezani'

The Islamic Republic of Iran comprises a land area of 1.64 million km?. It lies in the northern part of the temperate zone, between latitudes 25"03' and 39" 47' North and longitudes 44" 14' and 63" 20' East. The average altitude is over 1200 m above msl. The country features three main climatic zones: Arid and Semi-arid zones; Humid and Semi-humid zones; and the Mediterranean climatic zone. There are five major biomes, including: Semi-humid and humid Arasbaran and Hyrcanian mountains and Caspian plain, Irano-Turanian; Arid and Semi-arid plain and desert, Irano- Turanian; Arid and Semi-arid mountains, Semi arid zagros mountains, Kalijo- Om anian .

Most of Iran is located in the Irano-Turanian Region. Iranian habitats support about 8000 species of flowering plants (belonging to 167 families and 1200 genera), of which almost 1700 are endemic. There are 12.4 million hectares of forests, and about 8900 hectares of mangroves along the southern coasts of Iran. Also there are 90 million hectares of rangelands.

Iran and some of its neighbours are considered the centers of origin of many plant genetic resources of the world, including many of the varieties and strains of barley (Hordeum), wheat (Triticum), rye (Secale), bean (Phaseolus), pea (Pisum), grape (Vitis), and many of medicinal and aromatic species (Corianclrum sativunz, Fritillaria iiriper-ialis, Ferida assafoetida, etc.).

One of the serious threats to most of the Iranian ecosystems is drought, because much of Iran lies in the arid or semi-arid regions. The other threats for plants are: overgrazing, fuelwood extraction, conversion of forest and other wildlands for agriculture, road construction, overexploitation, and unscientific extraction of plant resources for medicine, food, and other uses.

Among the overexploited species, some are medicinal plants, which were very abundant until a few decades ago, but are now endangered in their natural habitats. Examples are: Ferula assafoetida (giant fenner), I? gumosa (galbanum plant), Carum cawi, C. caucausicum (caraway), Thymus kotshyaiius (thyme), etc.

At present only the protected areas afford reliable protection to Iran's biodiversity. There are 119 protected areas in Iran (including: 11 National Parks, 77 Protected Areas, 6 National Natural Monuments and 25 Life Refuges). These areas have been

'Department of the Environment,National Museum for Natural History, No. 9 Ghaem Magham Ave. 15899, Tehran, Iran. 'Associate Professor, School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacognosy & Biotechnology, PO Box: 91775-1365, Marshhad, Iran E-mail: ramez.ani @hotmail .corn


considered for in situ (within habitat) protection. O n the other hand, collecting and preserving of seeds, planting and maintenance of rare plant species, developing advanced techniques of seedling and hybridization of plants are a few of the practical experiments directed in Iran towards ex situ conservation. These activities have been directed towards establishment of natural history museums, seed and gene banks, botanical gardens and herbaria centers.

Status of Traditional Medicine Systems in Maldives with special reference to Conservation and Sustainable Use of

Medicinal Plant Resources

Ahmed Saleem

Background The Republic of Maldives consists of 26 natural coral atolls, 80- 120 km. wide and

860 km. long, which lies to the south-west of the southern tip of India in the Indian Ocean. It stretches from 76'30" north to O"42'30" south of the equator on the Laccadives Chagos Ridge. The area of the Maldives is about 90,000 km., yet less than one per cent is dry land. The population of the Maldives, according to the 2000 census is 269,010. Of the total 1192 islands, 199 islands are inhabited.

The islands of the Maldives are low-lying and formed from coral reefs. The average elevation of the islands is about 2 m. above the mean sea level. Because of the small size and low elevation of the islands, the number of species present on the island is comparatively low to that found in the mainland. Due to lack of documentation and research, little is known about the biodiversity of the Maldives. The major ecosystems of the Maldives include, coral reefs, seagrass beds, lagoons, mangroves, coastal vegetation, brackish water ecosystems and inland vegetation. It has been estimated that in the terrestrial environment 2 species of amphibians, 67 species of butterflies, 5 species of mammals and more than 130 species of insects exist in the islands. Of the known 200 species of birds, at least five are endemic to the Maldives. And all three species of bat found in the Maldives are endemic. The coral reefs of the Maldives are known for species diversity and support stocks of endangered species. Although little effort has been made to document the myriad life forms, which exist within the reef ecosystem, some estimates state that 6 species of terrestrial reptiles, 250 species of branching corals, 1700 species of fish, 5000 species of mollusks, 200 species of sponges, 1000 species of crustaceans and 12 species of mammals exist in the marine environment. According to some estimates, more than 500 species of higher plants are found in the Maldives. Available literature suggests that more than 250 plant species are used in traditional medicine.

Assistant Environment Analyst, Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment, Male, Republic of Maldives E-mail: salee-mv@ yahoo.com


Traditional Medicine Systems Plants and animals have been the source of traditional medicine in the Maldives

for over thousands of years. Traditional drugs in the Maldives refer to the plant or animal derived materials or preparations for therapeutic 01 other human health benefits, which contain either raw or processed ingredients from one or more sources. Although the classical traditional medical systems such as Unani, Ayurveda, Siddha, and Amchi, which exclusively rely on terrestrial herbs, Maldivian traditional medicine is unique in that it uses terrestrial as well as marine raw materials.

The classical systems of traditional medicine make use of numerous plants, some of which do not grow in the Maldives. Nevertheless, Maldivian traditional healers have found substitutes, which can be used to treat the same ailment from their local environment, making this also a unique aspect of the body of traditional knowledge.

Although, traditional medicine in the Maldives functioned mainly through folk stream, it is hypothesized that the indigenous medicines in the Maldives may have been influenced by the classical streams such as Ayurveda, and Siddha during the period of Buddhism in the Maldives. After conversion to Islam in 1153 AD, a new dimension, which is the Unani medicine, may have been added to the practice of folk medicine. Despite the subtle influences, the uniqueness of the folk medicine still remains. Although the main resource base of all the traditional system of medicine is plant, the type of vegetation found in the Maldives is very distinct or unique, compared to other countries of the region. Further, the preparation methodologies and the technology used by the local healers are obviously distinct and unique as every other folk stream of medicine has its distinct characteristics shaped by its ethnic culture. The Maldivian local healers seem to have a good knowledge of the coastal plants and their medicinal values.

In treating several types of ailments the Maldivian traditional healers in the past have used varieties of marine organisms, including parts of whales, mother of pearl, sea cucumbers, bivalves, corals, marine algae, sea grass, sponges and lobsters. The fact that increasing number of drugs are being produced based on folklore and traditional wisdom, conserving such knowledge is of utmost importance for future research in the areas. Traditional healers of the Maldives had recognized the medicinal values of marine organisms centuries ago. Unfortunately, the knowledge and the use of marine organisms in traditional formulations are becoming less day- by-day due to multitude of reasons.

The traditional medicine has taken care of the primary health care needs of the Maldivians until the advent of allopathic medicine in the 1930s. Traditionally, plant and animal raw materials obtained from terrestrial environment have been used to treat a broad range of diseases. These categories include contagious diseases such as, diarrhoea, skin infections, fungal infections, and sexually transmitted diseases. The non-contagious diseases include, arthritis, body aches, muscle strains, indigestion, ailments of the rectum, constipation, varicose vein ailments of the gum, night blindness, eye inflammation, muscular growth in the eyes, blood poisoning, kidney and urinary tract infections, accidental injuries, and limbs paralysis. The lifestyle diseases include diabetes, heart diseases and stress. The traditional medicine systems of Maldives have proven home remedies for hereditary diseases such


as asthma and also for minor injuries and ailments such as common colds, hey fever, dizziness, swellings, chest congestion, blurred vision, mouth odour, gums and teeth infections, watery eyes, headaches, stomachaches, boils, cuts, wounds, stings and bites.

Marine organisms have also been used as a cure for several types of ailments. These include, diseases of the reproductive organs, hemorrhoids, body pain, eye treatments, skin rashes, paralysis, indigestion, internal infections, bone treatments, muscular growth in the eyes, cuts and wounds, psychological disorders, poisoning, headaches, asthma and other lung diseases, skin cancer, etc. Often the specialists in the area treat respective ailments.

Threats to Biodiversity and Traditional Knowledge Recent studies in the country have highlighted several threats leading to the

loss of traditional knowledge and associated medicinal practices in the Maldives. The major threats arising from these problems are habitat loss and lack of concerted actions to make traditional knowledge and practices vibrant. The underlying causes for these threats are:

Lack of awareness oti the irnportuiice of traditional medicine and the importance of conserving medicinal plunt habitats.

The young generation has no appreciation of the important medicinal plants found in their environment. The existing school curricula for subjects such as Environmental Studies (from grades 1-5), Social Studies and General Science (grades 6-7) do not recognize any aspect of ethnobiology. In the past there has been only one series on traditional medicine on the local TV, and the local media rarely cover topics of this sort. Hence, there is no proper method of disseminating the information on ethnobiology. No proper training is available in the country for those who would like to un-

dergo training in traditional medicine. The Faculty of Health Sciences (FOHS) of the Institute of Higher Education, the government institution responsible for promoting traditional medicine, training and certification of the qualified people, lacks qualified trainers to conduct training. Moreover FOHS lacks documentation on indigenous medicine, laboratory facilities, to conduct appropriate training in traditional medicine. The existing resources are fully utilized because of the high demand for health professional in the modern health care system and hence, training in traditional medicine has not been considered a priority. At present there is only one full time trainer in the government sector and only seven persons have been trained in the traditional medicine.

1. Lack of incentives for tlie practitioners Many practitioners of the traditional medicine believe that there are no incentives for conserving and propagation of medicinal species, ethnobiological knowledge and the knowledge of traditional medicine, as there is little or no demand for traditional medicine and the reliance on traditional medicine is declining. Some major impediments in promoting traditional medicine include, lack of scientific validation regarding the efficacy or mode of action, standardization, toxicity and shelf-life studies on traditional medicine. These are crucial measures for making fuller use of traditional drugs and gaining wider acceptance for them.


2. Not only are most ingredients expensive, but are also difficult to obtain. Ad- ditional costs have to be incurred if someone is hired to assist in the work such as for collecting the raw materials and grinding the ingredients, etc. All these factors contribute to make allopathic drugs more preferable for the pa- tients. The healers get very little income from the practice. There is no predetermined fee because it has always been perceived as community service and/or as a pious deed. The fee in almost all case is left for the patient to decide. There are virtually little or no job opportunities in the existing health care system even for the authorized practitioners.

3.

4.

Inadequate laws/policies and regulations. The existing laws and policies do not adequately cover conservation of medici-

nal species particularly in land use planning such as allocation of land for housing, agriculture, industrial and commercial activities. Furthermore, no species has been assessed for its indigenous medicinal value, accorded a protected status or rescued from declining. Lack of integration of traditional medicine into modern healthcare system has been a major drawback in the area. There is no intellectual property rights law to protect indigenous knowledge and new innovations. Existing health regulations do not include a code of conduct for practitioners, thus cannot hold the practitioners responsible for malpractice.

Lack of iristitutional capacity arid coordination. There is a strong interest both at national and at practitioners level in conserving medicinal species and revitalizing traditional medicinal knowledge; however, till to date it has not been materialized mainly due to lack of trained staff and funding. This may be difficult due to the lack of specialists such as botanists, conservation biologists, taxonomists, biosystematists, chemotaxonomists, ethnobotanists, who are almost nonexistent in the country. Available resources have been diverted towards more demanding areas and meeting immediate needs. Major work in the agriculture sector has been focused on development of food crops as well as agricultural technology, and training the locals in this area through extension services. At present there are no strict quarantine regulations to protect the indigenous and endemic species in the Maldives. Although the government requires production of a phytosanitary certificate by the importers of plants into the Maldives to control the introduction of alien diseases and pests into the country, the concerned authority, however, lacks necessary facilities and human resources to conduct proper screening of the imported plants/plant propagules. Further, there is no existing mechanism to verify the authenticity of the phytosanitary certificates. Consequently, the number of introduced species (mainly orna- mental plants) is on the rise. The government lacks the capacity for standardization and quality control of ethnomedical recipes of drugs. There is no existing major research programme on medicinal species, though Environment Research Center (ERC) of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Hous- ing and Environment is trying to compile the medicinal flora and fauna of the Maldives. Some traditional practitioners and NGOs have also made some attempts to document it. These small projects are standalones and virtually lack coordination between them.


The major threats to conservation are loss of habitats, habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation. In those atolls, where population density is high, most of the original habitats have been already destroyed. Consequently, many of the important medicinal species in those islands have already been lost. The demand for land for housing, agriculture, industrial activities, tourism development is still on the rise. In those islands where a considerable portion of forest remains, habitat fragmentation due to road construction is further posing threats to the remaining wild populations by creating barriers to normal dispersal and colonization processes. Already a large percentage of coral reef ecosystems have been destroyed in the atoll due to dredging for harbour and channel development, reef entrance blast- ing with dynamite and causeway construction. The commercialization and development of agriculture industry is of high priority in the Maldives. This would inevitably, modify the natural vegetation structure and composition of the uninhab- ited islands, where many of the medicinal species is believed to survive. One important reason for decline in certain species is degradation of natural habitats due to coral, sand and rubble mining for household activities. National legislation exists to protect and preserve the environment, however, marine habitat degradation is continuing due to unavailability of alternative building materials. Government has designated areas of coral and sand mining. However, more efforts are needed to strengthen the monitoring and enforcement to protect the vulnerable habitats. Un- regulated waste dumping in the terrestrial habitats poses a threat for conservation.

Unsustainable lzawesting of resources. Intense exploitation of certain species led to the decline and extinction of marine

and terrestrial species in the country, thus making it difficult to obtain certain raw materials for the medicine, inevitably, hampering the traditional medical practice, eventually leading to the declining of the knowledge. Overexploitation of certain resources was due to development of markets for such species, such as sea cucumbers, black coral, red coral, lobsters, etc., all of which has medicinal values. In the terrestrial environment certain medicinal species was indiscriminately exploited for timber and firewood, leading to the extinction of these species in most islands of the atoll. Mining of large volumes of sand from the inner lagoon and mining of rubble and coral for household use still exists. This would impact the natural recovery rate of already degraded reef systems.

Habitat destruction, degradation and fragmentation.

Conclusions The ecosystems and the associated biodiversity of the Maldives has been the

major resource base for its people. The rich biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge has provided us with food, medicine, housing materials, protection, body ornamentation, materials for equipments, perl'umes, fuel wood and many more. However, erosion of biodiversity and traditional knowledge associated with modern development and population pressure is clearly evident in the country. Rapid steps need to be taken to minimize such threats in order to prevent the loss of biodiversity and traditional environmental knowledge to enable the Maldivians to use the biological resources sustainably, and to pass this resource onto the genera- tions to come.

Biodiversity of Nepal- A Status Report Dhruv Raj Bhattarai

Introduction Nepal is the 35‘h country to ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

on November 23, 1993. Nepal exercised to prepare Nepal Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) from a grant of Global Environment Facility (GEF) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) through the implementing agency, the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (HMG, Nepal). The main goal of M A P is to provide an operational planning framework for the conservation of biological diversity, maintenance of ecological processes and ecosystems, and for ensuring equitable sharing of benefits.

Physiography and Socio-economic Characteristics Nepal’s biodiversity is a reflection of its unique geographical position, and

altitudinal and climatic variations. Nepal’s location in the centre of the Himalayas makes it a transitional zone between the eastern and western Himalayas, representing the palaeoarctic Indo-Malayan biogeographical region and one of the major floristic provinces of Asia.

Vegetation of Nepal comprises around 4.29 million hectares (representing about 29% of the total land area) of forest, 1.56 million hectare (10.6%) shrubland and degraded forest, 1.95 million hectares (12%) of grassland, 3.0 million hectares (21%) of farmland, about 1 .O million hectares (7%) of uncultivated inclusions.

Biological Diversity The extreme altitudinal gradients of Nepal resulted in the occurrence of 10

bioclimatic zones from tropical to alpine within a horizontal span of less than 180 km., virtually making Nepal a treasure house of biological and cultural diversity. A total of 118 ecosystems, 75 vegetation and 35 forest types have been identified. Nepal comprises seven ecological zones that are: (i) Terai (ii) Siwalik (iii) Mahabharat Lekh (iv) Midland (v) Himalaya (vi) Inner Himalaya, and (vii) Tibetanmarginal mountains.

General Manager, Herbs Production & Processing Co. Ltd Koteshore, P.O. Box 6279, Kathmandu, Nepal


Species Diversity Nepal is well known of its forest diversity, which attracts a larger number of

biologists and ecologists for study. Nepal has about 7000 flowering plant species, out of which 700 plant species are medicinally used. In Nepal low land supports 1885 species of angiosperms, 61 species of bryophytes, 18 species of pteridophytes and 648 species of birds.

The middle hill harbours 3364 species of angiosperms, 493 species of bryophytes, 272 species of pteridophytes, 16 species of gymnosperms, 557 species of butterflies, 76 species of fishes, 29 species of amphibians, 56 species of reptiles and 691 species of birds.

The high land comprises 38 major ecosystems and they support over 2000 phenerogamic species and large number of endemic species.

Species Richness The country comprises only about 0.09 percent of the terrestrial area of the

earth, but it harbors high share of species richness; for example, 9.3% of bird species, 5.1% of bryophytes, 5.1% of gymnosperms, 4.5% of mammals, 3.4% of Pteridophytes, 2.7% of angiosperms, 2.6% of butterflies and moths, 2.6% of algae of the world.

Protected Areas The protected areas in Nepal include eight national parks, four wildlife reserves,

one hunting reserve, three conservation areas and five buffer zones covering an area of 26,666 sq. km. i.e. 18.11 % of the total area of the country. Forest types of the mid hill are poorly represented in protected area system, but they are most diversified in terms of biodiversity. Out of 118 ecosystems identified in different physiographic zones in Nepal, 80 are represented in the protected areas.

Conservation of Threatened Species HMGN has imposed restriction on the export of 12 plant species and one forest

product from Nepal. Similarly, 27 species of mammals, 9 species of birds and 3 species of reptiles are given large protection under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. There are 10 species of fish that are accorded legal protection in Nepal. Twelve species of butterflies have been recommended for protection in Nepal.

Threats to Biodiversity and their Causes Nepal's biodiversity is threatened due to the cumulative effect of socio-eco-

Some important natural disturbing agents are fire, landslides, earthquakes, her- nomic problems, ecological degradation and political instability.

bivores, pathogens, invasive species and pollution.


Local people, who use the resources, and even the policy makers, are not aware of the multifarious benefits of conserving biodiversity, especially medicinal plants.

Major Constraints and Gaps Among the others, the major constraints include lack of trained staff, research

infrastructure, logistic support and incentives for conservation of biodiversity. The main gaps include lack of baseline information and integrated management in many programmes, and lack of adequate representation of mid hills ecosystems and transboundary protected areas.

People’s Participation Nepal has a long history of protecting forests by communities. The Annapurna

Conservation area is a unique effort to establish local institutions to promote economically viable and ecologically sustainable activities in and around a multiple use area. HMGN has acknowledged the right of people’s participation in land use and

fi,’xuce management by approving buffer zone Management Regulation 1996 and Buffer zone Management Guidelines 1999. Park people program aiming at participatory biodiversity conservation in the buffer zone has been implemented by DNPWC under the financial and technical assistance of UNDP since 1994.

The NGOs and civic societies are beginning to emerge into the mainstream of National activities.

Conservation of Medicinal Plants Increasing population and shrinking forests have resulted in significant decline

in Nepal’s botanical wealth. Over exploitation of medicinal plants for trade, deforestation, and expansion of agricultural activities have pushed several species to the brink of extinction.

Some important medicinal plants which are already endangered in Nepal are: Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Juglans regia, Picrorrhiza kurrooa, Nardostachys jatarnansi, Rauwolfia serpentina, Ciririarnotnurn cecidodaphtie, Abies spectabilis, Taxas baccata, Cordyceps sinensis, and several species of Lichens.

Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs), therefore, must get high priority in overall conservation programmes. Conservation of a resource is not preserving it exclusively for the future but involves sustainable harvest of that resource in such a way that the source of supply of the resource does not decline. Conservation of MAPs, can be done through the following steps: 1. Making a complete list of rare and endangered plants with their correct status. 2. Study of the plant life cycle. 3. Practising ex situ and in situ conservation. 4. Making sustainable utilization. 5. Equitable benefit sharing.

the following steps: For conservation and sustainable utilization of MAP’S the HMGN has adopted


1.

2.

Medicinal plants available in wild state can be collected only with the permission of district forest office, paying the royalties imposed by the government. Several training courses are carried out in the remote mountainous and sub- alpine regions in order to make the people aware of the sustainable harvesting and conservation of biodiversity of medicinal plants. As a result of trainings, the local people have been practising to cultivate the medicinal plants in the farm as domestication, which have a greater value in terms of cash. This practice also supports in the conservation of biodiversity in the sector of medicinal plants.

3.

Medicinal Plant Biodiversity in Pakistan - Opportunities and Threats

Bina S. Siddiqui and M. Iqbal Choudhary

Introduction Biodiversity is the variety of all life forms on planet Earth. Different plants,

animals and microorganisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are a part, are all integral parts of biodiversity domain. Pakistan is among the moderately diverse countries in biological resources, where people’s reliance on natural sources for sustenance and well-being is immensely strong. With a massive population of over 140 million and per capita income of US$400, the country primarily has an agri- based and rural economy. The country has rich and unbroken tradition of the use of medicinal plants and other natural resources for healthcare needs. The medicinal plant resources of the country are rich and diverse.

Global Biodiversity Crisis and Pakistan Most biologists accept the estimate of American evolutionary biologist that the

Earth is losing approximately 27,000 species per year. This estimate is based primarily on the rate of disappearance of ecosystems, especially tropical forests and grasslands, and our knowledge of the species that live in such systems. W e can measure the rate of loss of tropical rain forests, for example, by analyzing satellite photographs of continents from different periods that show rates and amounts of habitat destruction - and from these measurements calculate the approximate number of species being lost each year.

Pakistan, though, not among the biodiversity hot spots of the world, still faces immense challenges of conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources. Degradation in natural resources is visible, caused by increased human activities related to the growing population and lack of serious efforts in this field. They include: human destruction of natural habitats, industrial pollution, migration of human population, invasive species, the growing demand for natural resources and the lack of adequate training on the subject of biodiversity. Most of these threats are directly related to an increasing human population. In addition, no systematic work has been carried out on the status and threats to ecosystems, and also

H.E.J Research Institute of Chemistry International Center for Chemical Sciences University of Karachi, Karachi - 75270, Pakistan E-mail: [email protected]


the effects of global climate change are poorly understood. Generally speaking, the concept of biodiversity is ineffectively expressed and is

often not a topic of discussion in the development sector. It is also felt that the entire concept is poorly understood, even by those organizations that are directly concerned with biodiversity and environmental issues. Hqwever, the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio and the ratification of the Convention on BioIogical Biodiversity have sensitized this important and neglected sector.

Ecological Zones of Pakistan The total area of Pakistan is 87.98 mh, out of which 88% is classified as arid and

semi-arid and only 12% is humid and sub-humid, mainly located in the Himalayas and Karakoram ranges. The area covered by forest is 4.579 m h (5%) out of which 1.958 m h is classified as temperate conifer forest and 1.702 mh as sub-tropical forest.

Paksitan is located geographically in a transitional zone. The summer monsoon influences the climate of east and gradually integrates with winter precipitation. The west of Pakistan has dominated Mediterranean type of climate. River Indus roughly divides north and south. The extreme north of western Himalayas receive maximum rain (more than 2000 mm), which gradually dilutes down as we move to South (reduced to 50-100 mm) in arid regions of the Sindh.

The diversity of various mountain ranges in the north has contributed towards a uniquely rich flora and several species of endemic plants. There are four genera endemic to Pakistan that are confined to western dry mountain and comprise of 350- 400 species.

Balochistan juniper Forests Balochistan’s forests are one of the most extensive and oldest juniper ecosys-

tems of the world. These provide habitats to many unique birds, mammals and species of plants that have a very restricted range of distribution. This extensive open woodland is spread between 2 100-3000 m. The main species -Juniperus excelsa ssp. polycarpos, is a very slow-growing tree. Some trees are thousands of years old and suffer from aging, parasite disease, impacts of climate change, heavy grazing and deforestation. Several species found in the juniper tract are endemic to Balochistan or extend their distribution to neighboring areas of Afghanistan and Iran. Juniper forest includes some of the oldest trees of the country. Unfortunately, this national heritage is facing threat from a parasitic disease caused by a small plant-the dwarf misletoe (Arceuthobium oxycederii). This parasite is expanding in the Ziarat juniper tract and it needs immediate attention to protect the ecosystem, which is providing habitat to several endemic species of shrubs and herbs in the forest under growth.

The Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, and the Forest Department of Balochistan are making a number of efforts to overcome this problem. Due to their landscape, physical structure, geological formations, petrified forests and natural water sources, juniper forests have great potential to attract tourists in other areas besides Ziarat. Properly managed ecotourism in these ecosystems can be an effective means to educate and create awareness among the public and tourists about


the importance of this unique species. It can also generate income for the locals, which will ultimately reduce the pressure on these natural resources. The Forest Department is executing an extensive project under the Balochistan Natural Re- sources Management Project (BNRMP) for the improvement of this unique ecosystem.

Chilghoza Foresfs

The chilghoza pines of the Sulaiman range of Balochistan form a unique ecosystem, providing a habitat to endemic mammals like the Sulaiman Markhor, as well as some endemic plant species. On higher elevations, Juniperus excelsa ssp. polycarpos is the other associate species.

Balochistan Subtropical Foresfs

Most of the land of Balochistan is arid and does not support the growth of large forests. Subtropical broadleaf forests are mainly composed of wild pistachio and ash species and have very small and scattered populations. Wild pistachio tree (Pistacia atlatztica ssp. cabulica and Pistachio klzitzjuk), a more commonly grown species, is scattered at intervals on lower slopes of hills or along dry watercourses. Although these species show a remarkable ability to recover after disturbance and they grow relatively faster than other introduced species, the structure and composition of these forests still has been greatly modified by man throughout the centuries. There are only few remnant representative examples in the province and a detailed inventory of these forest communities is not available. It will be difficult to assess the benefits and losses associated with these communities.

Sub-Tropical Deciduous Forests

The salt range and foothills of the Himalayas support sub-tropical deciduous forest. Himalayan foothill subtropical forest is the only habitat for Indo-Malayan elements forming multistoried forests with high species diversity. Some typical examples of such forests can be observed in the Margalla hills, and theLehtrar, Panjar and Karot Valleys. These forests are formed by tall trees like Kydia calycina, Pistacia irztegrrima, Botiibax ceiba, Albiziia lebbek, Ternzirialia belerica mixed with small and medium-sized trees (e.g. Acacia catechu, Mallotus philipensis, Lantiea coromendelica, etc.) and a large variety of low growing shrubs, herbs and climbers.

These forests are suffering from land clearing for urban and agricultural expansion, heavy grazing and an increasing demand for fuel wood. The species Holarrhetia pubescens is known to be extinct in Pakistan, but has been reported in the Margalla Hills subtropical forest. Some rare species associated with these Himalayan subtropical forests include Pittosporutii nepauletise var rawalpitzdiense, Engelhardtia colebrokkian, Ficus semicordata and some orchid species such as Nervilia ganmiieatia, Pecteilis gigantean, EulopAiu granlinea, etc.


Trans- Himalayan Plateaus

High altitude alpine and sub-alpine habitats are the most sensitive habitats subject to heavy grazing pressure, increasing eco-tourisms and global warming. These plateaus provide a habitat to many endemic species of plants including (Picrorhiza kurroa and Saussurea costus). Tourism has increased in recent years and increasing vehicle traffic is damaging the vegetation through trampling, in addition to causing noise and vehicular emissions.

Thorn Forest

The natural tropical thorn forest of the wood plains, lower hill and arid sandy tract (comprising Salvadora oleoides, Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix aphylla and Capparis deciduas) once formed the bulk of the vegetation of the Punjab’s so- called wood reserves (rakhs). Two of these species Prosopis cineraria and Tamarix aphylla, have been selected for arid land afforestation whereas the co-dominant associate of the community, Salvadora oleoides, is specified as an uneconomic wood devoid of any interest. In Pakistan, economic incentives have been far more pervasive in over exploiting this community as opposed to conserving it. The incentives to convert these forests into arable land and to plant artificial forests in the irrigated flood plains might have been appropriate, but on the sandy fragile soil, these practices have set up a trend of desertification.

The Balochistan Desert Basin

This is the most important but least explored desert basin of the Balochistan province. It starts from Nishi and goes directly to the Taftan Sandak area via Nok Kundi, Dalbandin, Padag, Yarmach, etc. The vegetation is sparse, consisting of small shrubs and clumps of grass.

The Thar Desert

This is a plain of gently undulating sand hill, sloping upward gradually to the north-east. Elevation generally is below 500 feet. To the south, the desert blends into a vast salt marsh, theRann of Kutch. Vegetation is generally sparse, consisting of xerophytic and halophytic shrubs and grasses. Species of Acacia, Prosopis, Zizyplius and Calotropis are characteristic of the desert region.

Indus Delta Mangrove

The Indus Delta stretches over an area of some 600,000 hectares on the border between Pakistan and India. A vast complex of river channels and creeks, low-lying sandy islands, mangrove swamps and inter-tidal mudflats cover about 200 km. of the outer edge of the delta. Recent satellite imagery indicates that about 260,000 ha. of the delta is covered with mangroves. The progressive reduction of freshwater flows in the Indus has affected the saltiness in the delta creeks. This puts stress on the mangroves causing stunting and the loss of seedlings. Overgrazing and lop-


ping for fuel wood results in stunted trees in some areas. The survival of the mangrove system is at risk.

The Indus Delta mangrove ecosystem is dominated by a single species, Avicemiia marina that constitutes over 95% of the trees, though a few stands of Ceriops tagal and Aeziceras corniculaturii exist. Rlzizophora niucroriata once used to grow in the Indus Delta but it has now vanished, possibly due to selective over exploitation and degrading conditions. Villagers from many coastal settlements that are scattered throughout the delta, use the mangroves for fuel wood and fodder for their animals. Avicerinia leaves are excellent fodder for animals and are collected regularly by the villagers.

Natural Resources of Pakistan The resources of Pakistan are primarily agricultural. The country’s mineral re-

sources include salt, chromite, coal, gypsum, limestone, manganese, sulfur, clay, graphite, copper, petroleum and natural gas.

Vegetation in Pakistan varies according to elevation. Alpine flora grows on the higher slopes. Forests of spruce, evergreen oak, chir or cheer pine, and a cedar known as the deodar are found at lower elevations.

Animal life abounds in Pakistan, including deer, boar, bear, crocodile and water- fowl. In the freshwater and saltwater areas, fishes of many varieties are found. Marine life includes herring, mackerel, sharks and shellfish.

Floristic Diversity of Pakistan The complete flora of Pakistan has not been documented yet. S.I. Ali and co-

workers have so far published 209 volumes of Flora, which do not include many large families such as Asteraceae (Ali & Nasir 1989-91, Ali &Quaker 1999, Nasir & Ali 1969-89). An estimated 80% of the rural population of Pakistan depends on traditional medicines for their primary healthcare needs, majority of which use plants or their active principles.

A number of surveys were conducted under the auspices of several authorities. Examples include surveys in Sindh by the Pakistan Agricultural Council (PARC), in Balochistan by the Pakistan Science Foundation (PSF) and in Azad Kashmir by the Pakistan Association of Advancement of Science (PAAS). Pakistan Forest Insti- tute (PFI) has published a number of booklets and market surveys on medicinal plants.

Eco-diversity of Medicinal Plants Medicinal plants that are being commercially exploited in large quantities occur

mainly in four ecological regions of Pakistan i.e. Alpine and high altitude; temperate mountain forests; sub-tropical foothill forests; and arid and semi-arid scrubs.


Medicinal Plants of Alpine and High Altitude Areas A number of medicinally important plants are collected from moist alpine and

high altitude areas especially in the north-western valleys. Most of these are slow growing perennial species, which require several years of vegetative growth for reproduction by seed. Most of these species are classified as threatened or vulnerable. Endangered plant species of this area include-Podophyllutn hexaridrum, Saussaurea costus, Picrorhiza kurroa, Aconituni Iieterophyllwiz and Copdalis SP.

Medicinal Plants of Temperate Mountain Forest

The second largest category of medicinal plants is collected from dry montane areas (Karakoram and Hindukush- 1.58 mh). These forests went through major struc- tural changes during last 100 years and potential forest area has reduced to about 50%. The common medicinal plants of this area are Atropa acunzinata, Angelica glauca, Paeonia emodi, Gerariiurn wallichiariurn, Artemisia sp., Glycyrrhiza glabra and Ephedra sp.

Medicinal Plants of Sub-Tropical Foothill Forests

Sub-tropical foothill forests are spread over an area of about 1.702 mh. Himalayan foothill forests are most important for species diversity and forest density. The species found here include Termiirialia sp., Mallotus philippensis, Phyllanthus enzbilica, Butea tnotiospertiia, etc.

Medicinal Plants of Arid and Semi-Arid Areas The cold arid areas are mainly located in the Hindukush and Karakoram moun-

tains in the North of Pakistan. Some important species of medicinal plants of commercial importance like Artemisia sp., Ephedra gerardiana, E. procera, Bunium persicum, are found in these habitats.

Current Status of Medicinal Plant Resources in Pakistan According to the National Institute of Health (N.I.H.), about 400 plant species

are used extensively in traditional medicines. Tibbi Pharmacopoeia of Pakistan (Pharmacopoeia of Traditional Drugs compiled by the Tibbi Board) has listed around 900 single drugs and about 500 compound preparations made out of medicinal plants. There are about 27 large herbal manufacturing companies in Pakistan, which produce Unani medicines on commercial scale. The number of herbal medicine manufacturers in non-organized sector run into hundreds. The annual turnover of some large herbal manufacturers is comparable to multinational companies in Paki- stan. Traditional healers around 50,000 in numbers including homeopaths are serv- ing about 60% of the population, especially those living in the rural areas.

Over 85% of the medicinal plants used in Pakistan are collected from the wild. The cultivation caters only to a very small portion of the market. This not only


emphasizes the importance of conserving the wild plant resources in the country but also the need of greater cultivation efforts to reduce the pressure on natural resources.

Considering their widespread use the cultivation/propagation and procurement of medicinal plants is very important both from economic and therapeutic points of view. Countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka, India, China, Kenya, Uganda, etc. are growing a variety of medicinal plants for internal use as well as for export purpose. It is estimated that in the Soviet Union over 20,000 tons of wild medicinal plants are collected each year and an equal amount is cultivated.

In Pakistan, fortunately attention is being paid to the systematic cultivation/ propagation and collection of medicinal plants and preparation of authentic database by the Pakistan Forest Department publications.

Trade and Marketing of Medicinal Plants in Pakistan Crude plant-based drugs worth about Rs. 120 million per year are used in Paki-

stan. This is a good indicator of the potential economic value of medicinal plants. Aromatic and medicinal plants of Pakistan have a market of considerable size both nationally and internationally. The trade of the crude medicinal drugs and the number of personnel involved in the collection, distribution, trade and consumption are quite sizable.

Major Plant Drugs The Pakistan Forest Institute (PFI, Peshawar) has conducted a number of market

surveys of herbal markets of Pakistan and collected valuable information. A survey of NWFP in Punjab and Sindh conducted in 1985 by thePFI showed that 75 items of crude herbal drugs are extensively used and traded in Pakistan. Category A which is traded in quantities of more than 200 tons, include Glycyrrhiza glabra, Carum copticum, Valeriana wallichii, Cassia fistula, Puriica granatum, Foeiiiculurn vulgare, Corriandrum sativum, Cuminurn cyminum, Rosa damascena, Plantago ovata, Borago officinalis, Ziziphus vulgaris, Lawsonia alba, Carum hulbocastamum, Mentha longifolia. Category B comprises drugs which are sold in quantities ranging from 101-200 tons and includes plants such as Viola serpens, Adiantum capillus, Terminalia arjuna, 7: chebula, Centaurea behen, Myrtus cotn- munis, Ferula foetida, Polygonum atnplexicaule, Rheum emodi, Emblica officinalis, Withania coagulans. Category C (5 1- 100 Tons annual sale) includes Artemisia maritima, Cassia augustifolia, Cordia latifolia, Zirigiber zerutnbet, Peganuni har-tnala, Malva sylvestris, Nigella sativa, Commipliora wightii, Sisyrnbriurn irio, Cicheriutn intybus, Salvia haetnotodes, Mallotus pliilippensis, Lallernantia royleana and Saussurea lappa, whereas the Category D (2-50 tons) include plants such as Fuinaria indica, Swertia cliirata, Berberis lycium, Merendera persica, Nyrnphaea lotus, Althaea officinalis, Hyoscyamus nigel; Zanthoxylum armaturn, Aloe indica, Cassia absus, Prunus Cydonia, Ceritella asiatica, Salvia spinosa, Acorus calamus, Vetiveria zizanioides, Rubia cordifolia, Alpinia galanga, Pimpinella anisum, Lactuca sativa, Trapa bispinosa, Nepeta ruderalis, Lavandual stoechas, Plumbago zeylanica, Withania soinnifera, Achillea milleffolium, Tribulus


terrestris, Colchicurn luteum, Cuscuta reflexa, Ocittium basilicum, Ociniuni pilosuni, Hygrophila spinosa, Carthatnus titictorius, Potiganzia glabra and Aconitum napellus.

Major Markets Main markets of the crude herbal drugs are in Mingora, Dir, Peshawar, Rawalpindi,

Bahawalpur, Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Sukkar, Hyderabad and Karachi. Pe-h awar market acts as a supply center of herbal drugs to various markets in Pakistan. This market procures herbal material not only from Pakistan but also from Afghanistan and other Central Asian Republics.

Threats to Medicinal flora of Pakistan Pakistan has already practically lost many species of medicinal plants such as

Saussurea costus, Podophyllutn hexandrum, Dioscorea deltoidea, Valerianu wallichii, etc. Tables 1 and 2 contain the names of plants, which are endangered and vulnerable in Pakistan, respectively. Root causes of the extinction of medicinal and aromatic plants of commercial importance, depletion of medicinal plants resources and pressure on many other species of medicinal plants are mainly overexploitation of resources due to increasing demand of their products all over the world, increasing human population, uncontrolled urbanization, growing industralization and extensive destruction of plant rich habitats due to various massive developmental projects. Local communities have no active involvement in Table 1. Endangered Plants of Pakistan

~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~

Plant Local name Consumption/ Ecological Region Yr. (Tons) approx

Cotiztn iphora wig htii

Picrorrhiza kurrooa Podophyllum hexandrum

Dioscorea deltoidea Paeonia einodi

Onosma echiodes Polygonum amplexicaule

Valeriana wallichii Aconitum heterophyllum Rheum etnodi

Saussurea costus

Atropa acuminatu

Guggul Kutki

B aiikakri Kasni

Mamekh Ratanjot Anj abar

Mushkbala Atees

Revand-chini

Kuth Angoor-shafa

25-30

10-15 30-40

30-60

10-20 5-10 15-20 30-50 4-5 30-40

5-8 15

Deserts Alpine Himalaya

Temperate Himalaya Temperate Himalaya Temperate Himalaya Cold dry mountain Temperate Himalaya Temperate Himalaya Temperate Himalaya Temperate Himalaya,

Hindukush Alpine Himalaya

Temperate Himalaya


Table 2. Vulnerable Medicinal Plants of Pakistan

Plant Local name ConsumptiodYr. Ecological Region (Tons) approx

Plantago ovata

Pistacia iritegerrima

Ziziphus sativa

Glycyrriza glabra

Artemisia spp.

Adiantum capilus- veneris

Acorus calamus

Mallotus philippensis

Berberis lyciuni

Colchium luteum

Citrullus colcynthis

Bergenia Ciliata

Isabgol

Kakar Singhi

Unab

Mulathi

Afsan tin

Parsi yawshan

Warch or gorbach

Kamila

Dardald

Suranjan Talkh

Tumbdhanzil

Zakhme-e- Hayat

30-40

2-3

50-100

200

100-1 50

80- 100

20-30

5-10

300-400

5-8

, 40-50

15-20

Cold arid hills

Sub-tropical . Himalaya

Sub-tropical Himalaya

Hindukush , Himalaya

Hindukush, Karakoram

Temperate Himalaya

Temperate Himalaya

Sub-tropical Himalaya

Hindukush, Himalay a

Sub-tropical Him a1 ay a Deserts

Temperate Himalaya

whatever meager conservation efforts are made. However, it is now realized by the scientists that the indigenous knowledge of the identity, efficacy and utility of medicinal plants has to be preserved and a systematic documentation of ethnobotanical information be an important priority.

Conservation of Medicinal Plants Although there is no reliable data available as to which species of medicinal

plants require conservation, there is an overwhelming agreement among the experts in the country that most threatened ecosystems are temperate Himalayan forests in the upland areas. There is also an agreement that almost all forests of Pakistan have been exploited heavily during last two decades.


To initiate the conservation efforts, Pakistan has established reserve areas, mainly national park, covering about 10% of the total land. However, due to lack of proper management, over exploitation of medicinal plants continue. In summary, it is appar- ent that ex situ conservation of the medicinal plant resources currently does not exist, while in situ conservation is still in its infancy. As a result of this situation there is an urgent need for the conservation of genetic resources of important medicinal and aromatic plants. There is also a need that the medicinal and aromatic plants, which are threatened in wild, should be urgently identified giving priority in the conservation programme.

0 1 situ conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants seeds has recently been initiated at Plant Genetic Resource Institute (PGRI) and National Agricultural Re- search Council, (NARC), Islamabad, Pakistan, where a special chamber named Hakim Mohammad Said chamber has been established.

Medicinal plant research in Pakistan Pakistan has a number of institutions involved in research and development

work on medicinal plants. However, except a few, majority of them are either inad- equately equipped or do not have human or financial resources required for executing the work.

Following institutions are involved in various aspects of the research and development and conservation of medicinal plant resources in Pakistan.

Phytochemistry

i.

ii.

M.

H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi. Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (P.C.S.I.R.) Laborato- ries, Peshawar, Pakistan. Chemistry and Pharmacology Departments of Various Universities. ...

Taxonomy, Collection, Herbarium

i. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar ii.

iii. iv. v.

National Agricultural Research Council (NARC) (Plant Genetic Research Centre and National Herbarium), Islamabad Herbarium, University of Karachi, Karachi Hamdard University, Karachi (to a very limited extent) Botany Departments of various Universities

Pharmacology

i.

ii. iii. Hamdard University, Karachi

H.E.J Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi The Aga Khan Medical University, Karachi


iv. v. vi.

National Institute of Health, Islamabad University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (veterinary) Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy Departments of various Universities

Standardization, Quality Control and Safety Assurance of Plant-Based Drugs

i. Hamdard University, Karachi ii. iii.

Pharmacy Faculty, University of Karachi, Karachi HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi

Medicinal Plants Cultivation

i. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar ii. iii. iv.

Hamdard University, Madinatal Hikmah Campus, Karachi Experimental Farms of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Some Small Farms in Private Sector

Propagation, Tissue Culture

i. ii. 6.

7. N.I.B.G.E.,Faisalabad 8. P.C.S.I.R.,Karachi

National Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad Department of Botany, University of Peshawar H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical Sciences, University of Karachi

Ethnobotany, Database, Pharmacoepia

i. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar ii. iii. iv. v.

Department of Botany, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad Department of Botany, University of Balochistan, Quetta Baital Hikmah Research Institute, Hamdard University, Karachi Department of Botany, University of Peshawar

Conservation

i. Government of Pakistan through GEF funding ii. Pakistan Forest Institute iii. International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) iv. Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) v. Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC-IC) vi. Aga Khan Rural Support Program (AKRSP) vii. Forestry Departments of various Provinces


Future potentials of Medicinal Plant Sector Cultivation for the World Market: There are a number of medicinal plants that can be easily cultivated in Pakistan and have established demand for their raw material and/or active constituents in the international trade. These plants are: Acorus calamus, Aconitum sp., Adhatoda vasica, Aloe vera, Arnnii tnajus, Atropa acumi- nata, Berberis aristata, Carica papaya, Catliaranthus roseus, Cassia senna, Ce- phaelis ipecacuanha, Cinchona sp., Colclzicuni Iiiteiun, Datura metel, Digitalis sp., Dioscorea sp., Glycyrrhiza glabra, Hedychiiirn spicatutn, Heracleurn candicans, Hyoscyamus sp., hula racernosa, Juglans regia, Juniperus sp., Matricaria chatnotnilla, Papaver soniriiferutn, Plantago ovata, Podopliylluni emodi, Rarivolfia serpentina, Rheum ernodi, Saussurea lappa, Swertia chirata, Urginea indica, Valeriatin wallichii and Zirigiber oficinale. Economic Potential: The sustainable harvesting of plants having both medicinal and economic values has great potentid. Although some quantities of such plants like isabgol, turmeric, cumins, etc. are under cultivation, there is no local awareness about the proper collectiordpreservation of the various species. Medicinal plants are used both in the indigenous system of medicines and by the pharmaceutical industries. Medicinal Plants with Potential Econornic Value: There are some other Pakistani plant species on which significant research leads have been obtained with respect to their pharmaceutical potential and for which processing and agrotechnology need to be established. These are Atidrographis paniculata, Artemisia annua, Boswellia serrata, Centella asiatica, Coleus forskohlii, Cornmiphora wightii, Curcuma longa, Phyllanthus aniarus, Picrorrhiza Kurroa, Sida rhombifolia, Taxus baccata and Withania soninifera etc. Value Addition to the Medicinal Plants Raw Material: Pakistan largely exports crude plant material, which has low market value in the international market. O n the other hand, countries such as China and India export value-added plant extracts standardized on the basis of their active constituents. Price difference between crude plant material and processed extract is enormous. It is, therefore, important that producers and traders of medicinal plants in Pakistan should add value to their exports by carrying out the initial process and quality evaluation in Pakistan.

Conclusion and Recommendations B y and large, the country has a good potential for sustainable utilization of

medicinal flora. Some basic infrastructure to carry out research and development works in this field also exists. However a moreorganized attention is required to the systematic cultivatiodpropagation, collection and conservation of medicinal plants.

In order to make the medicinal plants sector in Pakistan sustainable it is important that the country consolidates the plant resource information base, assess the international and national markets of its medicinal flora; implement the large-scale cultivation projects and salvage priority species of medicinal plants. The country also needs an extension of research efforts into plantation and production and development of a system of institutional linkages, amongst all the R&D organizations catering to the medicinal and aromatic crop sector in Pakistan.


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Mountain Areas of Pakistan, In: T. Partap and B. Sthapit (eds.) Managing Agrobiodiversity, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, pp. 235-240.

Ahmad, Shabbir 1982. Revised Working Plan for the Bela Forests of Gujranwalal SheikhupuraForest Division, 1982-83 to 1991-92.

Ali, S.I. and Nasir, Y.J. 1989-91. Flora ofPakistari, Nos. 191-193, Department of Botany, University of Karachi and Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.

Ah, S.I. and Qaiser, M. 1999. Flora of Pakistan, Nos. 194-202, Department of Botany, University of Karachi and Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.

Nasir, E. and Ali, S.I. 1969-1989. Flora ofPakistan, Nos. 1-190, Department ofBotany, University of Karachi and PARC, Islamabad.

Pakistan Agriculture Research Council 1980. Agro-Ecological Regions of Pakistan, Islamabad.

Pakistan Museum of Natural History 1997. Biodiversity of Pakistan, Pakistan Museum of Natural History, Islamabad.

Ahmad, Javed and Mahmood, Fawad 1998. Changing Perspectives on Forest Policy. Natural Resource Group, IUCN-Pakistan.

Medicinal Plant Wealth and Traditional Medicine Systems in Sri Lanka

Preethi Wickremasinghe

Background The planet's essential goods and services depend on biological diversity i.e. the

variety and variability of genes, species, populations and ecosystems on earth. If the humanity is to have a future on this earth, biological diversity must be con- served, so that its functions and services could be maintained. This applies to the importance and urgency for conservation of the biodiversity of medicinal plants, which are closely linked to the tradition and culture of the Sri Lankan people. From time immemorial the Sri Lankan people have used medicinal herbs for curing various types of illnesses. The traditional system of medicine has been solely responsible for healing, maintaining and promoting the health of the rural people until recent times. Colonization of the island by the Portuguese (1505-1658) and subsequently by the Dutch (1658-1796) had no influence on the traditional healing system of the island. This was because the medicinal practices of the colonizers were restricted to their own people and were not available to the majority of the native people. During theBritish period (1796-1948) matters related to health were under the military and their services were restricted to the British garrisons and their own civilians. Intro- duction of the western medicine to the native population took place gradually following acquisition of the whole island sometime after 18 15. Since then and after the independence, the western medical system was made to take over the health care of the country and more so in the recent times. Nevertheless the traditional medical system continued to attract a considerable segment of the population. The contribution of the local medical system was recognized by the State, and a Commissioner of Ayurveda was appointed in mid 1950s and a separate Ministry of Indigenous Medicine was established in 1980. By the 19'h century scientists have used Cin- chona (Ciizchona pubescens) bark to treat malaria, a one time killer disease of the dry zone of Sri Lanka.

Faculty of Agriculture University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]


Medicinal Plant Resources and their Utilization The processing of Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals is now carried out by a number of

companies. Very modern machineries and sophisticated methods are used for quality assessment and control. They also carry out a massive advertising campaign through electronic media with attractive messages to the public. As a result of this the current demands for medicinal plants are growing at a rapid rate beyond the level of supply. Consequently, uncontrolled exploitation of medicinal plants and depletion of this valuable biodiversity is taking place without any consideration for re-establishing them. The current threat is posed by genetic erosion of medicinal plants and hence their conservation and utilization are urgent priorities.

Sri Lanka currently imports a considerable amount of medicinal plant products, some of which could be easily cultivated in this country. The quality in terms of chemical characteristics of the imported products is reported to be low. Moreover the government of Sri Lanka has prohibited the export of certain protected medicinal plant products such as Veniwelgata (Coscinium fenestratum), Kotalahimbutu (Salacia reticulata) and even declared Binkohomba (Andrographis paniculata) as an endangered species. There is a potential to grow some of these in home gardens and even on a large scale in some of the farming systems practiced in Sri Lanka. A sustainable means to conserve these species is to include them in the existing cropping systems of different agro-ecological regions of the country. This could help meet local demand and the excess materials could be exported in order to earn foreign exchange and to expand employment opportunities. Further the traditional Ayurvedic system is an environmentally friendly system that maintains conservation of medicinal plants as a pre-condition. However, at present the traditional medicinal practices are getting restricted and large scale Ayurvedic preparations are becoming common. The commercial Ayurvedic preparations lead to over exploitation of medicinal plants. There is presently a great interest in the conservation and utilization of these medicinal plants both by the Government and the environmental NGOs.

Exchange of Plant Genetic Resources: Policies It is reported that over 1000 medicinal plant products and even whole plants

themselves have been pirated from the country by international drug companies. Most of these have been plundered through various ways including scientific purposes by some foreign companies. In the present Government regulations there is provision for the exchange of germplasm of all the species available locally for scientific research. This is due to the fact that Sri Lanka is a party to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and in that there is provision for exchange of germplasm, provided the parties agree to such exchanges with mutually agreed terms. The parties involved are the university staff and researchers of other institutions who have been able to obtain grants from global donor sources. As there are very few laboratories in Sri Lanka, which have the capability to undertake sophisticated chemical analysis, foreign scientists take the advantage of this situation and trans- fer the germplasm to their own countries. Furthermore there are a very few analyti- cal chemists to undertake analysis of medicinal products. It is by this process that


the germplasm flow out of the country and in some cases patents have also been obtained for products developed from these germplasm by other countries. This deprives Sri Lanka from gaining economic advantages, and equitable sharing does not take place. Heen Babila (Sida veronicaefolia), Walagasal (Embelia ribes), Veniwelgata (Coscinium fenestratunz) are the common species removed on the pre- text of scientific research.

In situ & Ex situ Conservation of Medicinal Plants Due to the importance attached to the conservation of medicinal plants, the

Ministry of Indigenous Medicine has taken positive steps to conserve them either in situ or ex situ. A project named the Sri Lanka Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project supported by the Asian Development Bank has been organized. The project has a two pronged approach. Firstly it has taken steps to conserve medicinal plants in situ by protecting 5 areas rich in medicinal plants. These are all in the dry zone of the country, and trained staff has been deployed to take appropriate action to conserve them. Some research activities on ways and means of conserving medicinal plants are also undertaken at these centers. Sec- ondly the project also aims at ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation of medicinal plants is not new. Traditionally Ayurvedic physicians have collected medicinal plants from their natural habitats and grown them in herbal gardens. However, there is very scanty literature in Sri Lanka on the propagation and agronomic techniques for growing medicinal plants. Most of the literature available in old pharmacopoeia are on their uses in traditional medicine. Some of this information is with the Ayurvedic physicians and often not disclosed to the public. In fact, there is ample indigenous knowledge on the medicinal plants, but they are not available and this pose as major constraint for the development at this stage. It is also not possible to collect such indigenous knowledge and publish them due to the existing intellectual property rights regime. So in order to overcome this problem the Ministry, under this project has contractual research agreements for the development of propagation techniques for several important medicinal plants.

Medicinal Plants used in Traditional Medicine About 200 medicinal plants are used in the day to day practice of traditional

medicine in Sri Lanka. It is also a fact that over 80% of these are imported from India at a tremendous cost, in spite of being of low quality. The most important medicinal plants imported are listed below:

Ginger (Zingiber oflcinale), Katuwelbatu (Solanum virginianum), Vadakaha (Acorus calamus), Amukkara (Withania somnifera), Ratnitul (Plunzbago indica), Velmadata (Rubia cordifolia), Nelli (Phyllanthus embilica), Aba (Brassicajuncea), Tagara, Taruwala (Velleriana wallichii), Malita (Woodfordia fruitcosa).

Conclusions The medicinal plants are considered as economically important to the Govern-

ment of Sri Lanka and to the farmers. They are important for the health care efforts


of the country, affording relatively cheap remedies. They could save funds now expended to import pharmaceuticals of marginal utility such as cough mixtures, influenza cures etc, for which better herbel cures are available. In the future if this herbal medicine industry is developed there appears to be great potential to expand the cultivation of these on a commercial scale. However, it is necessary to safe- guard the natural biodiversity, as this will be valuable resource for the future gen- erations. Therefore, every effort should be made to grow them on a commercial scale without any disruption to the existing natural ecosystems. The farmers should be provided with information on how to grow, harvest and process them. The information should be disseminated and an extension service should be organized to support the farmers at the field level. Only by systematic cultivation that the country could enter into a lucrative trade as there is a rising demand in the western countries for herbal medical preparations. They are in demand as pharmaceuticals and non- prescriptive toiletries in the affluent west. The profits made by chain stores such as the Body Shops amply demonstrate this demand.

Conclusions and Recornmenda fions The deliberations and interactive discussions by the experts, trainees and repre-

sentatives UNESCO-New Delhi at the Training Programme helped arrive at the following major conclusions:

Conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity and associated knowledge systems is an urgent priority of action for the Third World nations in general and the South Asian nations in particular. The South Asian countries that are signatories to the Convention on Biologi- cal Diversity (CBD) need to reaffirm their commitment to protection and promotion of the traditional resource rights of local communities-the farmers and other indigenous people - with respect to their biological resources and knowledge systems, as well as fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the commercial use of local communities’ biological resources and traditional knowledge. Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) should not conflict conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge systems. The biodiversity-rich Third World nations in general lack scientific expertise in dealing with inventorying, documentation, conservation, value-addition, particularly by modern biotechnological intervention to convert their rich biodiversitv into economic wealth.

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Considering the above scenario, the participants strongly felt that similar Train- ing Programme at regional level might be organized, so that there could be continuous interaction among the countries and sharing of the growing experience in conservation and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants in primary health care. Recognizing the current level of S&T infrastructure and scientific expertise available for biodiversity conservation and its sustainable use in their respective countries, the participants recommended that UNESEO model of Training Programmes should be continued to fulfil the following targets:

Organizing advanced training programmes on biodiversity assessments of medicinal plants at regional level. Developing computerized databases on medicinal plants of the region with as many parameters as possible. Building up skilled human resource wealth and scientific expertise in biosystematics, conservation biology and medicinal plant research. Developing agro-technology for cul tivation of medicinal plants at village level vis-a vis generation of employment to local folk, specially women folk (through training programmes) as part of participatory biodiversity programme. Organizing training programme on practical conservation of medicinal plants, including modern techniques and methods for short, medium and long term conservation of genetic diversity in medicinal and other plants of economic and other interests. Promoting biotechnological intervention for conservation and multiplication of medicinal plant genetic resources.

Biodiversitv and Medicinal Plant Wealth of South Asian Countries 61 ~

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Undertaking pharmacognostic study on identification and authentication of commonly used medicinal plants. Conducting ethnopharmacology courses for the developlment of scientifi- cally validated and standardized herbal drugs from the locally available medicinal plants for meeting the primary health care needs of the people. Promoting participatory approach to conservation and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants for the general welfare of the people. Ensuring forward and backward linkages in the cultivation, processing and marketing of the herbal products. Establishing a close linkage with scientific communities and the end producers and users involved in medicinal plant cultivation, conservation and sustainable utilization.

Documents

Regional Training Programme on Biodiversity Systematics ...unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001349/134996eo.pdf · Biodiversity and Medicinal Plant Wealth of ... Biodiversity Systematics: