THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLES

AND FACULTY JOB SATISFACTION IN TAIWAN

by

Hsiu-Chin Chen

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Nursing

The University of Utah

May 2004

Copyright © Hsiu-Chin Chen 2004

All Rights Reserved

THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL

of a dissertation submitted by

Hsiu-Chin Chen

This dissertation has been read by each member of the following supervisory committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory.

FG1�3' I � uu y

)

\.. �' ;;6' -��� Chair: Linda K. Amos

LIt� Diana G. Pounder

Susan L. Beck

William N. Dudley

tis,'«-#C{� W� Hsiu-Hung ang

THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

FINAL READING APPROVAL

To the Graduate Council of the University of Utah:

I have read the dissertation of Hsiu-Chin Chen in its final fonn and have found that (1) its fonnat, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in

place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee and is ready for submission to The Graduate S:2

� a:l �Z� Date Lmda K. Amos

Chair: Supervisory Committee

Approved for the Major Department

�'AMd_��ft '

Maureen R. Keefe ChairlDean

Approved for the Graduate Council

�c:-:..J. S. c Q� __ .

David S. Chap n

Dean of The Graduate School

ABSTRACT

This was a descriptive, correlational, and cross-sectional study using self­

administered questionnaires. The main purposes of this study were to examine the

nursing faculty's perceptions of nursing deans' and directors' leadership styles, and to

understand how well the perceptions relate to faculty job satisfaction levels. The

transformational leadership theory and a direct-effects model supported the research

framework of this study. A random sampling technique was employed to collect data

from 18 schools with nursing programs. A total of 400 questionnaires were mailed

directly to the selected faculty members at the school address. A number of 286

questionnaires were returned, representing a 72.96% response rate.

Findings indicated that Taiwanese nursing deans and directors tend to display

transformational leadership more frequently than the transactional leadership and the

laissez-faire in their workplace. In addition, Taiwanese nursing faculty members reported

moderate levels of satisfaction in their jobs. Regardless of each school's organizational

characteristics, nursing deans and directors performed transformational leadership more

frequently than the transactional leadership and the laissez-faire. The contingent reward,

passive management-by-exception, and individualized consideration leadership styles of

nursing deans and directors were significant predictors of nursing faculty job satisfaction

in Taiwan. This study helps pave a path for Taiwan's researchers to understand the

importance of setting up a leadership training program for nursing leaders.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... .iv

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ viii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... .ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ xi

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1

Background of the Problem ........................................................................ 8 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 13 Research Questions ................................................................................... 13 Significance of the Study .......................................................................... 14 Definition of Terms ................................................................................... 15 Organization of the Study ......................................................................... 16

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ....................................................... 17

Leadership Theory .................................................................................... 1 7 Job Satisfaction Theory ............................................................................. 30 Culture, Organization, and Leadership .................................................... .35 Leadership Styles, Organizational Characteristics,

and Job Satisfaction ............................................................................... 39 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................. 50 Summary ................................................................................................... 50

III. METHOD ......................................................................................................... 52

Research Design ........................................................................................ 52 Population, Sample, and Setting ............................................................... 53 Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 55 Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................... 62 Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 64 Sample Size Determination and Power ..................................................... 69 Protection of Human Subjects .................................................................. 70

Summary ................................................................................................... 71

IV. RESlJLTS ........................................................................................................ 73

Reliability of the Instrument ..................................................................... 74 Demographic Characteristics of Samples ................................................. 76 Organizational Characteristics of Schools ................................................ 78 Findings ...................................................................................................... 80 Summary ................................................................................................. 1 02

V. DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 103

Summary of Results and Discussion ....................................................... 103 Limitations of the Study .......................................................................... 120 Implications for Nursing ......................................................................... 122 Recommendations ................................................................................... 125 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 129

Appendices

A. PERMISSION FOR THE CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE MLQ-5X AND MSQ SHORT FORM ........................................... 131

B. A LIST OF NURSING SCHOOLS IN TAIWAN ........................................ 134

C. DISTRIBUTION OF MAILING QUESTIONNAIRES ............................... 139

D. A LETTER OF INVITATION FOR PARTICIPATION ............................. 141

E. THE ENGLISH AND CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE MLQ-5X ............................................................................................... 144

F. THE ENGLISH AND CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE MSQ SHORT FORM ................................................................................... 149

G. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA SECTION ........................................................... 152

H. COMPLETION POSTCARD ....................................................................... 155

I. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE MLQ-5X .................................. 157

J. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE MSQ SHORT FORM ............................................................................................. 161

K. DIAGNOSIS OF ASSUMPTIONS FOR HIERARCHICAL

VI

MULTIPLE REGRESSION ....................................................................... 164

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 167

Vll

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1. Nursing education system in Taiwan ...................................................................... 8

2. A conceptual model of leadership styles and job satisfaction level ....................... 51

3. Path analysis diagram of the relationship between leadership styles,

organizational characteristics, demographic data, and faculty job satisfaction .. 126

LIST OF TABLES

1. Definitions of Leadership ................................................................................... 18

2. Summary of School Participation ....................................................................... 54

3. Study Timeline .................................................................................................... 63

4. A List of Main Research Questions .................................................................... 66

5. The Number of Estinlated Subjects Needed for this Study ................................ 70

6. Summary of Coefficient Alphas of Reliability for the MLQ-5X ....................... 75

7. Summary of Coefficient Alphas of Reliability for the MSQ Short Form ............ 76

8. Demographic Characteristics of Samples ........................................................... 77

9. Summary of the Length of Time in Dean and Faculty Positions ........................ 78

10. Summary of Faculty Reward, Recognition, and Promotion Accrued from their Current School ..................................................................... 79

11. Summary of School Organizational Characteristics Accrued from 18 Schools .................................................................................................. 79

12. Summary of the Total and Subscales' Scores of the MLQ-5X ........................... 81

13. Summary of the Three Highest Average Frequency of Leadership Style in the MLQ-5X ....................................................................... 83

14. Summary of the Three Least Average Frequency of Leadership Style in the MLQ-5X ............................... oo ...................................... 83

15. Summary of the Total and Subscales' Scores of the MSQ Short Form .............. 84

16. Summary of the Five Items with Highest Mean Scores on Job Satisfaction in the MSQ Short Form ........................................................ 85

17. Summary of the Three Items with Lowest Mean Scores on Job Satisfaction in the MSQ Short Form ........................................................ 86

18. Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on School Control ............................................................................................... 87

19. Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on School Size ..................................................................................................... 88

20. Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on Nursing Program ............................................................................................ 90

21. Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on Faculty Size ................................................................................................... 91

22. Analysis of the Relationships between the Job Satisfaction and Study Variables ........................................................................................... 95

23. Summary of ANOVAs for the Job Satisfaction and Study Variables ............... 96

24. Summary of Kruskal-Wallis Tests for the Job Satisfaction and Study Variables ................................................................................................ 98

25. Correlations between the Job Satisfaction and the Nine Subscales of the MLQ-5X ............................................................................... 99

26. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression for the Job Satisfaction .......... 101

x

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This endeavor could not have been accomplished without the assistance, expertise,

and guidance from a very supportive committee. I would like to express my heartfelt

appreciation to Dr. Linda Amos, chairperson of my supervisory committee, for her

encouragement and support from the conception to the completion of this dissertation.

Her intelligent guidance and invaluable suggestions made the entire process enjoyable.

Sincere gratitude also goes to my committee members: Dr. Susan Beck, Dr. William

Dudley, Dr. Diana Pounder, and Dr. Hsiu-Hung Wang, for their valuable advice, time,

and guidance.

I would like to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of Taiwanese nursing

faculty and nursing deans and directors who participated in this study. Also, a special

appreciation to the National Tainan Institute of Nursing for providing me the chance and

assistance that made my PhD journey a reality.

Grateful acknowledgement goes to my parents, who gave me the endless support

and love. Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to my mother-in-law, brother­

and sister-in-Iaws, and friends for being of great support and encouragement to me.

I dedicate this dissertation to my beloved husband, Po-Feng, and sons, Huan­

Sheng and I-Shun. Without your constant love and support, I would have not completed

my graduate work. Thank you for giving me unconditional love-the most treasured gift

of my life. This dissertation is a testimony to your efforts as much as mine.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

We now live in a period of knowledge transfonnation and intertwining human

relationships, with society rapidly rearranging its worldview, basic values, social and

political structures, and arts. During these challenging times, strong leadership is widely

recognized as the key to providing people with visions and responding to social demands

(Melum, 2002). In addition to its essential role in the organizational function of society,

leadership has a very wide spectrum of influences. As Stogdill (1948) stated, leadership

is the process of influencing group activities toward goal setting and goal achievement.

This process involves social interactions that take place within a context specifically in

response to the situations (Birnbaum, 1992). Furthennore, leadership is defined in tenns

of how a leader changes the way people think and act (Bass, 1960), and how well the

leader's group performs its assigned functions (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974). Thus,

leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who choose to

follow (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).

Historically, characteristics and capabilities of leaders have long been a topic of

interest in leadership studies. The trait theory of leadership was proposed to emphasize

that the leader is the central person who integrates the group and possesses the greatest

number of desirable personality traits (Stogdill, 1948). However, dissatisfaction with

2

inadequately addressing how leadership traits influence followers and their work, the

behavior theory was developed to expand the leadership concept beyond the perspective

of personal traits. The most famous study of behavior theory conducted by the Ohio State

leadership studies helped to develop the constructs of initiating structure and

consideration of leadership (Stogdill & Coons, 1957).

In the 1970s, theorists became more focused on the study of effective leadership

behaviors. One well-known theory is Fiedler's (1967) contingency theory, which stated

that leadership behaviors vary from situation to situation. The other one is House's

(1971) path-goal theory that the effective leader indicates, through a series of transactions

with followers, the path they need to follow to achieve the valued goals.

Currently, the field of leadership research is in transition regarding the essential

behaviors of leaders, shifting from earlier versions of initiating structure, consideration,

and transactional leaders to transformational leaders (Posner & Kouzes, 1990). The

transformational leadership theory was derived from Bums' (1978) qualitative

classification of transactional and transformational political leaders and was extended by

Bass (1985). In transactional leadership, leader-follower relationships are based on a

series of exchanges or bargains between leaders and followers. On the other hand,

transformational leadership emphasizes the changes leaders instill in their followers by

raising the perspectives of their needs and by providing opportunities for them to develop

capabilities (Bass, 1985). Unlike the traditional leadership theories that focused on

rational processes, the transformational leadership theory emphasizes emotions and

values (Shamir, 1999).

3

A large number of studies have been conducted to investigate the influence of

leadership on different kinds of organizational settings, such as businesses and the

military (Bass, 1981; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996;

Seltzer & Bass, 1990; Waldman, Bass, & Einstein, 1987). However, schools also have a

high need for leadership (Clenlent & Vandenberghe, 2001; Geijsel, Sleegers, & Van Den

Berg, 1999). Because the pressure to deliver high quality education grows, competent

individuals who can improve curriculum development and learning strategies are being

sought (Goldenberg & Waddell, 1990). Most colleges are asking their academic leaders

to continually challenge the quality of operation and the effectiveness of their leadership

performance in order to create a vision that inspires faculty to seek quality in all aspects

of their work (Birnbaum, 1992). Thus, there is no question that academic leadership has

become a legitimate demand (Clement & Vandenberghe, 2001).

Unfortunately, leaders in academic organizations are often chosen for leadership

positions based solely on their performance in academic endeavors (Knight & Holen,

1985). This situation has also been found in nursing education (Goldenberg & Waddell,

1990). Nursing education administrators are expected to be fully knowledgeable in their

areas of expertise, but most nursing deans and department heads go into their positions

inadequately prepared for leadership (Goldenberg & Waddell, 1990; Redman, 2001).

They have received no training on how to successfully manage an academic institution

and ensure that the learning-teaching environment is a high quality one (Goldenberg,

1990). Particularly, by academic standards, nursing is a recent entrant to the male norms

of universities (Redman, 2001). Nursing leaders face many kinds of challenges in

working with large-scale institutions and excessive bureaucratic systems (Fincher, 1998).

Therefore, to achieve the desired future state, a need exists for nursing leaders to receive

appropriate leadership education and training (Goldrick, 2000; Mahoney, 2001).

Job satisfaction is a multivariate human attitude defined as employees' feelings

about their jobs in general (McNeese Smith, 1997; Morrison, Jones, & Fuller, 1997).

Since its pioneering in the 1930s, the study of job satisfaction has contributed a

substantial body of knowledge about what makes people happy or unhappy with their

jobs (Evans, 1997). In 1935, Hoppock, who was among the first to report the job

satisfaction level of teachers, concluded that job satisfaction is related to mental health

(Frank, 1986). He defined job satisfaction as a combination of psychological,

physiological, and environmental circumstances that cause a person to be truly satisfied

with his or her job (Frank, 1986). In summary, early definitions stated that job

satisfaction is regarded as a generally favorable or unfavorable attitude resulting from

specific work areas, such as job factors and individual characteristics (Blum & Naylor,

1968).

A review of the literature on the theories of job satisfaction reveals three major

foci consisting of the individual, the nature of the job, and the work environment

(Donohue, 1986). Maslow's (1943) theory proposed that human needs form a five-level

hierarchy, from the basic physiological needs to the increasingly higher-order needs of

safety, belongingness, love, esteem, and self-actualization. The work environment that

would better satisfy employees would be one that corresponds to the hierarchy of needs

in their jobs (Donohue, 1986).

Later on, Maslow's work influenced Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene theory to

enrich the concept of job satisfaction. Herzberg's two-factor theory emphasized that job

4

satisfaction is the result of certain intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, the

work itself, responsibility, and growth motivators. On the other hand, job dissatisfaction

is caused by totally different extrinsic factors like company policy, supervision, working

conditions, salary, interpersonal relations, and job security (Herzberg, Mausner, &

Snyderman, 1959). In contrast to Herzberg's theory, Lawler's (1973) facet satisfaction

model emphasized specific variables that cause satisfaction and produce particular

outcomes. In short, the literature reveals job satisfaction as a multifaceted construct

encompassing specific facets of satisfaction related to pay, work, supervision,

professional opportunities, and organizational practices.

5

Job satisfaction is one of the most widely researched topics in the areas of

organizational behavior and education (Blood, Ridenour, Thomas, Qualls, & Hammer,

2002). According to the Thompson et al. (1997) synthesis of research findings regarding

job satisfaction in educational organizations, job satisfaction has been as the criterion

variable of interest, as one of a collection of criterion variables, or as a predictor variable

in regard to another criterion of interest.

There is empirical evidence linking job satisfaction to teacher commitment

(Billingsley & Cross, 1992), decision participation (Johnson, 1973; Taylor & Tashakkori,

1995), demographic data (Lowther, Gill, & Coppard, 1985; Tang & Talpade, 1999), and

organizational characteristics (Donohue, 1986; Frank, 1986; Snarr & Krochalk, 1996). In

addition, job satisfaction is associated with productivity and commitment (Ingersoll,

Olsan, Drew-Cates, DeVinney, & Davies, 2002; McNeese Smith, 1997), intent to stay

(Cowin, 2002; Kunaviktikull, Nuntasupawat, Srisuphan, & Booth, 2000), and turnover

6

(Irvine & Evans, 1995; Laschinger, Finegan, Shamian, & Wilk, 2001; Song, Daly, Rudy,

Douglas, & Dyer, 1997) in clinical nursing.

However, research related to administrators' (Thompson et aI., 1997) and nurse

educators' (Donohue, 1986) job satisfaction has been neglected in education

organizations. Studies of nursing faculty job satisfaction and its relation to organizational

characteristics (Donohue, 1986; Snarr & Krochalk, 1996), decision making (Johnson,

1973), mobility (Marriner & Craigie, 1977), and leadership behaviors (Kennerly, 1989)

have been intermittently investigated.

Leadership and job satisfaction are recognized as fundamental components

influencing the overall effectiveness of an organization (Kennerly, 1989). Training

effective leaders has been proposed as a key to increase professionalism in the nursing

field (Bernhard & Walsh, 1981; Mahoney, 2001). Deans of nursing educational programs

hold important leadership roles in higher education, the nursing profession, and the

healthcare delivery system (Lucas, 1986). Leadership behaviors of deans constitute a

critical factor of administrative roles, which, in large part, determine the nature of their

interactions with the nursing faculty (Kennerly, 1989; Rogers, 1989).

Redman (2001) proposed that not only does the dean have expectations of the

faculty, the faculty also have expectations of the dean. If the mutual expectations are not

fulfilled, the relationship between the faculty and the dean should be affected (Redman,

2001). Therefore, nursing deans not only have the responsibility of recruiting nursing

faculty, but also practicing innovative leadership skills and providing a satisfactory

academic setting (Bonaquist, 1991).

7

Taiwan's nursing education is no exception in tenns of the need of leadership.

Nursing deans and directors need to acquire effective leadership styles in order to meet

demands in the quickly evolving environment of the healthcare system (Shieh, Mills, &

Waltz, 2001). Nursing leaders face unexpected and sometimes unprecedented challenges

in their positions that often leave them feeling overwhelmed (Corning, 2002). In tum,

faculty n1embers may become dissatisfied if deans and directors fail to deliver effective

leadership and if nursing schools are not efficiently organized (Shieh et aI., 2001). It is

commonly believed that dissatisfied workers are likely to be absent from work and

present low employee perfonnance (Y. L. Pan, 1994). Job turnover has also been cited as

a result of job dissatisfaction (Wang, 1999). Both absenteeism and work turnover are

costly to organization productivity (Y. G. Lin, 1999).

Given the importance of leadership and job satisfaction, Taiwan's nursing

education should have a focus on establishing effective administration. Unfortunately, the

relationship between nursing leadership and faculty job satisfaction has not been well

addressed in Taiwan. The problem raised in this study was the lack of understanding of

the relationship between the leadership styles of nursing deans and directors and nursing

faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan. This study aimed to explore the influence of leadership

styles of deans and directors as perceived by nursing faculty on the level of faculty job

satisfaction in Taiwan. The main methodological approach was to identify which

perceived leadership styles of nursing deans and directors correlate with nursing faculty

job satisfaction.

8

Background of the Problem

Nursing Programs in Taiwan

The educational system of nursing in Taiwan consists of four different types of

institutions: vocational senior high schools, 2-year and 5-year junior colleges, institutes

of technology, and universities. Students obtain nursing education in two different ways.

Traditionally, students finish 3 years of high school education, followed by a 4-year

nursing college or a university nursing program. On the other hand, students may choose

to enter technological and vocational education programs that provide nursing education

through 3-year vocational senior high schools of nursing, followed either by 2 years in a

junior nursing college then a 2-year nursing program in an institute of technology or a 4-

year nursing program in an institute of technology; or by attending a 5-year junior

nursing college, followed by a 2-year nursing program in an institute of technology (see

Figure 1). In order to develop Taiwan's nursing profession, the vocational senior high

schools in nursing will be closed by the year 2005.

+-Traditional education ~ Technological and vocational education r

PhD program: PhD

Master program: MSN Master program: MSN

University/college: BSN Institute of Institute of technology (2-year technology (4-year program): BSN program): BSN 2-year junior 5-year junior

nursing college: nursIng Diploma college:

High school Vocational senior high school of nursing Diploma (3-year program): Diploma

Middle school

Figure 1. Nursing education system in Taiwan.

9

University nursing schools also provide master's and Doctor of Philosophy

degrees. Doctoral nursing education is relatively new in Taiwan. Currently, 3 schools

provide doctoral nursing programs. National Taiwan University set up the first doctoral

nursing program in 1997, followed by Kaoshiung Medical University in 2001 and Yang­

Ming University in 2003 (Ministry of Education in Taiwan [MOE], 2003). At the end of

2000, there were about 130 doctorally prepared nursing faculty members and

approximately 95% of these were educated in the U.S. (M. Chang, 2000). Today, 15

universities (4 public and 11 private), 10 institutes of technology (1 public and 9 private),

and 11 junior nursing colleges (2 public and 9 private) provide nursing programs in

Taiwan. In the 36 higher education schools surveyed by the Ministry of Education, the

number of full-time nursing faculty and nursing students is about 1,328 and 66,235,

respectively (Ministry of Education, 2003).

The nursing programs in Taiwan are similar to those in the U.S. The difference is

that students who graduate from vocational senior high schools of nursing and 2-year and

5-year junior nursing colleges are awarded diplomas in Taiwan rather than associate

degrees as in the U.S. Four-year university nursing programs, and 2-year and 4-year

institute of technology nursing programs award degrees of Bachelor of Science in

Nursing (BSN) to students. Master's and doctoral students are awarded Master of Science

in Nursing (MSN) and Doctor of Philosophy degrees (PhD), respectively.

Organizational Characteristics of Schools in Taiwan

The organizational structures of universities, colleges, and junior colleges are

similar to each other in both the academic and administrative sectors in Taiwan. Each

public or private school has three basic divisions-academic studies, student affairs, and

10

general affairs-to manage the school's administration. Academic deans of baccalaureate

nursing programs and directors of associate nursing programs hold the basic eligibility

qualification of a PhD degree. Basically, the term of dean or director's service is three­

year and at most is extended to the next term. Faculty positions consist of lecturer,

assistant professor, associate professor, and professor (MOE, 2003). The term of faculty

position varies from public to private school as well as new or old faculty members.

Due to educational reform, the higher education system in Taiwan has progressed

to be more centered on "academic self-determination" and "university autonomy." At

present, universities and colleges have the power to select among their own personnel

such as faculty members and administrators to be presidents, deans, and department

chairs (M. Chang, 2000). In addition, universities have more authority now to determine

the ranks and qualifications of teachers than in the past. In order to create more financial

independence among national universities, beginning in the 1999 academic year, each

national university and college implemented its own fund-raising plan (M. Chang, 2000).

For private schools, funding has traditionally relied mostly on tuition.

Other organizational characteristics such as the number of enrolled nursing

students and full-time faculty, type of nursing programs offered, and salary vary slightly

from school to school as well as between public and private schools. Generally speaking,

academic tenure does not exist in Taiwan; instead, faculty members receive a letter of

appointment from the school to keep their teaching and administrative positions.

Although without tenure's guarantee, "the Law of University" and "Teachers' Law" can

protect the faulty from being fired unreasonably (MOE, 2003).

11

Occupational Stress of Nursing PrOgran1S in Taiwan

Nursing education in Taiwan has been devoted to upgrading its professional role

and meeting the many demands of the consumers and the healthcare system (Hsu, Yeh,

Chiou, & Wu, 2003). In particular, there is a consensus that the entry into nursing

education programs from vocational senior high schools of nursing is not appropriate for

the development of the nursing profession. Therefore, in recent years, a large number of

vocational senior high schools with nursing programs have been upgraded to junior

nursing colleges and junior nursing colleges to institutes of technology and universities.

The rapid change and development have increased academic and administrative

responsibilities for nursing colleges and universities, as well as creating new stress,

workload, and challenges on the faculty. To fulfill these responsibilities and challenges,

nursing leaders hold important leadership roles in developing a vision to establish

effective administrations and competitive nursing education that is tied to the success of

future health care (Knight & Holen, 1985).

Yet deans and directors of nursing programs in Taiwan seldom receive the proper

leadership training necessary to lead an academic organization (Shieh et aI., 2001). This

is particularly true in nursing where the majority of deans and directors of nursing

programs are women (Goldenberg, 1990). They most likely have not been socialized to

adjust to a deanship, as gender stereotypes tend to construct lower status roles for most

women in Taiwan (H. L. Pan, Liang, & Chen, 2000). Taiwanese female leaders need to

seek support from society and family to decrease their work stress (Li, 1998). It is also

difficult to find an eligible person for a dean's position in Taiwan due to insufficient

12

doctorally prepared nursing faculty members. Thus, the need for a dean or director with

effective leadership skills has been a secondary concern for educational administrations.

Fincher (1998) emphasized that the future academic leadership will be more

creative in order to challenge the rapid technological and organizational change coupled

with incremental social and cultural changes. Therefore, a leader with insufficient

leadership training will become exhausted in trying to achieve organizational goals. In

tum, the leader may bum out and dissatisfaction among faculty members may increase

(Knight & Holen, 1985; Mansen, 1993). Snarr and Krochalk (1996) indicated that job

dissatisfaction has been associated with high levels of stress, turnover, teacher

absenteeism, and illness. Such leadership and job satisfaction issues may be the same in

Taiwan as in the U.S.

Leadership is a universal human phenomenon. Given the understanding of the

importance and influence of deans' and directors' leadership styles, an effort should be

made to advance the development of leadership skills. However, studies of the leadership

style of nursing leaders and its influences have not been adequately investigated in

Taiwan (Shieh et aI., 2001). Because bureaucracy and paternalism are central to Taiwan's

academic culture, researchers often consider the topic of leadership in the nursing field to

be overly sensitive for exploration and research. Although some studies have investigated

the relationship between leadership styles and job satisfaction in the clinical setting (Lu,

1998; Wang, 1999; Yu, 1998), research in higher nursing education has gained little

attention.

13

Purpose of the Study

Transformational leadership theory developed by Bass (1985) was used to support

this study_ Transformational leadership becomes necessary in driving teachers to higher

levels of concern and motivation that are needed for educational improvement (Hill,

2002; Leithwood, 1994; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). The main purposes of this study

were to

1. Describe the leadership styles (transformational, transactional, and laissez­

faire) of nursing deans and directors as perceived by nursing faculty in Taiwan.

2. Describe the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan.

3. Describe the differences in perceived leadership styles of nursing deans and

directors, based on each school's organizational characteristics such as school size and

school control.

4. Identify which leadership styles of nursing deans and directors, as perceived

by faculty, relate to nursing faculty job satisfaction levels, while controlling for the

organizational characteristics of schools and demographic data of faculty.

Research Questions

In terms of the purposes, the following research questions were answered:

1. What are the leadership styles (transformational, transactional, and laissez­

faire) of nursing deans and directors as perceived by nursing faculty in Taiwan?

2. What is the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan?

3. What are the perceived leadership styles (transformational, transactional, and

laissez-faire) of nursing deans and directors based on each school's organizational

characteristics (e.g., school control, school size, type of nursing programs offered, the

number of full-time faculty in nursing programs)?

14

4. While controlling for the organizational characteristics and demographic data,

to what extent do the leadership styles of nursing deans and directors, as perceived by

nursing faculty, predict nursing faculty job satisfaction levels?

Significance of the Study

Shieh et al. (2001) claimed that their study was the pioneer, conducted to examine

the influence of deans' and directors' leadership styles on faculty job satisfaction in

Taiwan's baccalaureate and associate degree nursing programs. The authors emphasized

that for nursing faculty members to criticize nursing leaders or rate the leadership style of

deans or directors is a challenge to the traditional Confucianism in Chinese culture.

Therefore, few researchers have consistently investigated to help the understanding of the

relationship between leadership styles and nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan's

nursing education setting.

However, in recent years academic leaders and faculty have challenged the rapid

change and development of nursing education because a large nun1ber of vocational

senior high schools have been upgraded to junior nursing colleges and junior nursing

colleges to institutes of technology and universities. To help them cope with the changing

times, it is important to continue efforts to build on descriptions of the influences of these

two concepts for establishing a satisfactory relationship between the deans and faculty.

The current study focused on investigating faculty responses to the leadership

styles of nursing deans and directors and the extent of faculty job satisfaction, and the

relationship between leadership styles and faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan. Moreover,

15

this study gave feedback to the nursing education administration to help academic leaders

promote their leadership, as well as understand the perceived leadership styles of nursing

deans and directors based on each school's organizational characteristics (e.g., public and

private schools). Also, the results of this study helped pave a path for Taiwan's nursing

field to continue examining the need to establish leadership education programs for

nursing leaders.

Definition of Terms

The definition of terms was provided to ensure uniformity and understanding of

these terms throughout the study. The meaning of job satisfaction obtained from the

manual of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) short form and the terms of

laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational leadership defined in Bass' (1985)

transformational leadership theory were used in this study.

Job satisfaction: Job satisfaction is defined as en1ployees like or dislike their jobs

in general (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967).

Laissez-faire leadership: Laissez-faire emerged as a nonleadership factor or as an

indicator of when leadership was absent. Laissez-faire leadership is neither

transformational nor transactional (Bass, 1985).

Transactional leadership: Transactional leaders enhance followers' willingness to

perform at expected levels by rewarding acceptable performance with desired outcon1es

and by clatifying role expectations when followers do not meet performance standards

(Bass, 1985).

16

Transformational leadership: Transformational leaders motivate subordinates to

do more than originally expected by instilling pride, communicating personal respect,

facilitating creative thinking, and providing inspiration (Bass, 1985).

Organization of the Study

There are five chapters comprising the dissertation. Chapter 1 presents the

introduction, statement of the problem, significance and purpose of the study, research

questions, and definition of terms. Chapter 2 contains the review of literature related to

leadership and job satisfaction and research regarding the problem of the relationship

between leadership styles, organizational characteristics, and faculty job satisfaction

being investigated. The methodology and procedures used to collect and analyze data for

this study are proposed in Chapter 3. The results of data analyses and findings are

contained in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 is comprised of summary of the study and findings, a

discussion drawn from the findings, limitations of the study, a discussion of implications

for nursing, recommendations for further study, and conclusions.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Chapter 2 provides an extensive review of the literature and research related to

leadership styles, organizational characteristics, and job satisfaction. This chapter is

divided into four major sections: leadership theory; job satisfaction theory; culture,

organization, and leadership; and the relationship between leadership styles,

organizational characteristics, and job satisfaction.

The review of literature was conducted using the following online databases:

Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), MEDLINE,

PsycINFO, and the Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC). Books, journal

articles, dissertations, and Inter Library Loans (ILL) from Eccles Health Sciences library

and Marriott library of The University of Utah also provided practical and useful

references for this study.

Leadership Theory

Definitions of Leadership

Leadership is a universal human phenonlenon, as well as a rather sophisticated

concept (Bass, 1981). The term "leadership" has been defined and conceptualized in

numerous ways and in accordance with different theories of leadership (see Table 1).

Bass (1981) pointed out that nearly every theorist has his or her own definition of

Table 1

Definitions of Leadership

Definitions

A leader as a person who possesses the greatest number of desirable traits of personality and character (Bingham, 1927).

Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement (Stogdill, 1948).

18

Leadership is an interpersonal relationship in which power and influence are unevenly distributed so that one person is able to direct and control the actions and behaviors of others to a greater extent (Fiedler, 1967).

Leadership is regarded as leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the values and the motivations-the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations-ofboth leaders and followers (Bums, 1978).

Leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who choose to follow (Kouzes & Posner, 2002).

leadership. From the abundance of available definitions, several common features central

to the leadership phenomenon can be identified. The most consistent description noted is

that leadership involves a process of "influence" between the leader and the followers to

accomplish group, organizational, or social goals (Hollander, 1985). As stated by YukI

and Van Fleet (1992),

Leadership is defined broadly as a process that includes influencing task objectives and strategies, influencing commitment and compliance in task behavior to achieve these objectives, influencing group maintenance and identification, and influencing the culture of an organization. (p. 149)

Moreover, leadership has been discovered that accomplishments depend not only on the

characteristics of the leader but also the interaction of the followers and the situation

(Muchinsky, 1993). Leadership is fundamentally concerned with how leaders influence

change and induce followers to also produce change (Faugier & Woolnough, 2002).

Beyond the descriptions of leadership, a distinction should be made between

leadership and acts of coercion. Contrary to leading by influence, coercion uses threats

and punishments to bring about change in followers for the benefit of the leader

(Northouse, 1997). Coercion runs counter to leadership in that its process does not

19

. include followers nor works with followers to achieve common goals (Muchinsky, 1993).

Management also differs from leadership. Traditionally, management focuses on the

activities of planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling, whereas leadership

emphasizes the general process of influencing and empowering others (Conger, 1999).

Given the examination between leadership, coercion, and management, we better

understand the essence of leadership.

Tracking the development of leadership theory, the shift is from earlier focuses on

trait theory, behavior theory, situational theory, and to transformational leadership theory.

Only over the last two decades, the topic of transformational leadership in organizational

setting has undergone a significant evolution, owing to a series of theory development

and empirical investigations (Conger, 1999). Drawing upon historical development of

leadership, the following sections introduce several theories to help enrich the process of

understanding leadership theory.

Trait Theory

The trait approach was one of the first systemic attempts to study leadership in the

early 1900s (Bass, 1981; Northouse, 1997). Trait theory, developed by the belief of

"great man," focused on identifying the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by

great social, political, and military leaders (Northouse, 1997). More importantly, the

20

theory suggested that these traits are innate rather than nurtured through skilled parenting

or extensive schooling (Konto, 1986).

Stogdill (1948, 1974) conducted two surveys that thoroughly reviewed leadership

traits. Stogdill's first survey grouped eight important leadership traits, including

intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility, initiative, persistence, self-confidence, and

sociability. These traits were related to how people in different groups became leaders.

Similar to the first survey, 10 traits were identified in Stogdill's second survey, consisting

of achievement, persistence, insight, initiative, self-confidence, responsibility,

cooperativeness, tolerance, influence, and sociability. Later on, Northouse (1997)

synthesized Stogdill's studies and others (Lord, DeVader, & Alliger, 1986; Mann, 1959)

to form five central traits of leaders, which are intelligence, self-confidence,

determination, integrity, and sociability.

Although the approach of examining personal traits can give individuals a clearer

picture of who they are as leaders and how they fit into the organization, Stogdill (1948)

proposed that people who possess certain traits may become leaders in one situation but

not in others. Similarly, critics pointed out that actually little or no connection exists

between personal traits and leadership situations (Bass, 1990; Stogdill, 1974). Research

has helped to emphasize the identification of traits, but has failed to adequately address

how leadership traits influence group members and their work (Muchinsky, 1993;

Northouse, 1997). Dissatisfactions with the trait theory prompted the emergence of a

major theory based on leader behavior. Kreitner (1983) stated that since the beginning of

World War II, investigations of leadership shifted from leader traits to patterns of leader

behaviors called leadership styles, which emphasized what leaders do and how they act.

21

Behavior Theory

Behavior theory, similar to trait theory, focused on examining the leader. But

unlike trait theory, the approach of behavior theory was to study the actions of the leaders

rather than their traits (Muchinsky, 1993). This approach expanded the leadership

concept beyond the scope of personal traits. Research became devoted to defining

effective leadership behaviors and their relationship to organizational outcomes such as

group effectiveness (Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998; Weissenberg & Kavanagh, 1972). In

terms of behavior studies, researchers identified two basic kinds of behavior that make up

leadership: task behavior and relationship behavior (Northouse, 1997). Task behavior

facilitates goal accomplishment, whereas relationship behavior helps followers feel

comfortable with themselves, with each other, and with the situation (Northouse, 1997).

Among several large-scale psychological research programs on leadership

behavior, the most famous study of behavior theory was conducted by the Ohio State

studies (Templer, 1973; Weissenberg & Kavanagh, 1972). The most promising work in

measuring leadership behavior was the study of the two dimensions of leadership

behavior: consideration and initiating structure (Korman, 1966). The definitions of these

two constructs are as follows (Fleishman & Peters, 1962):

Initiating structure reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to define and structure his role and those of his subordinates toward goal attainment. Consideration reflect~ the extent to which an individual is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates' idea, and consideration of their feelings. (pp. 43-44)

The Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), the most promising

work in the measurement of leadership behavior, was developed by Hemphill and Coons

(1957) at the Ohio State studies and later revised by Halpin and Winer (1957). The

22

LBDQ provides a technique where subordinates of formal organizations are able to

describe the behaviors of their leaders (Halpin, 1957a). Moreover, this instrument was

developed in an effort to measure the dimensions of consideration and initiating structure,

using the factor analysis of responses from 300 B-29 crewmembers of the Air Force

describing the leadership behavior of their aircraft commanders (Halpin, 1957b).

However, despite many years of effort, the LBDQ has been criticized for the lack of

theory to support its development and the failure to take situational variables into account

(Kerr, Schriesheim, Murphy, & Stogdill, 1974).

The behavior approach marked a major shift in leadership research from

personality traits to tasks and relationship behaviors. It works to remind leaders that their

actions toward others occur on a task and relationship level (Northouse, 1997). However,

just as Nealey and Blood (1968) have stated, effective leadership is generally conceded to

involve interactions among the leader's characteristics and behavior, the nature of the

followers, and the particular leadership situation including the nature of the task and the

organizational setting. It is better to take situational variables into account when one's

trying to understand the multidimensional concept of leadership behavior. Therefore,

research began to develop models that are capable of considering the interactions of

traits, behaviors, and situations-which are situational theories of leadership.

Situational Theories of Leadership

Situational theories of leadership address the interaction between the leader and

the leadership situation. The primary premise of the theory is that different situations

demand different kinds of leadership (Northouse, 1997). Fiedler's (1967) contingency

23

theory and House and Mitchell's (1974) path-goal theory are two main representatives of

the situational approach.

Contingency theory. Fiedler's contingency theory is widely recognized for

combining leadership behaviors with changing situations (Bass, 1990). A leader's

effectiveness relies upon the unique combinations of the situation's characteristics and

his or her leadership style (Fiedler, 1967). A leader may be very effective in one

situation, but very ineffective in another (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974). In short, the

contingency theory provides a framework for effective leadership that is contingent upon

matching a leader's style to the right setting.

According to Fiedler's (1967) model, leadership style is defined as a bipolar

dimension ranging from relationship orientation to task orientation. A relationship­

oriented leader exhibits behaviors that emphasize relationship with the leader's

subordinates. On the other hand, a task-oriented leader would exhibit behaviors similar to

those of the initiating structure leader, focusing on the subordinates' task

accomplishment.

The Least Preferred Cowork (LPC) instrument was developed by Fiedler (1967)

to measure these two dimensions. The leader is instructed to think of the person he or she

would least like to work with due to incompetence; that person is the least-preferred co­

worker. Then, three situational conditions are used to measure the situations in which

leadership occurs: (1) Leader-member relations involve the level of trust, acceptance, and

loyalty that exists between the leader and the group members; (2) Task structure involves

the extent to which a leader is able to control and supervise his or her subordinates

according to the four dimensions of decision verifiability, goal clarity, goal path

multiplicity, and solution specificity; and (3) Position power is the extent to which a

leader has authority to evaluate subordinates' performance and administer reward and

punishment (Fiedler, 1967).

24

Contingency theory has broadened the understanding of leadership by exploring

the impact of various situations on leaders (Northouse, 1997). However, most of the

criticisms on Fiedler's theory have been the unclear instructions in the LPC. In addition,

contingency theory does not adequately explain why individuals with certain leadership

styles are more effective in some situations than in others (Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998).

It has been recommended that further studies should be performed to clarify the

interaction between situational control and effective performance, and to specify how it

leads to specific changes in leadership behavior (Chemers & Ayman, 1993).

Path-goal theory. Path-goal theory, proposed by House (1971) and House and

Mitchell (1974) , is a type of contingency theory. Up to a point, it is more complex than

Fiedler's theory because it involves a broader range of variables (Muchinsky, 1993).

According to the path-goal theory, leadership effectiveness is defined by the leader's

ability to provide subordinates with the necessary information (path) to achieve valued

rewards (goals) (Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998). The stated goals are to enhance

subordinates' performance and satisfaction by focusing on their motivation, and offer a

large set of predictions on how the leader's style interacts with subordinates' needs and

the nature of the task (Northouse, 1997).

Path-goal theory is derived from the expectancy theory of motivation (House,

1971). It explains "goals" as outcomes that the subordinates desire and "paths" as the

behaviors that have to be exhibited to attain these goals. Four types of leadership styles

are raised for a leader in the path-goal theory (House & Mitchell, 1974):

1. Directive leadership: the leader provides specific guidelines to the

subordinates on how they should perform their tasks. This style reflects the initiating

structure from the Ohio State studies.

25

2. Supportive leadership: Concerns and attention for subordinates' needs are the

basis for the leader's behavior. This style reflects the consideration dimension from the

Ohio State studies.

3. Participative leadership: the leader encourages input from subordinates and

makes it a part of decision-making. This style stems from Likert's (1961) participative

decision-making theory.

4. Achievement-oriented leadership: the leader establishes challenging goals,

emphasizes the improvement of work performance, and encourages high levels of goal

attainment. This style is related to the findings that emphasize motivation studies.

The path-goal theory mainly focuses on the relationship between the leader's

style, the characteristics of the subordinates, and the work setting. In summary, the four

types of leadership style are derived mostly from the Ohio State studies; the perspective

that leadership is a contingent phenomenon draws heavily on Fiedler's theory; the

hypothesis that a job provides desired rewards roots in facet job satisfaction model

(Muchinsky, 1993). Thus, the strength of the path-goal theory is that it was one of the

first situational/contingency theories of leadership to describe how tasks and

subordinates' characteristics affect the impact of leadership has on the subordinates'

performance. However, this theory has been criticized for failing to recognize the effects

26

of the subordinates' selection, training, and development. Moreover, the path-goal theory

is very complex and confusing because it incorporates so many different aspects of

leadership (Northouse, 1997).

Transformational Leadership Theory

In the 1980s, transformational leadership became a well-known topic in

psychology, management, sociology, and political science (Yammarino, Spangler, &

Bass, 1993). Bryrnan (1992) claimed transformational leadership as "New leadership,"

which is similar to charismatic, inspirational, and visionary leadership. "New leadership"

integrates its theory from the trait, behavior, and contingency approaches, and

incorporates and builds from Weber's (1963) charismatic leadership and Bums' (1978)

political leadership works (Den Hartog, Van Muijen, & Koopman, 1997; Gardner &

Cleavenger, 1998). As its name implies, transformational leadership is a process that

changes individuals (Northouse, 1997).

The concept of transformational leadership developed by Downton (1973) and

Bums (1978) stimulated researchers' interest in understanding the influence of the

leadership process that goes beyond the transactions of consideration and initiating

structure (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Seltzer & Bass, 1990). Specifically, Bums was the first

scholar to explain the distinction between transactional leaders, who attempt to satisfy the

needs of followers by exchanging rewards, and transformational leaders, who set an

example for their followers and promote dramatic changes of individuals, groups, and

organizations (Barge & Schlueter, 1991; Yammarino et aI., 1993).

About the same time Bums' theory was proposed, House (1976) published a

theory of charismatic leadership similar to transformational leadership (Northouse, 1997).

27

The term "charisma" was fairly employed in the context of discussions of certain

prominent figures in business and management fields (Bryman, 1992). Weber (1947) was

first devoted to establishing the concept of charisma. He provided the most well known

definition of charisma as a special personality characteristic that gives a person

exceptional powers to be treated as a leader (Northouse, 1997). According to House's

(1976) version of charismatic leadership, the personal characteristics of a charismatic

leader consist of being dominant and self-confident and having a strong desire to

influence others as well as a strong sense of one's own moral values. Charismatic leaders

deliver high expectations to followers and exhibit confidence in the fo Bowers'

competence to meet their expectations (Bryman, 1992). Thus, the charismatic theory best

reflects the transformational perspective.

Based on the prior works of House (1976) and Bums (1978), Bass (1985)

proposed a more expanded and refined version of transformational leadership in the mid-

1980s. The foundation of Bass' theory rests on the basic distinction between transactional

and transformational leadership. As a single continuum, transformational and

transactional leadership are at the opposite ends of the same continuum rather than

n1utually independent continua (Seltzer & Bass, 1990). Transformational leadership

enhances the contribution of transactional leadership to effectiveness; but it does not

substitute for transactional leadership. The best leaders are both transformational and

transactional (Bass, 1995).

Transactional leadership. Transactional leadership is based on either positive or

negative contingent reinforcements (Waldman et aI., 1987). Bums (1978) stated that

transactional leadership entails an exchange process between the leader and the followers.

28

In terms of Bums' point, Bass (1985) emphasized that transactional leaders clarify how

followers' needs will be met in exchange for enacting the followers' roles; or, the leader

may react only if followers fail to meet their role requirements (Waldman et aI., 1987).

Therefore, transactional leadership is founded on the idea that leader-follower relations

are set by a series of exchanges and implicit bargains between the leader and the

followers (Den Hartog et aI., 1997). That is, through the exchange of relationships, the

leader provides followers with a chance to satisfy their lower order material needs; for

example, pay increases and psychic needs such as trust (Gardner & Cleavenger, 1998).

Typically, transactional leaders practice either contingent reward or management­

by-exception (MBE) (Bass, 1985). In an active form, transactional leadership can be

characterized as contingent reinforcement-promises and rewards or avoidance of

penalties contingent on efforts expanded and performances achieved (Bass, 1985). On the

other hand, less involved forms of transactional leadership are active and passive

management-by-exception or contingent negative reinforcement (Bass, 1985). A leader

using the active form ofMBE examines followers closely for mistakes or rule violations

and then corrects them, whereas passive MBE leaders take actions only after standards

have not been met or problems happened (Bass, 1985). In essence, by practicing only

MBE, subordinates will not be satisfied, as shown by the fact that they often avoid

punishments (Waldman et aI., 1987).

Transformational leadership. Instead of catering solely to the immediate self­

interests of the followers, transformational leaders broaden and elevate the interests of the

followers, conduct awareness and acceptance of the group's purposes and mission among

the followers, and motivate them to go beyond their self-interests for the good of the

29

group (Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Transformational leadership is more active than

transactional. Transformational leaders motivate subordinates to do more than originally

expected, by the way that subordinates' confidence levels are also raised and their needs

are satisfied (Bass, 1985).

Based on a series of studies, Bass (1985) proposed six leadership factors, four

describing transformational leaders and two for transactional leaders. The

transformational factors were labeled charisma, inspiration, individualized consideration,

and intellectual stimulation. The transactional factors were contingent reward or

contingent reinforcement, and active and passive management-by-exception. In Bass'

(1985) model, the laissez-faire leadership is a nonleadership factor-nontransactional and

nontransformational. The laissez-faire leader avoids decision-making and supervisory

responsibilities. The laissez-faire style means the leader is insufficiently motivated or

inadequately skilled to perform supervisory duties. This indicates that the laissez-faire

leadership is an inappropriate and ineffective way to lead subordinates (Bass, 1990).

Therefore, through charismatic inspiration, individualized consideration, and

intellectual stimulation, transformational leaders assist followers to become more

confident in achieving current goals and working in a direction that will lead to higher

levels of goal accomplishment (Bass, 1985, 1990). Transformational leaders also tend to

pay attention to the individual subordinate, sharing his or her concerns and needs. In

addition, charismatic leaders arouse and inspire their followers with what they may be

able to accomplish with extra effort. Intellectually stimulating leaders help subordinates'

awareness of problems and lead them to deal with problems in new and creative ways

(Waldman et aI., 1987).

30

An important contribution to the development of the transfonnationalleadership

theory has been made in tenns of Bass' (1985) framework and programs of research.

Central to his research is the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed to

measure the transfonnational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles as

described above and a full range of leader behaviors including extra effort, satisfaction,

and effectiveness of leadership outcon1es (Bass & Avolio, 2000). The MLQ has been

revised several times and is now widely used (Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995).

In summary, the transfonnational approach to leadership is a broad-based

perspective that consists of many facets and dimensions of the leadership process. The

strengths of the theory are that (1) transfonnationalleadership has been widely applied in

many different fields such as education, industrial, business, and the military; (2)

transfonnationalleadership provides a broader view of leadership than other leadership

models; and (3) the theory places a strong emphasis on followers' needs, values, and

morals (Northouse, 1997).

Job Satisfaction Theory

Job satisfaction has been studied significantly in organizational and industrial

sciences since the 1930s (Muchinsky, 1993). Well over 3,350 studies on job satisfaction

were published by 1972 (Locke, 1976). In 1992, it was estimated that more than 5,000

such studies had been conducted (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992). Muchinsky (1993)

concluded that the cultural, functional, and historical bases of interest in job satisfaction

have resulted in such a large amount of research.

In the 1920s, the Hawthorne studies began research on the effects of work breaks

and illumination on productivity; a few years later, the first intensive study of job

31

satisfaction appeared. In 1935, Hoppock, who was among the first to report job

satisfaction levels of teachers, concluded that job satisfaction is related to mental health

(Frank, 1986). In the 1940s, W orId War II aroused new interest in leadership with

emphasis on the importance of leadership satisfaction. In the late 1950s and earIy 1960s,

studies were shifted to design jobs that were more satisfying (Muchinsky, 1993). Tracing

the trend of job satisfaction studies, several theories have been proposed to explain why

people are satisfied with their jobs, including Herzberg's two-factor theory (Herzberg et

aI., 1959), Lawler's (1973) facet satisfaction model, and Locke's (1976) value theory.

Job satisfaction is a multifaceted construct with a variety of definitions and related

concepts (Misener, Haddock, Gleaton, & Ajamieh, 1996). Psychologists have

investigated seriously the relationship amongst job satisfaction, work motivation, and job

perfonnance (Landy, 1989). In particular, the concept, research, and application of

motivation and job satisfaction are closely interrelated (Dinham & Scott, 1998;

Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998). Motivation refers to how the individual's behavior is

initiated and directed toward the conditions responsible for it; on the other hand, job

satisfaction is a positive or negative affective response associated with one's work

(Landy, 1989). Both motivation and job satisfaction theories attempt to explain why

people work and what they work for. Traditionally, motivation has been viewed from

these theories, such as Maslow's (1943) need hierarchy theory, Adam's (1965) equity

theory, Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory, and reinforcement theories.

In order to focus on the scope of relationship between leadership and job

satisfaction, Herzberg's two-factor theory and Lawler's facet satisfaction model will be

further discussed in the following section to clarify what makes people satisfied.

32

Definitions of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an emotional and affective response referring to feelings of like

or dislike (Muchinsky, 1993). Early definitions stated that job satisfaction is regarded as a

generally favorable or unfavorable attitude resulting from specific work areas, such as job

factors, individual characteristics, and group relationships outside of work (Blum &

Naylor, 1968). Attitudes are considered to be belief, feelings, and action tendencies that

compose value judgments of one's work environment (Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998).

Later on, the attention shifted to the individuals' affective or sUbjective feelings about

their jobs. Lawler (1973) indicated that employees have certain expectation from their

jobs. Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as "a pleasurable emotional state resulting

from the appraisal of one's job achieving or facilitating one's value" (p. 316). In short,

job satisfaction is the difference between what they expect and perceive to have received.

Job satisfaction is a feeling based on the individual's assessment of the extent to which

the work environment satisfies one's needs (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984).

Similar notions of job satisfaction lie beneath the variety of definitions, including

subjective feelings of "like and dislike," "affective responses," and "the needs to be

fulfilled." Instead of emphasizing the definitions of job satisfaction, Spector (1996)

proposed three reasons to explain why job satisfaction is important to industrial and

organizational fields. First, organizations that are concerned with humanitarian values

tend to respect each individual and focus on individuals' relationships. Therefore, high

levels of job satisfaction can be a reflection of individuals' emotional or mental health.

Secondly, a successful organization relies upon elevated levels of job satisfaction. Lastly,

job satisfaction can be viewed from a utilitarian perspective, because satisfaction and

33

dissatisfaction about work affect the performance of job functions. As a result, several

recommendations have been proposed to achieve greater understanding of the causes of

job satisfaction instead of solely illuminating its effects (Fisher & Locke, 1992).

Two-Factor Theory

A well-known theory of work motivation, Herzberg's two-factor, or motivator­

hygiene theory, addresses both motivation and satisfaction. The two-factor theory was

tested by the Herzberg et aI. (1959) study based on individual interviews of 203 engineers

and accountants. By asking the subjects to describe incidents at work that have led them

to feel either exceptionally satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs, two categories of

factors, motivators and hygiene needs, were identified through content analysis (Herzberg

et aI., 1959).

Hygiene needs are basically maintenance needs that frequently lead to job

dissatisfaction. The dissatisfying elements are extrinsic job factors in the working

environment, such as company policy, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, and

working conditions (Muchinsky, 1993). On the other hand, motivators are higher-order

needs originating within an individual (Landy, 1989). These motivators involve incidents

intrinsic to the job, such as responsibility, independence of action, and recognition for

accomplishing difficult tasks (Landy, 1989). In short, the two-factor theory emphasizes

that jobs should be designed so there would be a high degree of reward, provided by

context factors to avoid dissatisfaction and content factors to ensure satisfaction

(Muchinsky, 1993).

Herzberg's theory is founded by the assumption that each individual is born with

certain needs that have to be satisfied (Landy, 1989). However, Herzberg's theory has

34

been criticized for its lack of empirical support and the failure to replicate his findings by

researchers (Muchinsky, 1993). Although controversies surround the usage of Herzberg's

theory, its main contribution to understanding job satisfaction is its impact on motivation

and satisfaction literatures.

Facet Satisfaction Model

In contrast to Herzberg's two-factor theory, the process theory of job satisfaction

attempts to specify the variables that cause satisfaction and produce particular outcomes

(Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998). The facet satisfaction model is an example of the process

theory derived from Porter and Lawler's (1968) motivation theory and developed by

Lawler (1973). According to Lawler (l973), job satisfaction is best thought of as a

reaction that people have to what happens to them at work.

The effort-performance probability and reward value are two main concepts in

Lawler's model. Motivation leads to one's job satisfaction through the individual's

perceived association between effort and performance, moderated by the individual's

ability to perform the job and his or her expectation of attaining rewards (Lowenberg &

Conrad, 1998). Rewards can be both external and internal. External rewards such as

praise, feedback, or pay are provided by the environment. Internal rewards result from the

individual's feeling about job performance-feelings of personal worth, pride, or

accomplishment (Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998). In summary, Lawler's theory emphasized

the influence of motivation on the individual's job satisfaction, depending on the

individual's beliefs about whether performance will result in the desired consequences.

Although this model describes the satisfaction an individual will experience from any

particular aspect or facet of the job, Lawler stated that overall job satisfaction is the

combination of feelings a worker perceives about all facets of his or her job.

35

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), developed by Weiss, Dawis,

England, and Lofquist (1967), measures the satisfaction level of various job aspects. The

MSQ is one of the most popular instruments of job satisfaction with a 100-item long form

and a 20-item short form. The long form of the MSQ lies close to the extreme of a

specific-general satisfaction continuum (Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, & Paul,

1989). It provides scores for 20 different facets of job satisfaction. The MSQ short form

combines one item from each of the 20 subscales of the long form used to examine the

respondent's general overall feelings about the job (Arvey, Bouchard, Segal, & Abraham,

1989).

Culture, Organization, and Leadership

Culture and Leadership

Culture, as agreed ways of interpreting signs, symbols, artifacts, and actions, can

cause variant work-related values in different national cultures (Smith & Peterson, 1988).

Individualism and collectivism are two major dimensions of culture variation, which

reflect attitudes, beliefs, norms, roles, self-definitions, and values that construct the two

types of cultures (Triandis, 1993). The two constructs are not necessarily polar opposites.

Depending on the situation, some or most of the attributes in one culture are either

individualistic or collectivist. Moreover, individual differences still exist, even in highly

individualistic cultures of the U.S. and collectivist cultures of the Far East (Triandis,

1993).

36

Bass (1981) stated that unique or unusual leadership practices are associated with

particular culture backgrounds; leadership under such circumstances requires examining

the unusual institutions of that culture. The image of an ideal leader is likely to be

different in these two kinds of culture. The ideal collectivist leader is paternalistic, taking

good care of the in-group, whereas the ideal individualist leader is supportive when

followers need help (Triandis, 1993). Leaders in collectivist cultures are morally

responsible for taking care of their followers, to help them in their career plans, and to

counsel them about personal problems (Bass & Avolio, 2000, p. 7). As an example,

leadership patterns in Chinese society are still influenced by Confucian and Taoist

traditions with the expectation that leaders set moral examples for their followers (Bass,

1985). In this manner, transformational leadership is considered to be more pervasive in

collectivist societies rather than individualistic societies of the West (Jung & Avolio,

1999).

However, due to booming economic developments in East Asia, transformational

leadership in Singapore, Taiwan, and mainland China has been offset by the equally

strong status of the transactional Mandarin tradition, in which the leader has to

manipulate rewards and punishments to the followers (Bass, 1985). Bass and Avolio

(2000) claimed that, although the theory, model, and measurements of transformational

and transactional leadership originated from the individualistic style of the U.S., they

may be more applicable in the collectivist societies of Japan, China, Korea, and

elsewhere in East Asia.

37

Organization and Leadership

Organization is a social unit with some particular purpose (Shafritz & Ott, 1996).

The importance of organizations is how groups and individuals behave in varying

organizational structures and circumstances (Shafritz & Ott, 1996). This information is

important for leaders to have while they lead in an organization. Kennerly (1989)

emphasized that leadership behavior and job satisfaction are regarded as fundamental

elements influencing the overall effectiveness of an organization. Also, the organization

culture can be greatly affected by leadership (Bass & Avolio, 2000).Thus, many

organizations are concerned with effectively managing a culturally diverse workforce

(Mai-Dalton, 1993).

An organization culture is comprised of its core values, basic philosophy,

technical, financial, and humanistic concerns (Bass, 1985). The transactional leader

works within the organizational culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes

the culture (Bass, 1985). Effective leaders assume that organizational cultures can be

changed to incorporate individuals with different backgrounds and be driven by the

collaboration of minority and mainstream employees (Mai-Dalton, 1993). Therefore,

transformational leadership is more effective in diverse organizational types and cultures

(Bass, 1997).

Generally speaking, the organizational cultures of schools are made between

structural and cultural workplace conditions (Clement & Vandenberghe, 2001). Structural

workplace conditions refer to the organizational and structural measures that one can take

for fostering teachers' professional development; whereas, cultural workplace conditions

refer to the school's value with regard to professional behavior and professional

38

development (Clement & Vandenberghe, 2001). In order to operate leadership smoothly,

school leaders are supposed to be best situated within the school's organizational

conditions to help teachers' professional development (Leithwood, 1994). Leithwood and

Jantzi (2000) indicated that the approach of leadership on school leaders aims to foster

the capacity development of teachers and higher levels of personal commitment to

organizational goals.

The nursing education's concern with leadership reflects a similar pattern as other

fields that a competent leader holds an important role to advance professionalization

(Goldenberg, 1990; Mahoney, 2001). Unfortunately, academic nursing sits at the

intersection of higher education and the healthcare system, which possess conservative

and male-dominated organizational culture (Redman, 2001). Although won1en have

gained increased access to supervisory positions, they face a high cost in challenging

cultural reproduction of gender relationship in universities (Eagly & Karau, 2002).

Findings indicate that women and minorities remain underrepresented in

deanships except deans of colleges of nursing (Wolverton & Gonzales, 2000). However,

there has been a shortage of leadership training in the nursing field (Mahoney, 2001).

Therefore, nursing leaders require a leadership style that not only advocates for the

school discipline but also actively creates changes in the university's perceptions about

nursing and women (Redman, 2001). In Taiwan, the impact of traditional culture on

academic female leaders and the demand of effective leadership are similar to the

situation in the U. S. (Shieh et aI., 2001).

Leadership Styles, Organizational Characteristics,

and Job Satisfaction

Related Studies of Leadership Styles and

Organizational Characteristics

39

A considerable nUll1ber of studies have focused on the roles, functions,

performance, and evaluation of academic deans and department chairpersons (Gme1ch,

Wolverton, & Wolverton, 1999; Kirby, Paradise, & King, 1992; Knight & Holen, 1985;

Rogers, 1989; Wolverton & Gonzales, 2000). By reviewing these studies, we understand

that department chairpersons' or deans' positions have been widely acknowledged as

vital to the management of colleges and universities.

Knight and Holen (1985) used a sample of 5,830 faculty men1bers from 65

colleges to rate 458 department chairpersons' leadership and performance. This study

was conducted to address the relationship between the chairperson's leadership and his or

her performance as perceived by faculty. The most significant result is that the most

effective department chairpersons, who were given the highest performance ratings by

their faculty, were those who were rated high on both initiating structure and

consideration leadership. Furthermore, most of the department chairpersons come

directly from faculty positions, where they have emphasized skills in teaching and

research rather than administration. The significance of this study is to intensify the

compilation of behaviors and characteristics of department chairpersons who are

perceived to be effective; in tum, a training program can be suggested to assist them in

acquiring behaviors associated with initiating structure and consideration leadership

styles.

40

Schools of nursing, much like other colleges, universities, and hospitals, are

organized by a bureaucratic structure that is based on legal authority, logic, and order

(Rogers, 1989). Deans of nursing schools have been selected to hold important leadership

positions and be responsible for most of all administrative decisions in colleges or

universities (Lucas, 1986; Shieh et aI., 2001). However, little research or theoretical work

has been done on the administration or leadership of nursing education institutions

(Antrobus, 1997; Lucas, 1986). Traditionally, nursing administrators have been reluctant

to use power (Brooten, 1984). Rogers (1989) reported that nurse education administrators

draw ideas from other disciplines to form a theory of power to use in their practice

setting. Furthermore, many of the adnlinistrative positions are unfilled or replaced by

nonnursing personnel (Mahoney, 2001). The evidence above presents a significant need

for the investigation of leadership influences in nursing, in order to supply useful

information in training successful nursing leaders.

Rogers (1989) conducted a study to examine whether there were differences in

assistant/associate deans' leadership styles of initiating structure and consideration as

well as position power, as perceived by deans, assistant/associate deans, and faculty in

selected collegiate schools of nursing. Three convenience samples, 36 deans, 36

assistant/associate deans, and 210 faculty members, were recruited to respond to the

LBDQ and the Fiedler Position Power Scale. The findings are that assistant/associated

deans rated themselves the highest of the three groups in consideration leadership style,

whereas faculty rated them the lowest. Moreover, the deans reported the perception of the

highest position power of assistant/associate deans; however, the faculty rated them the

lowest. Rogers explained that followers do not always perceive the same qualities in

41

leadership as leaders see in themselves. Also, the faculty perceived the assistant/associate

deans as having less position power, which is perhaps due to the ineffectiveness of the

assistant/associate deans in managing it (Rogers, 1989).

Similar to Rogers' study, Mansen (1993) used the same LBDQ instrument to

examine the relationship between role-taking abilities of nursing education administrators

and their leadership effectiveness as rated by their faculty. Data were collected by mail

survey. Thirty nursing administrators (200/0 response rate) and 176 faculty members (57%

response rate) from 446 National League for Nursing (NLN) accredited baccalaureate

nursing programs in the U.S. were accrued for this study. The positive relationship

between role-taking and the consideration dimension of effective leadership found in this

study provided support that the benefits of role-taking ability enhance the perception of

leadership effectiveness. Unfortunately, a low response rate and self-selected respondents

had the potential of causing biased data in this study.

Both Rogers' (1989) and Mansen's (1993) studies provide a view of effective

leadership by nursing administrators as perceived by the nursing faculty. Unlike Rogers'

study, Mansen (1993) extended the focus from leadership style to the factors influencing

leadership, such as role-taking skills and organizational variables-formalization and

centralization. However, no information is available on the reliability and validity of the

organizational questionnaire. In terms of Mans en's (1993) study, the research on

leadership highlighted the importance of the interaction between leadership behaviors and

organizational characteristics.

An understanding of the relationship between leadership behaviors and

institutional variables in nursing education would contribute to theory building and an

42

organized body of leadership knowledge (Lucas, 1986). Based on this belief, Lucas

(1986) investigated the relationship between leadership behaviors of nursing deans and

selected organizational variables of baccalaureate and higher degree nursing programs in

the U. S. A random sample of 170 deans ofNLN accredited baccalaureate nursing

programs (70.80/0 response rate) was collected using mailed questionnaires. The LBDQ

instrument was used to measure deans' self-perceived leadership behaviors. The

organizational characteristics included the institutional size and control, educational tasks

of the institution, percentage of doctorally prepared faculty, and the number of nursing

faculty.

Of all the selected organizational variables, the consideration dimension of

leadership was related only to the "percentage of doctorally prepared faculty." Lucas

proposed a possible explanation for this finding, which deans exhibit closer personal

identification with faculty who have the same educational preparation. Although this

study justified the inclusion or exclusion of the organizational characteristics into a

leadership theory for nursing academic administrators, a longitudinal design would be

valuable to examine whether deans change their leadership behaviors according to the

type of organizational settings.

Related Studies of Leadership Styles and Job Satisfaction

The importance of job satisfaction in all types of organization has been

consistently supported through research (Bruce & Blackburn, 1992). The results indicate

that job satisfaction is linked to the employee's performance (Wanous, 1974),

organizational climate (Muchinsky, 1977; Pritchard & Karasick, 1973), possibility of

43

stress and burnouts (Urn & Harrison, 1998), and the propensity to leave a j ob (Rahim &

Afza, 2001).

In academia, a study indicated that males tend to have a higher satisfaction rating

of the amount of pay they receive than females, whereas females are more satisfied with

their co-workers than males (Tang & Talpade, 1999). Also, job satisfaction increases

with age for teachers (Lowther et aI., 1985). Taylor and Tashakkori (1995) reported that

aspects of the school climate, such as the principal's leadership and the lack of obstacles

to teaching, represented stronger predictors of job satisfaction than did the elements of

decision participation. In addition, a synthesis of research findings regarding job

satisfaction in educational organizations indicated that, role tensions (e.g., role ambiguity

and role conflict) were the strongest predictors of job satisfaction (Thompson et aI.,

1997).

Bogler (2001) expanded the research of job satisfaction related to academic

leadership. Bogler's study examined the effects of three factors on teacher job

satisfaction: principals' leadership style (transformational or transactional), principals'

decision-making strategy (autocratic versus participative), and teachers' perception of

their occupation. Data were collected from 745 Israeli elementary and high school

teachers (80% return rate) of98 schools, using the MLQ and Tarabeth's (1995)

questionnaire to measure their principals' leadership styles and perception of job

satisfaction, respectively.

Path analysis was employed to estimate the direct and indirect effects of

independent variables on job satisfaction levels. The results revealed that principals'

transformational leadership affects teachers' satisfaction both directly (fJ .31, P < .0001)

44

and indirectly (f3 = .17, p < .0001) through teachers' occupation perception. Significantly,

this study calls researchers' attention to the inner world of teachers such as occupation

perception, and suggests that teachers prefer to work with a principal who exhibits

transformational types of behaviors.

Nursing education is facing different kinds of challenges. Decreasing enrollments

and insufficient faculty require administrators to be knowledgeable of and to provide

elements that will increase job satisfaction among their faculty. Two studies (Donohue,

1986; Snarr & Krochalk, 1996) paid special attention to the influence of organizational

characteristics and climate on the job satisfaction of nursing faculty. Donohue indicated

that the dean's behavior influences the perceptions of organizational climate and job

satisfaction among faculty. However, Snarr and Krochalk's study revealed weak to

negligible relationships between job satisfaction and the selected organizational

characteristics, such as pay, opportunities for promotion, and supervision. Although

studies regarding the relationship between organizational characteristics and nursing

faculty job satisfaction have produced inconsistent findings, an important piece of

information has emerged, and that is the need to produce effective leaders and

administrators in order to elevate faculty job satisfaction levels.

The relationship between leadership styles and employees' job satisfaction has

been studied extensively in business (Beehr & Gupta, 1987; Jensen, White, & Singh,

1990), industry (Packard & Kauppi, 1999; Putti & Tong, 1992), and the healthcare

system (Loke, 2001; McNeese Smith, 1995; Morrison et al., 1997). The researchers

contended that a supervisor's leadership style has a powerful effect on employees'

attitudes and behaviors. Three articles (Loke, 2001; McNeese Sn1ith, 1995; Morrison et

aI., 1997) have especially been interested in surveying nursing staff to explore the

relationship between leadership styles and job satisfaction.

45

Loke (2001) and McNeese Smith (1995) used the same instruments in their

studies. The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) was used to measure the leadership

behavior of nursing managers and the Job in General (JIG) scale was for general job

satisfaction of nurses. Both studies indicated that the nurses' perceptions of the use of

leadership behaviors are significantly correlated to their job satisfaction, productivity, and

organizational commitment. In addition, Morrison et al. (1997) examined the influence of

two important factors, leadership style and empowerment, on the job satisfaction of

healthcare personnel. Bass' Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was used to measure

leadership styles and job satisfaction was measured by Warr, Cook, and Wall's (1979)

Job Satisfaction Questionnaire.

In the Morrison et al. (1997) study, a convenience sample of275 nursing staff

(64% response rate) was invited to participate. The results indicated that transformational

leadership appeared to have a powerful influence (r .64) on job satisfaction and

significant relations (r = .26) with empowerment; on the other hand, transactional

leadership had no effect on empowerment, although it had a direct effect (r = .35) on job

satisfaction. These findings support Bass' (1985) statement that transformational

leadership augments the effects of transactional leadership.

Related Studies of Leadership styles, Organizational

Characteristics, and Job Satisfaction

Reviewing the literature, it is apparent that the relationship between deans'

leadership styles and faculty job satisfaction in nursing programs has received little

46

attention. Kennerly (1989) pointed out that the role dimension of administrative

leadership has not been thoroughly explored in relation to its influence on faculty job

satisfaction. Additional studies are needed to better understand the relationship between

administrative leadership behaviors and nursing faculty job satisfaction with an emphasis

on how these dimensions may vary across settings in nursing education (Lucas, 1986).

In terms of addressing the research gap, Kennerly (1989) investigated the

relationships among leadership behaviors of deans/chairs, selected organizational

characteristics, and nurse faculty job satisfaction in baccalaureate nursing programs. This

study was a descriptive and correlational design conducted by using mailed

questionnaires. The LBDQ was utilized to measure 189 nursing faculty members'

perceptions of the deans' and chairs' leadership; the overall job satisfaction was

measured by Brayfield and Rothe's (1951) Index of Job Satisfaction (nS) questionnaire.

Twenty-six deans and chairs (60% response rate) were requested to provide the

organizational data, such as nursing program size, pay, institutional size, the number of

designed position structure, and the number of tenure faculty.

The findings indicated that both consideration (r = .37) and initiating structure (r

= .33) had moderate, but significant correlations with faculty job satisfaction. Multiple

regression showed that consideration, initiating structure, the number of tenure faculty,

and the number of students in college contributed significantly to the prediction of faculty

job satisfaction. The significance of this study reveals not only the leadership behaviors

of the deans and chairs are significantly predictive factors for faculty job satisfaction

levels, but also the relationship among leadership behaviors, organizational

characteristics, and job satisfaction.

47

Related Studies in Taiwan

To better understand the research distribution of these two concepts, a

computerized search was conducted by using the "Dissertation and thesis abstract

system" in the Ministry of Education's (MOE) database (http://www.edu.tw) from 1957

to 2003. The queries defined by "leadership" produced 435 studies. Among these studies,

60 studies focused on principals' leadership styles, especially for elementary schools.

When the key words "leadership" and "nursing" were entered, six studies were

found and three of them studied leadership in a clinical setting. No studies related to the

key words of "leadership" and "nursing deans" or "nursing educator" were found. Within

studies related to leadership and job satisfaction, 46 studies focused on business,

industrial, and elementary school settings. Narrowing the scope to find those related to

leadership, organization, and job satisfaction, 11 studies in the business and industrial

fields were found. According to these searches, it is noted that the concepts of leadership

and job satisfaction have not been adequately and thoroughly studied in Taiwan's nursing

education and clinical settings.

In academia, C. R. Chen (2001) investigated the relationship between principals'

transfonnational and transactional leadership and teacher job satisfaction in elementary

schools. Over 1,150 teachers from 114 public elementary schools in northern Taiwan

were recruited to participate in the research. The MLQ instrument was used to measure

the leadership style of principals. The findings are consistent with a related study (Ju,

2002): the principals' transfonnational and transactional leadership behaviors were

significantly related to teacher job satisfaction; and moderate job satisfaction levels were

perceived by elementary teachers. Importantly, the "individualized consideration,"

"inspirational," "charisma," and "contingent reward" dimensions predicted teacher job

satisfaction effectively.

C. H. Lin (2002) investigated the relationship between principals' leadership

styles and faculty job satisfaction in eight institutes of technology in Taiwan. The

Chinese MSQ short form was developed to measure the levels of 250 full-time faculty

members' job satisfaction, and the LBDQ was used to measure principals' leadership

styles as perceived by faculty.

The findings indicated that a significant positive correlation (r .674,p = .000)

was found between leadership styles and job satisfaction levels. Furthermore, associate

professors were significantly more satisfied with their jobs than were instructors. And,

the older faculty members were significantly more satisfied with their jobs than the

younger faculty. This finding is consistent with the study of Zhuang (1994) that male,

married, and older teachers were more satisfied with their jobs.

Three studies (Y. G. Lin, 1999; Lu, 1998; C. C. Yang, 2002) examined the

influence of transformational leadership on organizational effectiveness in clinical

settings. Results indicated that Taiwanese nursing managers possess transformational

leadership style; through systematic training of transformational leadership, nursing

managers can enhance the frequency of transfomlationalleadership behaviors and

improve employees' job satisfaction and organizational climate.

48

In studying nurses' job satisfaction, researchers have considerately paid attention

to this field. Five studies (Y. M. Chang, 1995; B. F. Liu, 1997; X. E. Liu, 1984; Y. L.

Pan, 1994; Wang, 1999) have examined the phenomenon of job satisfaction in clinical

nurses. Most of the results indicated insufficient to nl0derate job satisfaction levels in

Taiwanese nurses. "Salary," "work environment," and "manager leadership" are

important factors that influence Taiwanese nurses' job satisfaction levels.

49

Shieh et al. (2001) tried to pave the way for investigating the influence of nursing

deans' and directors' transformational and transactional leadership styles on nursing

faculty job satisfaction in baccalaureate and associate degree nursing programs in

Taiwan. Bass' (1985) transformational leadership theory helped to guide and support the

purposes of the study. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The MLQ-5X was used

to measure the leadership style; the MSQ short form and the Nursing Faculty Satisfaction

Questionnaire (NFSQ) developed by Martin (1991) were used for measuring the levels of

nursing faculty job satisfaction. A convenience sample of233 nursing faculty members

(460/0 response rate) from 18 schools participated in this study.

Idealized influence (j3 .484, p < .001), intellectual stimulation (j3 = .239, p <

.05), and contingent reward (j3 = .269, p < .05) leadership styles of deans and directors

significantly and positively predicted "perceived satisfaction with leadership style." The

active management-by-exception leadership style (fJ = -.265,p < .001) significantly, but

negatively predicted "perceived satisfaction with leadership style." In addition,

contingent reward (j3 .642, p < .001) leadership style significantly and positively

predicted faculty job satisfaction, and active management-by-exception significantly and

negatively (fJ -.211,p < .05) predicted faculty job satisfaction.

Shieh et al. claimed that this study was the first one conducted to investigate the

relationship of leadership and job satisfaction in Taiwan's nursing academia. However,

the convenience sample and low response rate were two main limitations. Subsequent

empirical studies should seek to replicate this study by using a random sampling

50

procedure and focusing on increasing the response rate and decreasing the selection bias

by utilizing a complete roster of nursing faculty.

Conceptual Framework

Hallinger and Heck (1996) reviewed the empirical literature on the relationship

between the principal's role and the school's effectiveness during the period of 1980 to

1995. Hallinger and Heck proposed that, in the absence of an explicated theoretical

model, researchers often cannot be sure what has been found. Based on the literature

review of transformational and transactional leadership studies, a proposed conceptual

model of direct-effects raised in Hallinger and Heck's (1996) study provided the research

framework of key variables within the study (see Figure 2). This framework highlights

the importance of examining the relationship between leadership styles of nursing deans

and directors and nursing faculty job satisfaction levels (direct-effects).

Summary

Chapter 2 has provided a review of the literature and research necessary for

understanding the phenomena related to this study. A review of the theories of leadership

and job satisfaction builds a framework for understanding the development of both

theories, the importance of both theories to people's lives, and associations between these

two fields. The relationships among culture, organization, and leadership provide

macroscopic and microscopic views for understanding the influence of leadership. The

review of related studies of leadership styles, organizational characteristics, and job

satisfaction helps to draw a contextual picture about the development of these concepts

and research gap in these fields. More importantly, a review of related studies in Taiwan

51

provides a better understanding of why this current study is important to Taiwan's

nursing education.

Organizational characteristics: Control, size, type of nursing programs offered, the number of full-time faculty in nursing programs

Transformational, transactional, -and laissez-faire leadership Nursing faculty job satisfaction level styles of nursing deans and

.. ...

directors as perceived by nursing faculty ,.

Demographic data: Age, marital status, gender, educational level, academic rank, length of time in dean's or director's position, current salary, current contract, length of time in faculty's position

Figure 2. A conceptual model of leadership styles and job satisfaction level.

CHAPTER 3

METHOD

This was a descriptive and correlational study using self-administered

questionnaires at one point in time. The study focused on examining Taiwanese nursing

faculty perceptions of nursing deans' and directors' leadership styles and how the

perception relates to the faculty job satisfaction level. This chapter explains the

procedures and methods of the study, including the setting, sample, instrumentation, data

collection, data analysis, and the protection of human subjects. A timeline is also

included to display the amount of time used for each stage of the study.

Research Design

This study was implemented using a cross-sectional mail survey. Self­

administered questionnaires were used to gather the faculty perceptions of the leadership

styles of nursing deans and directors and faculty j ob satisfaction levels. Prior to formal

data collection, permission to use the two Chinese instruments in this study was obtained

from the original authors in Taiwan (see Appendix A). Once the instruments were

validated, the study was conducted to investigate the relationship between leadership

styles and job satisfaction levels in Taiwan.

The random sampling technique was employed to collect data from 18 schools

with nursing programs. Twenty or 40 full-time nursing faculty members of each school

53

were randomly selected to participate in this study. Each faculty member received

questionnaires and a cover letter mailed directly to them at the school address. The

questionnaires were to be answered anonymously with a flexible amount of response time

to accommodate any possible emotional barriers of fear or uncertainty.

The roster of faculty members and organizational characteristics of the schools,

such as school size and type of nursing programs, were collected fronl each school's

Website as well as from the Internet database of Taiwan's Ministry of Education.

Concerned that the response rate would be low, several techniques were implemented

within data collection in hopes of improving it, such as (1) sending a carefully worded

cover letter with the questionnaire to clearly explain the study; (2) supplying a self­

addressed and stamped return envelope; (3) sending follow-up reminders using e-mail;

and (4) offering incentives like pens and pencils in advance (Waltz, Strickland, & Lenz,

1991).

Population, Sample, and Setting

Currently, 36 schools (see Appendix B) provide nursing programs within

Taiwan's higher education system, with approximately 1,277 full-time nursing faculty

members and 63,015 nursing students (MOE, 2003). However, the numbers of enrolled

nursing students and full-time faculty vary from school to school as well as public and

private schools. The inclusion criterion for each school was to have a minimum sample

size of 20 full-time faculty members and a current dean or director who has been in

his/her position for at least one semester (4 months). Therefore, 12 universities/institutes

of technology and 4 junior colleges were eliminated prior to data collection because of

ineligibili ty.

54

In total, 20 of the 36 schools were selected for formal data collection (see Table

2); however, one university and one junior college refused to participate. Thus, 18

schools were accrued in this study. It is noted that previous transfonnational and

transactional leadership studies and the Shieh et aI. (2001) study (460/0 response rate)

received varied response rates ranged from 22%) to 680/0 (Shieh et aI., 2001). Therefore, a

sufficient number of schools were chosen to obtain the necessary large enough sample for

this study.

To qualify for the study, each subject must be a full-time employed nursing

faculty, including instructors, assistant professors, associate professors, and professors.

Both female and male faculty members were included. The random sampling technique

was used to collect a sampling roster based on the complete list of full-time nursing

faculty members on each school's Website. Each subject was assigned a number in the

list of each school's roster. Correspondingly, the number was recorded on a slip of paper

and then these papers were placed in a container, which was used for random sampling

selection.

Table 2

Summary of School Participation

No. of schools No. of

Type of school No. of all Schools with 20+ that refused participated schools faculty members participation schools

University/Institute 24 12 1 11 of technology

Junior co lIege 12 8 1 7

Total 36 20 2 18

55

According to the statistical power analysis for determining the necessary sample

size (see p. 72),20 faculty members were randomly selected from each of the 16 schools

to participate in the mail survey. In the other 2 schools, 40 faculty members were selected

because the schools had more than 150 faculty members and a higher number of samples

were needed to ensure adequate representation (see Appendix C). Through this sanlpling

procedure, a total of 400 questionnaire packets (20*16 schools + 40*2 schools 400)

were mailed to the selected faculty members at their school address. The setting in which

the surveys were completed was individually selected by the faculty in order to maximize

comfort and convenience.

Instrumentation

The researcher conducted a literature review and analysis to determine the most

appropriate instruments for measuring leadership styles and job satisfaction levels in this

study. The criteria for selecting an appropriate instrument depend upon several

influencing factors, including the concept of research in the study, psychometric

soundness of the instruments, and the cultural background of the subjects (Waltz et aI.,

1991). A meta-analysis of the transformational leadership literature using the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) found that the MLQ is reliable and significantly

predicts work unit effectiveness (Lowe & Galen Kroeck, 1996).

Barge and Schlueter (1991) evaluated four instruments that have been developed

to measure organizational leadership, and indicated that the MLQ demonstrated good

predictive validity in group performance (r .40 to .42) and possessed good construct

validity as shown in Bass' (1985) study. In addition, organizational managers who are

concerned with developing an organizational leadership profile may prefer using the

56

MLQ (Barge & Schlueter, 1991). Bass (1997) emphasized that evidence supporting the

transactional-transformational leadership paradigm has been gathered from all continents

except Antarctica (p. 14).

Huber et al. (2000) indicated that their study, which evaluated nursing

administration instruments, can be used as a beginning point to save time in selecting an

instrument for studying nursing administrations. In the Huber et al. study, the criteria for

selecting a good instrument include psychometric soundness and ease of use rated on a 5-

point scale. Higher scores represent better psychometric soundness and ease of use. The

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) short form for measuring job satisfaction

received 4 for psychometric soundness and 3 for ease of use; in addition, it is flexible

enough to be used to survey employees' job satisfaction in any type of settings. The MSQ

short form has also been chosen to measure faculty job satisfaction levels in Taiwan's

higher education setting (C. H. Lin, 2002; Shieh et aI., 2001).

According to the literature review of instrumentation, the latest version of the

MLQ Form 5X (MLQ-5X) and the MSQ short form were selected for use in this study.

Therefore, the questionnaire packet comprised a cover letter (see Appendix D), two

questionnaires utilizing the Chinese versions of the MLQ-5X (see Appendix E) and the

MSQ short form (see Appendix F), a section of demographic data (see Appendix G), a

completion postcard (see Appendix H), and a stamped and addressed return envelope.

The completion postcard was used to inform the researcher that the questionnaires have

been completed and returned by the mail. The only place where the name of the faculty

appeared was on the completion postcard. Based on the researcher's understanding of

Taiwan's culture, the demographics section and the organizational characteristics section

were selected by the researcher to suit the background and the setting of Taiwan's

nursing education. It took approximately 30 minutes to complete all the questionnaires.

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Form 5X (MLQ-5X)

57

Bass' (1985) transformational leadership theory made an important contribution

to the development of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). The initial

conceptualization of the transformational and transactional leadership model presented in

the MLQ consisted of six dimensions: charisma/inspirational, intellectual stimulation,

individualized consideration, contingent reward, management-by-exception, and laissez­

faire. One hundred forty-two items describing transactional and transformational

leadership were initially generated in a pilot study involving 70 executives and a

literature review. A panel of 11 expert judges then reduced the number of items to 73 and

then 176 U.S. army colonels evaluated the questionnaire.

Since 1985, the MLQ has had a great deal of revisions developed to verify its

construct validity. The latest version of the MLQ is Form 5X (Avolio & Bass, 1995),

which has been used in nearly 200 research programs, doctoral dissertations, and nlasters

theses around the world over the last four years (Bass & Avolio, 2000). This version has

also been translated into Spanish, French, Chinese, Korean, and others for use in various

assessment and training research projects (Bass & Avolio, 2000).

The MLQ-5X is a 45-item questionnaire with a 5-point Likert scale (scored from

0= not at all, to 4 = frequently, if not always). The MLQ-5X measures the five subscales

of transformational leadership style (idealized influence/attributed, idealized

influencelbehavior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized

consideration), three subscales of transactional leadership style (contingent reward, active

management-by-exception, passive management-by-exception), and one laissez-faire

scale. Each subscale consists of four items, totaling 36 items, as well as another set of

outcomes of four-, three-, and two-item subscales designed to measure "effectiveness,"

"extra effort," and "satisfaction," respectively.

58

The MLQ-5X was developed in response to substantive criticisms of the high

correlations among the transformational subscales, as well as between the

transformational subscales and the contingent reward subscale. In addition, a distinction

of the charisma subscale has been made to foml behaviorally-based charismatic

leadership, referred to as behavioral idealized influence, and an attribution or impact on

followers, referred to as attributed idealized influence (Bass & Avolio, 2000).

Nine samples (n = 2,154) from a variety of occupations were used to examine the

construct validity and reliability. The coefficient alpha of reliability of the total scale and

each the leadership factor subscale ranged from. 74 to .94, indicating the achievement of

a sufficient internal consistency level (Bass & Avolio, 2000). Confirmatory factor

analysis (CFA) was used to test the convergent and discriminant validities of each MLQ-

5X subscale by examining the structural relations among latent constructs. The results

indicated that positive and significant correlations (average r = .83) have been found

among the five transformational leadership subscales, as well as between the contingent

reward subscale and each of the five transformational leadership subscales (average r

.71) (Bass & Avolio, 2000). The possible explanation for why leaders have been shown

to be both transactional and transformational in repeated investigations is that both

transactional and transformational leadership styles represent active and positive forms of

leadership (Bass & Avolio, 2000).

59

The Chinese version of the MLQ-5X was developed by Shieh et al. (2001) and

used to measure 233 nursing faculty perceptions of deans' and directors' leadership styles

in Taiwan. A total of 38 items from the 45-item MLQ-5X scale, including behavioral

idealized influence, attributed idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual

stimulation, individualized consideration, contingent reward, active management-by­

exception, passive management-by-exception, laissez-faire, and satisfaction with

leadership style, were used in the Shieh et al. study except for seven items from the

subscales of the effectiveness and extra effort.

Back-translation was performed to ensure the original meaning of the English

questionnaire has been maintained in the Chinese version. The content validity index

(CVI) of the Chinese MLQ-5X was .75, as conducted by doctoral bilingual professors.

Through these procedures, no items were deleted from the original MLQ-5X. The

Cronbach's alpha coefficients of the total scale and each subscale ranged from .71 to .94.

In this current study, the nine subscales of leadership styles with 36 items from

the 38-item Chinese MLQ-5X were used, excluding the 2-item subscale that evaluate the

satisfaction with leadership style. As seen in Figure 2, the 36-item Chinese MLQ-5X was

used to measure the transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles of

nursing deans and directors, as perceived by nursing faculty in Taiwan. The time used for

answering this scale was about 15 minutes. The operational definition of each MLQ-5X

subscale is shown in Appendix L

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) Short Form

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was developed by Weiss et al.

(1967) for measuring job satisfaction levels. There are two forms of the MSQ, including a

60

100-item long form and a 20-item short form. The MSQ short form was developed by

selecting one item from each subscale of the long form. The MSQ short form is

comprised of three subscales, including intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction, and

general satisfaction. The intrinsic satisfaction subscale consists of 12 items that reflect

ability utilization, achievement, and opportunities to do things for other people while on

the job; the extrinsic satisfaction subscale includes six items that are concerned with the

way company policies are administered, the quality of working conditions, and so forth.

The general satisfaction scale is a simple summation of the 20 items from the MSQ short

form. It requires 5 to 10 minutes to complete the MSQ short form.

According to the manual of Weiss et al. (1967), the Cronbach's alpha of internal

consistency reliability conducted by using the data of 1,723 individuals in a variety of

occupational areas was .86 for the intrinsic satisfaction subscale, .80 for the extrinsic

satisfaction subscale, and .90 for the general satisfaction scale. The means of these three

subscales were 47.14 for intrinsic, 19.88 for extrinsic, and 74.85 for general satisfaction.

Three satisfaction ranges were defined: percentile scores of 25 or lower indicate low

satisfaction, percentile scores between 26 and 74 display moderate satisfaction, and

percentile scores of75 or higher represent high satisfaction. The following studies used

the MSQ short form to measure the job satisfaction levels among various populations,

such as nurse anesthesia faculty (Embrey, 1991), part-time college faculty (Inglis, 1992),

full-time business administration faculty in Thailand (Sangmanee, 1993), full-time

Taiwanese nursing faculty (Shieh et aI., 2001), and full-time Taiwanese faculty at

institutes of technology (C. H. Lin, 2002).

61

The Chinese version of the MSQ short form developed by C. H. Lin (2002) was

adopted in this current study to measure the levels of nursing faculty job satisfaction (see

Figure 2). This instrument is a 20-item questionnaire with a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very

dissatisfied to 5 very satisfied). A higher score represents a higher level of job

satisfaction. The Chinese MSQ short form was developed using back-translation from

two bilingual translators. A pilot test was performed using a convenience sample of 15

faculty members from a college in Taiwan.

No items were deleted as a result of the pilot test C. H. Lin (2002) used the

Chinese MSQ short form to measure the job satisfaction levels of 250 full-time faculty

members from eight institutes of technology in Taiwan. The Cronbach's alpha ofintemal

consistency reliability was .93 for general job satisfaction, .90 for intrinsic job

satisfaction, and .84 for extrinsic job satisfaction. The operational definitions of the 20

items are presented in Appendix J.

Organizational Characteristics Section

Variables of schools' organizational characteristics were selected by the

researcher based on the literature review to better suit the background and setting of

Taiwan's nursing education. Variables included the following:

• Control (public or private schools)

• Size (the number of enrolled nursing students)

• Type of nursing programs offered (diploma or bachelor degree programs)

• The number of full-time faculty in nursing programs

Demographic Data Section

Demographic variables were selected based on the specific background of

Taiwan's nursing faculty. In addition, one open-ended question asked the faculty to

briefly state any reward, recognition, or promotion that they have received from their

current school. The selected variables were the following (see Appendix G):

• Age

• Marital status (mani.ed, single, divorced or widowed)

• Gender

• Highest educational preparation to date (bachelor degree, master's degree,

and PhD degree)

• Academic rank (instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and

professor)

• The number of years employed at the current school

• The number of years the dean or director has been in hislher position at the

current school

• Current monthly salary

• Current contract (1 year, 2 to 5 years, and 5 + years)

Data Collection Procedures

62

This study was performed within a period of 8 months (see Table 3). Prior to

conducting the mail survey, the organizational characteristics of the 18 schools were

collected from their Websites and the Internet database of Taiwan's Ministry of

Education. Each school was assigned a number recorded in the questionnaires in order to

match the organizational characteristic data.

63

Table 3

Study Timeline

Activi ty/Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Preparation X X X

Participant recruitment X

Data collection X X

Data entry X

Data analysis X

Prepare and X X X submit final report

A total of 400 questionnaire packets along with completion postcards was mailed

to the participants at their schools and once completed, returned directly to the researcher

through mail. All completed questionnaires and completion postcards were separately

returned to the researcher without any way to identify the faculty member. Faculty and

school names were not placed on the completed questionnaires.

To increase the response rate, a pre survey invitation letter was sent via e-mail to

all of the selected participants to briefly explain the importance of this study. The first e-

mail follow-up was sent exactly a week later from the first mailing to thank those who

have already completed and returned their questionnaires and remind those who had not

yet done so. The second e-mail follow-up was sent to nonrespondents exactly 3 weeks

after the original mailing. The e-mail informed the participants that their questionnaires

had not yet been received, and restated the significance of the study from the original

cover letter. In addition, replacement packets with questionnaires, completion postcards,

and stamped returned envelopes were sent to subjects who did not received the first

mailing.

The final e-mail follow-up was sent to nonrespondents in 5 weeks after the

original mailing to inform them the deadline for completing the questionnaires. These

procedures followed the steps of Dillman's (1978) Total Design Method (TDM) for

implementing mail surveys, which is a preferred method for studying discreet and

sensitive topics in a confidential and anonymous manner (Fink, 1995).

Data Analysis

64

All of the data were entered into and analyzed by the Statistical Package for the

Social Science (SPSS) for Windows, version 11.0. Prior to statistical analyses, data

cleaning and handling of missing values were performed. Frequency distributions of all

the variables were checked for outliers, missing data, and typing errors. Normal

distributions of the dependent and independent variables were assessed.

Summary statistics, including the computation of means, ranges, standard

deviations, frequency counts, and percentages of all demographic and organizational

characteristic data, were performed according to data levels (nominal, ordinal, or

interval). The Chronbach's alpha coefficients ofintemal consistency reliability of the

Chinese MLQ-5X and the MSQ short form were evaluated. Mean scores and standard

deviations were computed for the levels of three subscales of the Chinese MSQ short

form and the total and nine subscales of the Chinese MLQ-5X in order to answer research

questions one, two, and three.

Hierarchical multiple regression of inferential statistics was used to answer

research question four in this study_ Hierarchical mUltiple regression was employed to

65

detennine how well job satisfaction levels were predicted by the leadership styles. The

data were evaluated to identify if statistical assumptions are met. For example, the

assumption of multicollinearity was examined to identify if the interrelatedness of the

independent variables exists (Munro, 2001). Dummy coding of the organizational

characteristics and demographic variables was perfonned when necessary. An alpha level

of confidence was set at .05 for statistic tests. In tenns of research questions, descriptions

of the proposed statistics used in this study are the following.

For research questions one, two, and three (see Table 4), the researcher employed

descriptive analyses, including the computation of means, ranges, and standard

deviations, to examine the leadership styles of nursing deans and directors as perceived

by nursing faculty and the levels of nursing faculty job satisfaction, as well as the

perceived leadership styles of nursing deans and directors based on the differences

between each school's organizational characteristic variables. The results represented

item's means and standard deviations of the nine subscales and the total scale of the

Chinese MLQ-5X and each subscale's and total scale's means and standard deviations of

the Chinese MSQ short fonn.

For research question four, hierarchical multiple regression was used to partial out

the effects of the organizational characteristics and the demographic variables to examine

which leadership styles of nursing deans and directors, as perceived by faculty, correlated

to nursing faculty job satisfaction levels (see Table 4). Variables of the demographic data,

including marital status, academic rank, current salary, current contract, and highest

education level, were collapsed into dichotomous variables.

Table 4

A List of Main Research Questions

Research question

Rl: What are the leadership styles (transfonnational, transactional, and laissez­faire) of nursing deans and directors as perceived by nursing faculty in Taiwan?

R2: What is the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan?

R3: What are the perceived leadership styles (transfonnati onal, transactional, and laissez­faire) of nursing deans and directors based on each school's organizational characteristics (school control, school size, type of nursing programs offered, the number of full-time faculty in nursing programs)?

R4: While controlling for the organizational characteristics and demographic data, to what extent do the leadership styles of nursing deans and directors, as perceived by nursing faculty, predict nursing faculty job satisfaction levels?

Dependent & independent variables

DV: Nursing faculty job satisfaction levels

IV: Organizational characteristics (jour variables): Control, size, type of nursing programs offered, the number of full­time faculty in nursing programs

66

Analytic method

~eans,ranges,and

standard deviations of summary statistic analysis.

~eans,ranges,and

standard deviations of summary statistic analysis.

~eans,ranges,and

standard deviations of summary statistic analysis.

T -tests, one-way ANOV As, bivariate correlations were used to select significant variables prepared for the analysis of hierarchical multiple regression; hierarchical multiple regression.

Table 4 Continued

Research question Dependent & independent

variables

Demographic data (nine variables): Age, marital status, gender, highest educational preparation to date, academic rank, the number of years employed at this school, the number of years deans or directors employed in their current positions, current salary, and current contract tenn.

Leadership styles (nine subs cales ) : Five subscales of transfonnational (idealized infl uencel attributed, idealized infl uencelbehavi or, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration), three subscales of transactional (contingent reward, active management-by-exception, passive management-by­exception), and one laissez­faire scale of leadership styles.

67

Analytic method

68

Three blocks of independent variables, including demographic data,

organizational characteristics of schools, and the nine subscales of the Chinese MLQ-5X,

were entered as groups into the regression model. The dependent variable was the

composite items' scores of the Chinese MSQ short form. The purpose for using

hierarchical multiple regression was to force the group of variables to enter into the

regression equation. By partialling out the effects of the organizational characteristics and

demographic data, the researcher could then determine how well the nine subscales of the

Chinese MLQ-5X predicted faculty job satisfaction levels over and above the other two

sets.

However, for the purpose of identifying which demographic and organizational

characteristic variables and the nine subscales of the Chinese MLQ-5X showed

significant relationships with the levels of faculty job satisfaction, t-tests, one-way

ANOV As, and bivariate correlations were computed prior to entering these three groups

into the regression model. The benefit of this step was to decrease the possibility of

making a type I error due to an increased number of predictors (Munro, 2001). More

importantly, variables should not to be "dumped" into an analysis (Nunnally & Bernstein,

1994). J. Cohen and P. Cohen (1983) proposed that when controlling for confounding

variables, researchers should give careful consideration to their presumed causal priority

and include only those variables that logically precede the predictors of interest. Through

this procedure, significant variables of demographic data, organizational characteristics,

and the nine subscales of the Chinese MLQ-5X were separately selected as groups

prepared for computing hierarchical mUltiple regression.

69

Sample Size Determination and Power

The statistical power analysis was computed in order to calculate the necessary

sample size for adequate power and a low error probability in statistical analyses. Power

estimation has not been computed for the descriptive statistics because they are typically

done with descriptive analyses. For research question four, Cohen's (1987) formula for

multiple regression to determine sample size was used (Munro, 2001). The formula is:

N [L(I-R2)/R2] +U+ 1,

Where N = total sample size; L = effect size index;

R2 effect size; U = the number of independent variables.

For the 22 independent variables (U) in this study, the value ofL was 21.74,

obtained from a table defined by Cohen (1987) as a function of power and nunlber of

independent variables at a given level of alpha. Given a medium effect size as an R2 of

.13 and L 21.74, the sample size was to be 169 if using the above formula to reach 80%

power at the. 05 level of alpha.

As estimated by power analysis, 169 subjects were required for this study to have

adequate power and a low error probability in statistical analyses. It was computed that

the study should be able to reach 450/0 response rate by nlailing 400 questionnaire

packets, which would return a total of 180 questionnaires packets. Due to the concern for

possible missing data (set at 10010), the nUlnber of usable questionnaires was set to 162

(180 * .9 = 162), close to the number of 169 estimated through power analysis (see Table

5).

Table 5

The Number of Estimated Subjects Needed for this Study

Response rate (%t

45

50

No. of returned questionnaires

180

200

No. of 10% missing data

18

20

a for mailing 400 questionnaire packets.

Protection of Human Subjects

No. of usable questi onnaires

162

180

The entire research project received approval from The University of Utah

70

Institutional Review Board (IRB) before conducting data collection. A packet including a

cover letter, questionnaires, a completion postcard, and a stamped return envelope was

mailed directly to the participants at the school address. The only place where the name

of the faculty appeared was on the completion postcard.

The researcher took every precaution possible to protect the anonymity and

privacy of the individuals. A cover letter in the packet explained the purpose of the study,

the risks and the benefits, and the voluntary nature of participation. The researcher

ensured that each subject was fully aware of the objective of the study and that each

subject voluntarily participated in this study. Questionnaires were answered anonymously

and kept confidential in reporting the results of the study by removing identifying

information from the materials, including school names, addresses, and telephone

numbers. Only the researcher has knowledge of the school's identity.

All completed questionnaires and completion postcards were separately mailed to

the researcher without any way to identify the faculty member. To protect confidentiality,

all data were numerically coded and accessible only by the researcher. All computerized

71

data were password protected; any communication across the study used participants' and

institutions' code numbers, not names. No vulnerable groups such as children and

adolescents were included. Both male and female faculty members listed on the 18

schools' Websites were invited to participate in this study.

Each faculty member was able to choose hislher own convenient setting to

complete the survey, and the amount of response time was flexible in order to

accommodate any possible emotional barriers of fear or uncertainty. All participants were

informed that by participating in this study, the infonnation they provided would help the

researcher contribute to a better understanding of the leadership style in Taiwan's nursing

field, and to continue examining the need of leadership education programs for nursing

leaders.

Summary

This was a descriptive and correlational study conducted by using self­

administered questionnaires at one point in time. A random sample of 400 nursing faculty

members from 18 schools was recruited to participate in this study. Questionnaires

consisting of the Chinese versions of the MLQ-5X and the MSQ short from and

demographic data section were mailed directly to randomly selected faculty members at

their school address. Dillman's (1978) TDM for mail surveys was used to help increase

the response rate.

The Chinese versions of the MLQ-5X and the MSQ short fonn were used to

measure the leadership styles of nursing deans and directors as perceived by faculty and

the level of faculty job satisfaction, respectively. The variables of demographic data and

organizational characteristics were selected by the researcher to suit the background of

72

Taiwan's nursing education setting. The organizational characteristics data were collected

from each school's Website and the Internet database of Taiwan's Ministry of Education.

The time for answering the questionnaires was approximately 30 minutes.

All data were entered into SPSS 11.0 for Windows software for analyses.

Descriptive statistics and measures of central tendency for all demographic and

organizational characteristic variables, and internal consistency reliability coefficients

and means and standard deviations for the two study instruments were computed where

appropriate. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to analyze the influence of the

nursing deans' and directors' leadership styles on nursing faculty job satisfaction levels.

Alpha was set at .05 level of confidence. The study needed a minimum sample size of

169 subjects to achieve 800/0 power and a medium effect size (.13) at alpha .05.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Chapter 4 provides the results of data analysis and findings of the study_ The

reliability of the Chinese Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Fonn 5X (MLQ-5X) and

the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) short form, the demographic data of the

sample, and the schools' organizational characteristics are described in this part. This

chapter also presents the findings in the order of their corresponding research questions.

Between September 07, 2003 and October 20, 2003 for data collection, a total of

400 questionnaires were mailed to the selected participants and 286 questionnaires were

returned (see Appendix C). Eight packets of questionnaires that were undelivered or

involved subjects that had moved or were studying abroad did not meet the eligibility

requirements, and were eliminated from data collection. Therefore, 286 of the 392

potential participants represented a 72.96 % response rate in this study (see Appendix C).

However,3 subjects did not answer more than 20 items in the Chinese MLQ-5X

questionnaire, and 18 subjects evaluated the new deans whose length of time in their

positions was only 3 months. The data of these 21 subjects were eliminated prior to data

analysis. Thus, 265 (286-21 = 265) and 286 of the usable questionnaires of the Chinese

MLQ-5X and the Chinese MSQ short form were prepared for statistic analyses,

respectively.

Reliability of the Instrument

The Chinese Version of the MLQ-5X

74

The Chinese version of the MLQ-5X is a 36-item questionnaire with a 5-point

Likert scale ranging from 0 not at all to 4 = frequently, ifnot always. This instrument

consists of nine subscales used to measure the leadership styles of nursing deans and

directors as perceived by the nursing faculty in this study. The Chronbach's alphas of the

nine subscales and the total scale ranged from .64 to .88 (see Table 6). Only the

coefficient alpha (.64) of the active management-by-exception subscale was less than .70.

To understand the instrument consistently used in a different culture, the results

were compared to the norm reliability obtained from nine samples (n = 2,154) in a variety

of occupational areas reported in the Bass and Avolio's (2000) manual. All of the

coefficient alphas in this study were less than the norm data ranging from .74 to .91 for

the nine subscales (see Table 6) and the Shieh et al. (2001) study, .71 to .94.

The Chinese Version of the MSQ Short Form

The Chinese version of the MSQ short form is a 20-item questionnaire with a 5-

point Likert scale ranging from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied. This instrument

was used to measure the faculty job satisfaction levels in this study. The Chronbach' s

alphas of the instrument were .91 for the general satisfaction scale, .88 for the intrinsic

satisfaction subscale, and .80 for the extrinsic satisfaction subscale (see Table 7).

Compared to the norm data obtained from 1,723 individuals in a variety of occupational

areas reported in the manual of Weiss et al. (1967), the coefficients in this study were

slightly greater than those of the norm reliabilities, which ranged from .80 to .90. In this

study, the Chronbach's alpha coefficients of reliability all exceeded .75.

75

Table 6

Summary of Coefficient Alphas of Reliability for the MLQ-5X

Norm

Total/Subscale N Items Alpha alphaa

Total scale 200 36 .88

Transformational leadership Idealized influence: Behavior 259 4 (No.6, 14,23, 34) .72 .87

Idealized influence: Attributed 256 4 (No. 10, 18,21,25) .75 .86

Inspirational motivation 259 4 (No.9, 13,26, 36) .82 .91

Intellectual stimulation 245 4 (No.2, 8, 30, 32) .72 .90

Indi vidualized consideration 255 4 (No. 15, 19,29,31) .81 .90

Transactional leadership Contingent reward 257 4 (No. 1, 11, 16,35) .76 .87

Management by exception: Passive 255 4 (No.3, 12, 17, 20) .70 .82

Management by exception: Active 256 4 (No.4, 22, 24, 27) .64 .74

Laissez F aire 252 4 (No.5, 7,28, 33) .76 .83

a Norm data were obtained from nine samples (n = 2,154) in a variety of occupational

areas reported in the manual of Bass and Avolio (2000).

76

Table 7

Summary of Coefficient Alphas of Reliability for the MSQ Short Form

TotaVSubscale N Items Alpha Nonn alphaa

General satisfaction 273 20 .91 .90

Intrinsic satisfaction 277 12 (No.1, 2, 3, 4,7,8,9,10,11, .88 .86 15, 16,20)

Extrinsic satisfaction 283 6 (No.5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 19) .80 .80

a Nonn data were obtained from 1,723 individuals in a variety of occupational areas

reported in the manual of Weiss et al. (1967).

Demographic Characteristics of Samples

The demographic characteristics of the 286 respondents consisting of268 females

and 18 males are shown in Table 8. The majority (63.30/0) of the participants ranged

between 31 to 40 years of age. Approximately 73.70/0 of the participants were married

and 85.7% had earned master's degrees. Only 1.40/0 of the participants held professor

positions, while 87.80/0 held instructor positions. About 54.30/0 of the participants reported

that their monthly salary ranged from NT $46,000 to NT $60,000 (U. S. $1.00 = NT

$34.5). Additionally, 44.00/0 and 45.40/0 of the participants held I-year and 2-year contract

tenns for their current teaching positions, respectively.

Regarding the length of time for those in deans' or directors' positions (see Table

9), an average of27.55 months (SD = 17.83) was reported. About 33.30/0 of the 18 deans

and directors have served their current schools between 14 and 24 months. In addition,

the participants have taught in their areas anywhere from 3 to 385 months (:::::: 32 years),

with an average of 104.19 months (:::::: 9 years, SD = 80.24).

77

Table 8

Demographic Characteristics of Samples (N = 286)

Demographic variable 11 010

Gender Male 18 6.3 Female 268 93.7

Age (yrs) 21-30 10 3.5 31-40 181 63.3 41-50 76 26.6 2:: 51 19 6.6

Mari tal statusa

Married 210 73.7 Non-married 74 26.0 Divorced 1 .3

Education level Bachelors 11 3.8 Masters 245 85.7 Doctorate 30 10.5

Primary job position Instructor 251 87.8 Assistant professor 10 3.5 Associate professor 21 7.3 Professor 4 1.4

Monthly salarya (U.S. $1.00 NT $34.5) NT $ 30,000-45,000 3 1.1 NT $ 46,000-60,000 155 54.3 NT $ 61,000-75,000 92 32.3 > NT $ 75,001 35 12.3

Current contract term a 1 year 125 44.0 2 years 129 45.4 3-5 years 9 3.2 > 5 years 21 7.4

a Variable had incomplete data.

78

Table 9

Summary of the Length of Time in Dean and Faculty Positions

Length of time in position (Months) n 0/0 Min. Max. M SD

Facultya 3-48 77 27.7 49-96 79 28.4 97-144 57 20.5 145-385 65 23.4

Total 278 100.0 3.00 385.00 104.19 80.24

Dean and directorb

12 4 22.2 14-24 6 33.3 36-48 4 22.2 49-72 4 22.2

Total 18 100.0 3.00 72.00 27.55 17.83

a 8 faculty members did not answer this question. b 18 faculty members reported that

their deans have served in dean's position for 3 months. Therefore, their data from the

Chinese MLQ-5X were eliminated prior to data analysis.

In the demographic data section, an open-ended question asked the participants to

briefly state any reward, recognition, or promotion that they have received from their

current schools. The majority (61.90/0) of the participants did not answer this question.

The researcher could not identify whether the participants forgot or refused to answer this

question. Due to the insufficient information, only the summary of the amount of those

who either have rewards or do not is provided in Table 10.

Organizational Characteristics of Schools

A summary of organizational characteristics of nursing schools compiled from 18

schools is shown in Table 11. Three public and 15 private schools participated in this

79

Table 10

Summary of Faculty Reward, Recognition, and Promotion Accrued from their Current School (N 286)

Variable

Reward, recognition, and promotion

None

Did not answer

Total

Table 11

n

79 27.6

30 10.5

177 61.9

286 100.0

Summary of School Organizational Characteristics Accrued from 18 Schools

Variable n 0/0 Min. Max. M

School size (No. of students) Small (420-1991) 9 50.0 Medium (2188-2640) 3 16.7 Large (3668-6924) 6 33.3 Total 18 100.0 420.00 6924.00 2686.24

Faculty size (No. of faculty) Small (24-48) 11 61.1 Medium (52-79) 4 22.2 Large (118-215) 3 16.7 Total 18 100.0 24.00 215.00 72.16

Control Public 3 16.7 Private 15 83.3 Total 18 100.0

Nursing program offered Diploma 7 38.9 Bachelors 11 61.1 Total 18 100.0

SD

2091.73

62.35

80

study. These schools collectively represented 45,687 nursing students and 1,158 full-time

nursing faculty members. As seen in Table 11, an average school size, namely of nursing

students enrolled in this school, is 2,687 (SD = 2,092) with a range of 420 to 6,924.

About 500/0 of the 18 schools were small in size with numbers of nursing students ranging

from 420 to 1991. Similarly, 61.1% of the 18 schools possessed a small number of

faculty members with a range of 24 to 48. The average faculty size was 73 (SD = 63),

ranging from 24 to 215. In addition, 7 junior nursing colleges (38.90/0) award diplomas to

students, and 11 universities and institutes of technology (61.10/0) award degrees of

Bachelor of Science in Nursing to students.

Findings

The findings for each research question are presented in the following.

Research Question One

What are the leadership styles (transformational, transactional, or laissez-faire) of

nursing deans and directors as perceived by nursing faculty in Taiwan?

Table 12 outlines the mean scores, standard deviations, and ranges of each of the

nine subscales and the total scale of the Chinese MLQ-5X instrument. The mean of the

total scale was 66.60 (SD 16.95) with a range of 11.00 to 114.00 and the item mean

scores of the nine subscales ranged from lAO (SD = .85) to 2.24 (SD .85). The results

indicated that the faculty perceived higher item mean scores in the leadership styles of

inspirational motivation (M = 2.24, SD = .85) and idealized behavioral influence (M =

2.18, SD = .78) of nursing deans and directors. On the other hand, the passive

management-by-exception (M= 1.44, SD = .81) and laissez-faire (M= lAO, SD = .85)

81

Table 12

Summary of the Total and Subscales' Scores of the MLQ-5X (N= 265)

Nonna One sample

Scale & subscale Min. Max. M SD M SD t test t

Total scale 11.00 114.00 66.60 16.95

Transformational Idealized influence: 0.00 4.00 2.18 .78 2.64 .85 - 9.56**

Behavior

Idealized influence: 0.00 4.00 1.96 .86 2.56 .84 -11.32** Attributed

Inspirati onal 0.00 4.00 2.24 .85 2.64 .87 -7.71** motivation

Intellectual 0.00 4.00 1.96 .78 2.51 .86 -11.63** stimulation

Individualized 0.00 4.00 1.69 .88 2.66 .93 -18.05** considerati on

Transactional Contingent reward 0.00 4.00 1.87 .80 2.20 .89 -6.65 **

Management by 0.00 4.00 1.44 .81 1.11 .82 6.67** exception: Passive

Management by 0.00 4.00 1.92 .71 1.75 .77 3.89** exception: Active

Laissez Faire 0.00 4.00 1.40 .85 .89 .74 9.82**

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 not at all, to 4 = frequently, if not always.

a Norm data were obtained from nine samples (n 2,154) in a variety of occupational

areas reported in the Bass and Avolio's (2000) manual.

** p < .01.

82

represented lower item mean scores in the leadership style of nursing deans and directors,

as perceived by nursing faculty.

In order to understand whether the difference in cultures results in different

perceptions of leadership styles, a series of one sample t-tests were conducted to compare

with Bass and Avolio's (2000) norm data (see Table 12). All subscales' mean scores (M

= 1.69 ± .88 to M = 2.24 ± .85) of the transformational leadership style items in this study

were significantly lower (t -7.71 to t -18.05,p < .01) than those of the norm data (M=

2.51 ± .86 to M = 2.66 ± .93). In addition, the means of the passive and active

management-by-exception leadership styles items and laissez-faire items were

significantly higher (t = 3.89 to t = 9.82,p < .01) than those of the norm data.

Significantly, this study and the norm data both had the similar results that the mean

scores of the transformational leadership items were higher than those of the transactional

leadership items and laissez-faire items.

For understanding what leadership styles that nursing deans and directors

frequently performed in their positions, an average of each item was ranked shown in

Table 13 and 14. Item 34, "The importance of having a collective sense of mission" (M

2.50, SD = 1.00) of the idealized behavioral influence subscale showed the highest

average frequency of leadership style in nursing deans' and directors' performance (see

Table 13). On the other hand, Item 17, "A firm believer in 'ifit ain't broke, don't fix it'"

(M 1.07, SD = 1.09) of the passive management-by-exception subscale had the lowest

average frequency of leadership style performed by nursing deans and directors (see

Table 14).

Table 13

Summary of the Three Highest Average Frequency of Leadership Style in the MLQ-5X

Item/Description Rank M SD

Idealized influence: Behavior Item 34: The importance of having a 1 2.50 1.00

collective sense of mission.

Inspirational motivation Item 36: Expresses confidence that 2 2.47 .99

goals will be achieved.

Intellectual stimulation Item 25: A sense of power and 3 2.35 1.14

confidence

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 = not at all, to 4 = frequently, ifnot always.

Table 14

Summary of the Three Least Average Frequency of Leadership Style in the MLQ-5X

ItemlDescription

Management by exception: Passive Item 17: A firm believer in "if it ain't

broke, don't fix it."

Laissez Faire Item 33: Delays responding to

urgent questions

Item 5 : Avoids getting involved when important issues arise

Rank

1

2

3

M SD

1.07 1.09

1.27 1.10

1.31 1.18

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 not at all, to 4 = frequently, if not always.

83

84

Research Question Two

What is the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan?

The results of nursing faculty job satisfaction levels are presented in Table 15.

The mean scores of the Chinese MSQ short form were 69.37 (SD = 10.02) for general

satisfaction scale, 43.57 (SD = 6.40) for intrinsic satisfaction subscale, and 18.79 (SD =

3.93) for extrinsic satisfaction subscale. According to the manual of Weiss et al. (1967),

percentile scores of 25 or lower indicate low satisfaction, percentile scores between 26

and 74 display moderate satisfaction, and percentile scores of75 or higher represent high

satisfaction in the subject's job. Based on this definition, the nursing faculty job

satisfaction in this study represented a moderate satisfaction level.

Table 15

Summary of the Total and Subscales ' Scores of the MSQ Short Form (N 286)

Scale & Norma One sample t- test sub scale Min. Max. M SD M SD t P

General 32.00 92.00 69.37 10.02 74.85 11.92 - 9.25 .00 satisfacti on

Intrinsic 22.00 57.00 43.57 6.40 47.14 7.42 -9.43 .00 satisfaction

Extrinsic 6.00 28.00 18.79 3.93 19.88 4.78 - 4.71 .00 satisfaction

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied.

a Norm data were obtained from 1,723 individuals in a variety of occupational areas

reported in the manual of Weiss et al. (1967).

85

In order to understand the differences in job satisfaction levels between this study

and the norm data of Weiss et aL (1967), a series of one sample t-tests were computed.

The results indicated that the mean scores of general, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfaction

subscales were significantly lower than those of the norm data (see Table 15). In addition,

Table 16 and 17 show the highest and lowest item mean scores of nursing faculty job

satisfaction levels. These analyses helped the researcher to more clead y understand in

which areas the nursing faculty are satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs. Item 7, "Doing

things that don't go against my conscience" (M = 4.10, SD .84) and Item 9, "Chance to

do things for other people" (M = 4.00, SD = .68) represented the two items with the

highest item mean scores onjob satisfaction levels (see Table 16). However, Item 1,

"Able to keep busy all the time" (M = 2.91, SD .99) showed the lowest item mean score

on nursing faculty job satisfaction levels (see Table 17).

Table 16

Summary of the Five Items with Highest Mean Scores on Job Satisfaction in the MSQ Short Form

Item/Description Rank M SD

Intrinsic satisfaction Item 7: Do things that don't go against my conscience

1 4.10 .84 Item 9: Chance to do things for other people

2 4.00 .68 Item 11: Do something that makes use of my abilities

3 3.86 .75 Item 18: My co-workers get along with each other

4 3.81 .67 Item 10: Chance to tell people what to do

5 3.79 .71

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied.

Item 18 does not belong to intrinsic or extrinsic satisfaction subscales.

Table 17

Summary of the Three Items with Lowest Mean Scores on Job Satisfaction in the MSQ Short Form

Item/Description

Intrinsic satisfaction

Item 1: Able to keep busy all the time

Extrinsic satisfaction

Item 14: Chances for advancement on this job

Item 12: The way company policies are put into practice

Rank

1

2

3

M SD

2.91 .99

2.94 .86

2.94 .92

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied.

Research Question Three

What are the perceived leadership styles (transformational, transactional, and

laissez-faire) of nursing deans and directors based on each school's organizational

86

characteristics (e.g., school control, school size, type of nursing programs offered, and the

number of full-time faculty in nursing programs)?

The findings of the perceived leadership styles of nursing deans and directors

based on the differences between each school's organizational characteristic variables are

shown in Table 18, 19,20, and 21. All organizational characteristics including school

control, school size, type of nursing programs offered, and the number of full-time

faculty in nursing programs had a similar result; that is, the mean score of the

transformational leadership items was greater than that of the transactional leadership and

laissez-faire.

87

Table 18

Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on School Control (N =18)

VariablelMLQ-5X total & subscale Min. Max. M SD

Control Public (n = 3)

Total scale 11.00 110.00 67.72 19.23

Transformational leaders hip .30 3.45 2.11 .75 Idealized influence: Behavior .50 3.75 2.38 .80 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 3.75 2.03 .86 Inspirational motivation .25 4.00 2.34 .84 Intellectual stimulation 0.00 3.50 1.96 .81 Individualized consideration 0.00 4.00 1.85 1.03

Transactional leadership .42 2.83 1.70 .53 Contingent reward .25 3.25 1.89 .79 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.28 .95 Management by exception: Active 0.00 3.50 1.92 .83 Laissez F a ire 0.00 2.75 1.27 .88

Private (n 15) Total scale 20.00 114.00 66.36 16.46

Transformational leadership .20 4.00 1.98 .71 Idealized influence: Behavior 0.00 4.00 2.14 .77 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 4.00 1.95 .86 Inspirational motivation 0.00 4.00 2.21 .85 Intellectual stimulation 0.00 4.00 1.96 .77 Individualized consideration 0.00 4.00 1.65 .84

Transactional leadership .67 2.83 1.75 .41 Contingent reward 0.00 4.00 1.85 .79 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.48 .78 Management by exception: Active .50 4.00 1.92 .69 Laissez Faire 0.00 4.00 1.43 .84

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 = not at all, to 4 = frequently, if not always.

88

Table 19

Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on School Size (N = 18)

Variable/MLQ-5X total and subscale Min. Max. M SD

School size Small (n = 9)

Total scale 11.00 114.00 68.10 17.05

Transformational leaders hip .20 4.00 2.11 .73 Idealized influence: Behavior .50 4.00 2.30 .77 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 4.00 2.04 .87 Inspirational motivation 0.00 4.00 2.45 .88 Intellectual stimulation 0.00 4.00 2.00 .79 Individualized consideration 0.00 4.00 1.74 .90

Transactional leadership .42 2.83 1.74 .44 Contingent reward 0.00 4.00 1.93 .80 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.37 .81 Management by exception: Active 0.00 3.50 1.92 .70 Laissez Faire 0.00 3.50 1.28 .82

Medium (n 3) Total scale 25.00 108.00 63.85 19.23

Transformational leadership .20 3.15 1.84 .75 Idealized influence: Behavior 0.00 3.75 2.01 .81 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 3.75 1.84 .97 Inspirational motivation 0.00 3.25 1.98 .73 Intellectual stimulation 0.00 3.25 1.71 .80 Individualized consideration 0.00 3.25 1.64 .95

Transactional leadership .67 2.83 1.75 .52 Contingent reward 0.00 3.25 1.67 .84 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.52 .90 Management by exception: Active .75 3.50 2.05 .85 Laissez Faire 0.00 4.00 1.55 .94

89

Table 19 Continued

VariablelMLQ-5X total and subscales Min. Max. M SD

Large (n 6) Total scale 20.00 104.00 65.60 15.67

Transformational leadership .45 3.60 1.93 .68 Idealized influence: Behavior .50 4.00 2.10 .74 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 4.00 1.89 .80 Inspirational motivation 0.00 3.75 2.03 .78 Intellectual stimulation .25 3.50 2.00 .73 Individualized consideration .25 4.00 1.64 .80

Transactional leadership .75 2.75 1.74 .39 Contingent reward .50 3.75 1.85 .76 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 3.50 1.52 .77 Management by exception: Active .50 4.00 1.87 .67 Laissez Faire 0.00 3.75 1.51 .83

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 = not at all, to 4 = frequently, if not always.

90

Table 20

Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on Nursing Program (N = 18)

Variable/MLQ-5X total and subscale Min. Max. M SD

Nursing Program Diploma (n = 7)

Total scale 11.00 110.00 64.35 17.32

Transformational leadership .20 3.45 1.90 .69 Idealized influence: Behavior 0.00 3.75 2.05 .73 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 3.75 1.83 .80 Inspirational motivation 0.00 4.00 2.04 .70 Intellectual stimulation 0.00 3.50 1.87 .76 Indi vi dualized consideration 0.00 3.75 1.69 .84

Transactional leadership .42 2.83 1.75 .47 Contingent reward 0.00 3.25 1.84 .78 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.42 .80 Management by exception: Active .50 3.50 1.97 .77 Laissez Faire 0.00 4.00 1.37 .83

Bachelors (n = 11) Total scale 20.00 114.00 68.30 16.41

Transformational leadership .20 4.00 2.08 .72 Idealized influence: Behavior .50 4.00 2.28 .78 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 4.00 2.05 .89 Inspirational motivation 0.00 4.00 2.36 .90 Intellectual stimulation .25 4.00 2.03 .77 Individualized consideration 0.00 4.00 1.70 .88

Transactional leadership .75 2.83 1.75 .41 Contingent reward 0.00 4.00 1.89 .79 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.46 .81 Management by exception: Active 0.00 4.00 1.90 .66 Laissez Faire 0.00 3.75 1.42 .85

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 = not at all, to 4 = frequently, ifnot always.

91

Table 21

Summary of the Total and Subscales of the MLQ-5X Based on Faculty Size (N 18)

Variable/MLQ-5X total and subscales Min. Max. M SD

F acuIty size Small (n 11 )

Total scale 11.00 114.00 68.02 17.53

Transformational leadership .20 4.00 2.08 .73 Idealized influence: Behavior 0.00 4.00 2.26 .77 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 4.00 2.05 .89 Inspirational motivation 0.00 4.00 2.36 .87 Intellectual stimulation 0.00 4.00 1.96 .80 Individualized consideration 0.00 4.00 1.76 .90

Transactional leadership .42 2.83 1.76 .46 Contingent reward 0.00 4.00 1.92 .80 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 4.00 1.39 .85 Management by exception: Active 0.00 3.50 1.97 .74 Laissez Faire 0.00 4.00 1.33 .87

Medium (n 4) Total scale 32.00 104.00 67.14 16.10

Transformational leadership .40 3.60 2.00 .73 Idealized influence: Behavior .75 4.00 2.18 .86 Idealized influence: Attributed .25 4.00 1.88 .82 Inspirational motivation .25 3.75 2.26 .83 Intellectual stimulation .25 3.50 2.04 .75 Individualized consideration 0.00 3.75 1.63 .85

Transactional leadership .92 2.75 1.73 .41 Contingent reward .50 3.75 1.81 .79 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 3.50 1.53 .80 Management by exception: Active .75 4.00 1.86 .68 Laissez F a ire 0.00 3.75 1.62 .87

92

Table 21 Continued

Variable/MLQ-5X total and subscales Min. Max. M SD

Large (n = 3) Total scale 20.00 94.00 61.89 15.34

Transformational leadership .45 3.25 1.80 .64 Idealized influence: Behavior .50 3.50 1.96 .67 Idealized influence: Attributed 0.00 3.25 1.77 .77 Inspirational motivation 0.00 3.25 1.84 .69 Intellectual stimulation .25 3.50 1.88 .73 Individualized consideration .25 4.00 1.53 .80

Transactional leadership .75 2.42 1.70 .37 Contingent reward .50 3.25 1.72 .76 Management by exception: Passive 0.00 3.25 1.53 .70 Management by exception: Active .50 3.50 1.85 .65 Laissez F aire 0.00 3.25 1.40 .73

Note. A 5-point Likert scale ranged from 0 not at all, to 4 = frequently, if not always.

93

School control. For the variable of school control (see Table 18), the total items'

mean score of the Chinese MLQ-SX in public schools (M= 67.72, SD = 19.23) was

greater than that (M = 66.36, SD = 16.46) in private schools. Moreover, the mean (M

2.11, SD .7S) of the transformational leadership items in public schools was greater

than that (M = 1.98, SD = .71) in private schools.

School size. As seen in Table 19, the schools with a small number of enrolled

students had the greater total items' mean score (M = 68.10, SD = 17.0S) of the Chinese

MLQ-SX, compared to the score in schools with a medium (M 63.85, SD = 19.23) and

a large (M 6S.60, SD lS.67) sizes. The results also indicated that the mean score (M =

2.11, SD .73) of the transformational leadership items in small schools was greater than

those item means in medium (M = 1.84, SD = .75) and large schools (M = 1.93, SD =

.68).

Nursing programs offered. Regarding the variable of nursing programs offered

(see Table 20), the total items' mean score of the Chinese MLQ-5X in schools awarding

bachelor's degrees (M= 68.30, SD 16.41) was greater than that in schools awarding

diplomas (M = 64.35, SD 17.32). Also, the mean score (M = 2.08, SD = .72) of the

transformational leadership items in schools awarding bachelor's degrees was greater

than that (M = 1.90, SD = .69) in schools awarding diplomas.

Faculty size. As seen in Table 21, the findings demonstrated that schools with

small faculty size had a greater score in the total items' mean (M = 68.02, SD = 17.S3) of

the Chinese MLQ-SX than that score in schools with medium (M 67.14, SD 16.10)

and large faculty size (M 61.89, SD lS.34). In addition, the mean score (M= 2.08, SD

= .73) of the transformational leadership items in schools with small faculty size was

94

greater than that in schools with medium (M = 2.00, SD = .73) and large faculty size (M =

1.80, SD = .64).

Research Question Four

While controlling for the organizational characteristics and demographic data, to

what extent do the leadership styles of nursing deans and directors, as perceived by

nursing faculty, predict nursing faculty job satisfaction levels?

Hierarchical multiple regression was used for research question four. T -tests, one­

way ANOV As, and bivariate correlations were computed prior to entering the three

groups of demographic and organizational characteristic variables and the nine subscales

of the Chinese MLQ-5X. The purpose of this step was to select significant variables to

enter the regression model because of the benefit of decreasing the possibility of making

a type I error. As seen in Table 22, there were no differences in nursing faculty job

satisfaction levels between males and females (t -.43, p > .05), public and private

schools (t = .15,p > .05), or diploma's and bachelor's nursing programs (t = -1.73,p >

.05). The results obtained from using the nonparametric Mann-Whitney test also

supported these findings (see Table 22).

In addition, one-way ANOVAs were used to examine the differences in nursing

faculty job satisfaction levels according to the variables of age, marital status, educational

level, primary job position, monthly salary, current contract term, school size, faculty

size, and length of time in faculty and dean's positions (see Table 23). Prior to the

computation of one-way ANOV As, the variables of school size, faculty size, and length

of time in faculty and dean's positions were collapsed into nominal variables. For the

variables of age, F (3, 282) = 7.18, p < .01; marital status, F (2, 282) = 4.82, p < .01;

95

Table 22

Analysis of the Relationships between the Job Satisfaction and Study Variables (N = 286)

Variable t-test Mann-Whitney test

M SD t P Z P

Gender Male 68.39 12.43 -.43 .67 -.12 .91 Female 69.43 9.88

Control Public 71.27 9.92 1.46 .15 -1.78 .08 Private 68.97 10.02

Nursing program Diploma 68.08 10.06 -1.73 .08 -1.63 .10 Bachelor's 70.18 9.94

primary job position, F (3,282) 3.11,p < .05; monthly salary, F (3,281) = 5.26,p <

.01; school size, F (2,283) 3.52,p < .05; and length of time in dean's position, F (3,

282) = 4.29,p < .01, there were significant differences in the means of nursing faculty

job satisfaction levels. These results were also supported by using the nonparametric

Kruskal-Wallis test (see Table 24).

The Pearson r correlation was computed to examine significant relationships between the

continuous variables of the nine subscales of the Chinese MLQ-5X instrument and

nursing faculty job satisfaction levels (see Table 25). The correlation coefficients were

significant for all of the nine subscales and nursing faculty job satisfaction levels. The

Spearman rho correlation of nonparametric tests was also used to support these findings

(see Table 25).

96

Table 23

Summary of ANOVAs for the Job Satisfaction and Study Variables

Source M SS d[ MS F

Age(N 286) 21-30 72.00 Between 2032.60 3 677.53 7.18** 31-40 68.18 Within 26607.86 282 94.35 41-50 69.49 Total 28640.45 285 ~ 51 78.84

Marital status (N = 285) Married 70.38 Between 945.70 2 472.85 4.82** Non-married 66.78 Within 27654.06 282 98.06 Divorced 54.00 Total 28599.77 284

Educational level (N = 286) Bachelors 71.36 Between 493.25 2 246.62 2.48 Masters 68.84 Within 28147.20 283 99.46 Doctorate 72.93 Total 28640.45 285

Job position (N = 286) Instructor 68.78 Between 916.15 3 305.38 3.11 *

Assistant professor 73.10 Within 27724.30 282 98.31 Associate professor 72.57 Total 28640.45 285 Professor 80.25

Monthly salary (N = 285) 5.26** NT $ 30,000-45,000 69.00 Between 1521.47 3 507.16

NT $ 46,000-60,000 67.51 Within 27118.58 281 96.51 NT $ 61,000-75,000 70.64 Total 28640.05 284 > NT $ 75,001 74.26

Current contract (N = 284) 1 year 67.86 Between 523.18 3 174.39 1.75 2 years 70.71 Within 27917.01 280 99.70 3-5 years 70.22 Total 28440.18 283 > 5 years 69.48

School size (N = 286) Small size 69.35 Between 694.56 2 347.28 3.52* Medium size 66.13 Within 27945.89 283 98.75 Large size 70.89 Total 28640.45 285

97

Table 23 Continued

Source M SS df MS F

Faculty size (N 286) Small size 69.07 Between 240.44 2 120.22 1.20 Medium size 71.29 Within 28400.01 283 100.35 Large size 68.59 Total 28640.45 285

Length 0 f time in faculty position (N 278) 3-48 Ms. 69.31 Between 590.87 3 196.96 2.01 49-96 Ms. 67.59 Within 26912.27 274 98.22 97-144 Ms. 70.25 Total 27503.14 277 145-385 Ms. 71.54

Length of time in dean's position (N 286)

12Ms. 69.74 Between 1248.87 3 416.29 4.29** 14-24 Ms. 67.05 Within 27391.58 282 97.13 36-48 Ms. 72.65 Total 28640.45 285 49-72 Ms. 70.40

* p<.05. ** P < .01.

Table 24

Summary of Kruskal-Wallis Tests for the Job Satisfaction and Study Variables

Source

Age (N= 286)

Marital status (N 285)

Educational level (N = 286)

Job position (N = 286)

Monthly salary (N 285)

Current contract (N = 284)

School size (N = 286)

Faculty size (N 286)

Length of time in faculty position (N = 278)

Length of time in dean's position (N = 286)

* ** p < .05. p < .01.

Kruskal-Wallis test

X2

20.74**

9.34**

5.01

9.37*

15.95**

5.79

6.86*

2.83

6.17

11.72**

98

99

Table 25

Correlations between the Job Satisfaction and the Nine Subscales of the MLQ-5X

Variable

Idealized influence: Behavior

Idealized influence: Attributed

Inspirational motivation

Intellectual stimulation

Individualized consideration

Contingent reward

Management by exception: Passive

Management by exception: Active

Laissez Faire

** p < .01, two-tailed.

Job satisfaction

Pearson r correlation

.395**

.441 **

.314**

.379**

.442**

-.290**

.204**

-.253**

Spearman rho correlation

.374**

.434**

.296**

.335**

.425**

.439**

-.276**

.196**

-.256**

After the computation of t-tests, one-way ANOV As, and bivariate correlations, 15

variables were found to be significantly associated with nursing faculty job satisfaction

levels. The age, marital status, primary job position, monthly salary, and length of time in

dean's position of denl0graphic variables, the school size of organizational characteristic

variables, and the nine subscales of leadership styles were individually grouped into three

sets prepared for conducting hierarchical multiple regression. The variables of age,

marital status, primary job position, monthly salary, length of time in dean's or director's

position, and the school size were collapsed into dichotomous levels. In order to choose

the appropriate method to use for hierarchical multiple regression, enter, stepwise, and

backward solutions were individually perfonned to find the predictors of leadership

styles for nursing faculty job satisfaction levels.

100

In the enter solution, 21.4% of the variation in nursing faculty job satisfaction

could by attributed to the combined predictors of all the nine subscales of the MLQ-5X.

However, the nine subscales did not account for significant portions of the variance (p >

.05). In the backward elimination, the nine subscales of the MLQ-5X were removed from

the regression modeL Only the variable of length of time in dean's position (j3 = .l62,p <

.05) significantly predicted the levels of nursing faculty job satisfaction. Through the

evaluation of these three methods, hierarchical multiple regression was undertaken using

the stepwise solution for research question four.

As shown in Table 26, after controlling for the demographic and organizational

characteristic sets, the leadership styles of contingent reward (j3 .228, P < .05) and

individualized consideration (j3 = .194, P < .05) significantly and positively predicted

nursing faculty job satisfaction levels, but the passive management-by-exception (j3 =­

.143,p < .05) leadership style significantly and negatively predicted nursing faculty job

satisfaction levels.

In other words, the findings indicated that those nursing deans and directors who

were perceived as having leadership styles providing contingent reward and

individualized consideration more frequently produced higher levels of nursing faculty

job satisfaction. However, nursing deans and directors who were perceived as displaying

passive management-by-exception leadership style more frequently ended up with lower

levels of nursing faculty job satisfaction. Approximately 21.2% of the variation in

nursing faculty job satisfaction levels could be attributed to the combined predictors of

101

Table 26

Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression for the Job Satisfaction (N = 255)

Standardized R square coefficient

Blocka Variable entered R2 change F fJ t

1 Length of time in .092 5.05** .122 2.12* dean's position

Marital status -.111 -2.03* Monthly salary .056 .90 Age .068 1.15 Primary job position .056 .94

2 School size .094 .002 4.30** .079 1.44

3 Contingent reward .275 .181 13.40** .228 2.52*

Passive management- .293 .017 12.72** -.143 -2.45* by-exception

Individualized .306 .014 12.03** .194 2.21 * consideration

a Stepwise solution was used.

* p<.05. ** p < .01.

contingent reward, passive management-by-exception, and individualized consideration

leadership styles (R2= .212, F= 12.03,p < .01).

To assure that hierarchical multiple regression was used appropriately, the

assumptions of multiple regression were examined (see Appendix L). No assumptions

were violated except the continuous variable of passive management-by-exception, which

was slightly positively skewed (Pearson's skewness coefficient = statistic skewness 1 Std.

error of skewness = .313/.150 = 2.09). Munro (2001) proposed that the Pearson's

skewness coefficient above + 1.96 or below -1.96 indicates a skewed distribution.

102

Summary

Chapter 4 has provided the findings of the four research questions in this study.

Taiwanese nursing deans and directors tend to display transformational leadership more

frequently than the transactional leadership and laissez-faire in their workplaces. Also,

Taiwanese nursing faculty members perceived moderate levels of satisfaction in their

jobs. Based on each school's organizational characteristics such as public schools, small

schools, schools awarding bachelor degrees, and small faculty size, Taiwanese nursing

deans and directors performed transformational leadership more frequently, as perceived

by their nursing faculty. The leadership styles of contingent reward, passive

management-by-exception, and individualized consideration of nursing deans and

directors are significant predictors of the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction in

Taiwan.

CHAPTERS

DISCUSSION

This descriptive study used self-administered questionnaires to answer four main

research questions. The objective of the study was to examine the relationship between

leadership styles of nursing deans and directors and the level of job satisfaction among

Taiwanese nursing faculty. Two hundred eighty-six sets of returned questionnaires were

collected in two months. In total, 2S6 usable questionnaires of the Chinese MLQ-SX and

286 of the Chinese MSQ short form were used for data analysis.

This chapter consists of five sections. The first section is a summary of the results

and discussion of the four research questions that guided the study. The second section

states limitations of the study, and a discussion of implications for nursing is proposed in

the third section. The fourth section contains recommendations for future research. The

final section presents the conclusions of the study.

Summary of Results and Discussion

Reliability of the Instruments

The reliability of an instrument is based on the consistency and stability of its

measurement (Singleton & Straits, 1999). For questions relating to the same topic within

a single test, questions should converge on the same conclusion about true scores,

demonstrating internal consistency (Strube, 2000). The coefficient alpha of internal

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consistency estimation should be .85 and rarely be as low as .60 based on a sample of300

or more subjects (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). However, it is difficult to specify a single

level that could apply in all situations. As a general rule, .80 or above for widely used

scales is acceptable (Carmines & Zeller, 1979), although, some researchers have declared

.70 as the cutoff for acceptable reliability due to a concern of sample size and the number

of questions (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000).

In this study, the coefficient alpha of the total scale of the Chinese MLQ-5X

instrument was .88, with a range of .64 to .82 for the nine subscales. Only the coefficient

alpha of the active management-by-exception subscale (Item 4, 22, 24, and 27) was

below .70. Weaker reliabilities of this subscale have been reported, \vith Cronbach's

alphas ranging from .60 to .68 (Den Hartog et aL, 1997; Stordeur, D'Hoore, &

Vandenberghe, 2001; Tejeda, Scandura, & Pillai, 2001). In Bass and Avolio's (2000)

norm data and the Shieh et al. (2001) study, the active management-by-exception

subscale also obtained the lowest coefficient alphas, .74 and. 71, respectively. Therefore,

consistent with prior research, the subscales of transformational, transactional, and

laissez-faire leadership styles demonstrated acceptable internal consistency reliabilities in

this study; although adding more items of comparable kind and quality to the active

management-by-exception subscale may help to increase its reliability for use in Taiwan.

For the Chinese MSQ short form instrument, the coefficient alphas of internal

consistency reliability were between .80 and .91 for the total and subscales in this study.

Moreover, the values of corrected item-total correlation for the 20-item MSQ short form

were all above .30. Compared to the .80 to .90 range of the norm data in the Weiss et aL

(1967) study, and the .84 to .93 range ofC. H. Lin's (2002) study, the reliability of the

Chinese MSQ short fonn was satisfactory in this study (Cannines & Zeller, 1979).

Demographic and Organizational Characteristics of Samples

105

In total, 18 out of 36 schools with nursing programs participated in this study; the

18 participant schools had 45,687 nursing students and 1,158 full-time nursing faculty

members. Two hundred eighty-six of the 400 randomly selected nursing faculty

participated in this study. Most of the participants were female (93.70/0), married (73.70/0),

and between 31 to 40 years of age (63.30/0). The majority (87.80/0) possessed master's

degrees; 87.80/0 were instructors. Of the 102 nursing faculty members who hold doctoral

degrees in the 18 schools, 30 out of the 55 selected participants (54.5%) response rate)

responded to the questionnaire. Due to a small participant number of doctorally prepared

faculty, the results of this study may not fully represent the perceptions of nursing faculty

who possess doctoral degrees.

In addition, most participants held I-year (44.00/0) or 2-year (45.4%) contract for

their teaching positions. Approximately 54.30/0 of the participants reported a medium

monthly salary of between NT $46,000 and NT $60,000 (U.S. $1,350 to U.S. $ 1,800).

In regard to the organizational characteristics of the 18 schools (15 private and 3 public

schools), 500/0 were small in size with 420 to 1,991 enrolled nursing students and 61.10/0

had a small number of 24 to 48 faculty members. In comparison, the background of the

participants in this study and the Shieh et aL (2001) study are similar to each other. The

possible effects of participant demographics and the organizational characteristics of the

18 schools should be considered in discussing the results of this study.

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Leadership Styles of Taiwanese Nursing Deans and Directors

The purpose of research question one was to describe the transformational,

transactional, or laissez-faire leadership styles of nursing deans and directors as perceived

by Taiwanese nursing faculty. The Chinese MLQ-5X instrument was used to measure the

means and standard deviations of the nine subscales and the total scale. The findings

demonstrate that the mean scores of the transformational leadership items were between

1.69 to 2.24, which were greater than those of the transactional leadership items and

laissez-faire items ranging from 1.40 to 1.87. Thus, the results indicate that nursing deans

and directors, as perceived by Taiwanese nursing faculty members, tend to practice

transformational leadership more frequently in their positions than the transactional

leadership or the laissez-faire style. However, the mean scores of the transformational

leadership items were low in this study. Merely the leadership styles of idealized

behavioral influence (M 2.18) and inspirational motivation (M = 2.24) exceeded the

midpoint of2.

The results of research question one are supported by Bass' (1985)

transformational leadership theory when applied to Taiwanese societies. Bass (1997)

proposed that transformational leadership may have far more influence in collectivist

societies like Eastern countries than in the individualistic societies of the West. The

reason proposed for this is based on the belief that leaders in collectivist cultures have a

moral responsibility to frequently consider their followers' needs, to help them in their

career development, and to attend their important gatherings (Bass, 1985; Dorfman &

Howell, 1997). Bass and Avolio (2000) emphasized that "collectivist cultures provide

leaders with ready-made opportunities to become transformational leaders" (p. 7).

107

However, the tradition of Confucianism emphasizes leaders' fulfillment of their

individual roles and duties in hierarchically structured societies and deeply influences

Taiwanese leadership (Bass & Avolio, 2000; Dorfman & Howell, 1997; Huang, 1995;

Shieh et aI., 2001). Because of the hierarchical structure, the Chinese prefer leaders with

great expertise and talents and who define clear tasks and goals for subordinates.

Moreover, the hierarchy system may cause Taiwanese leaders to also use the active

management-by-exception leadership such as an authoritarian pattern of leadership to

make important decisions for followers. This cultural influence may explain why the

mean of the active management-by-exception leadership items (M 1.92) also obtained a

higher score compared to the other subscales in this study and the norm data.

In addition, the booming economic development in Taiwan's society for the past

decade requires the leader to pay attention to the exchange process of the transactional

leadership by manipUlating rewards and punishments to the followers in order to achieve

desired outcomes (Bass, 1985). The majority of current nursing deans and directors in

Taiwan also earned their PhD degrees from the West. The individualistic culture may

influence them to place an emphasis on positive contingent reinforcements of the

transactional leadership in the workplace. Therefore, even though collectivist cultures

provide Taiwanese leaders with ready-made opportunities to become transformational

leaders, the tradition of Confucianism and the booming economic development in

Taiwan's society have some extent of influence on leaders' use of transactional

leadership.

In comparison with the Bass and Avolio's (2000) study, the mean scores of the

transformational leadership items in the Bass and Avolio's study were significantly

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higher than those in this study_ The higher scores in Bass and Avolio's study were most

likely a result of collecting data from American business firms in their study. Leaders in

American business firms may need to implement transformational leadership more

frequently to quickly improve the efficiency of their workplaces. However, the finding

that lower mean scores of transformational leadership items in this study may draw

Taiwanese nursing leaders' attention to the need for promoting their transformational

leadership. This viewpoint is consistent with three studies (Y. G. Lin, 1999; Lu, 1998; C.

C. Yang, 2002), which emphasized that through systematic training programs, nursing

managers can enhance the use of transformational leadership.

Feminist perspective. After analyzing master theses and doctoral dissertations

addressing Taiwan's education leadership over the last 10 years, H. L. Pan et al. (2000)

concluded that most researchers exercise an andocentric perspective in their studies. The

women's role in a culture is often overlooked when researchers apply Western leadership

theories and instruments in their studies (H. L. Pan et aI., 2000). Because the majority of

participants in this study were female, the researcher was mindful of cultural influences

and gender roles in interpreting the leadership style of nursing deans and directors.

In Taiwan, most nursing deans and directors grew up in a paternal and

hierarchical society. Women seldom received equal treatment and respect in Taiwan's

traditional culture. Li (1998) emphasized that the expectation and constraints of

traditional culture require Taiwanese female leaders to handle both family and career

responsibilities. Even as women were encouraged to challenge and share male authority,

most females were sensitive to being labeled a "feminist" or a "superwoman." Therefore,

they tend to use "power with" instead of "power over" to influence subordinates.

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Moreover, Taiwanese female leaders are potentially more capable of displaying

transformational leadership due to the influence of their gender roles in a traditional

society. They tend to be more supportive and considerate toward their subordinates, be

empathetic with their followers' different needs, and be willing to encourage

subordinates' expression of ideas (H. L. Pan et aI., 2000). Thus, Taiwanese nursing deans

and directors possess transformational leadership characteristics, such as being a role

model for faculty and creating a shared vision of the future to inspire faculty's

motivation. In tum, Taiwanese nursing faculty members perceived the leadership style

provided by their nursing deans and directors as reflecting "a collective sense of mission"

and "a sense of confidence in goal achievement."

The Job Satisfaction Level of Taiwanese Nursing Faculty

The purpose of research question two was to describe the job satisfaction level of

nursing faculty in Taiwan. The level of job satisfaction was measured using the Chinese

MSQ short form. The findings show that the mean was 69.37 for general job satisfaction,

43.57 for intrinsic job satisfaction, and 18.79 for extrinsic job satisfaction. The results

indicate that Taiwanese nursing faculty members were moderately satisfied with their

jobs, which was classified using the definition in the Weiss et al. (1967) manual.

This finding is consistent with two Western studies (Barrett & Goldenberg, 1988;

Snarr & Krochalk, 1996), which proposed that nursing faculty tend to be satisfied with

their jobs. Similarly, three studies (Y. M. Chang, 1995; B. F. Liu, 1997; X. E. Liu, 1984)

specifically indicated that Taiwanese nurses perceive moderate job satisfaction in their

work. In Taiwan's educational settings, C. H. Lin (2002) and Ju (2002) also reported that

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moderate job satisfaction levels are described by full-time faculty members in institutes

of technology and in elementary schools.

However, in comparison with the norm data of Weiss et al. (1967) obtained from

1,723 individuals in a variety of occupational areas, the total and subscales' mean scores

in this study were significantly lower than those of the norm data (t = -9.25, p < .01 for

general satisfaction; t = -9.43,p < .01 for intrinsic satisfaction; t = -4.71,p < .01 for

extrinsic satisfaction). The probable reason for this is that the norm data were gathered

from different population samples such as engineers, office clerks, and assemblers and

were published over 30 years ago. Different kinds of jobs and workplace background

may cause different perceptions of occupational stress and job satisfaction between this

study and the Weiss et al. study.

Furthermore, in discussing the level of Taiwanese faculty job satisfaction, the

possible influence of the participants' background should be considered. The majority of

the participants in this study were young, married, and female instructors with a medium

level of monthly salary. Most of them served in private schools and held I-year or 2-year

contract for their positions. In particular, most nursing instructors in Taiwan had the

double responsibility of lecturing and clinical teaching. The demographic factors and the

heavy workload are possible reasons why Taiwanese nursing faculty did not feel more

satisfied with their jobs.

Goldenberg and Waddell (1990) proposed that female faculty in baccalaureate

nursing programs experience considerable stress in their roles as nurse educators. "Heavy

workload" with its clinical component was perceived as the main contributor to stress

(Goldenberg & Waddell, 1990). This finding is similar to the item "Able to keep busy all

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the time" being ranked lowest in the job satisfaction level of this study. Furthermore, the

items "The chances for advancement on this job" and "The way company policies are put

into practice" in the extrinsic job satisfaction subscale were also given the lowest

satisfaction scores. These results may help to remind nursing deans and directors to not

only strive to raise the intrinsic job satisfaction of nursing faculty, but to also provide

external rewards to enhance their extrinsic job satisfaction.

In discussing the perception of job satisfaction, Taiwanese nursing faculty

reported feeling satisfied when their work gave them a sense of "doing things that don't

go against their conscience," and provided them "a chance to do things for other people"

and "the opportunity to make use of their abilities." The intrinsic variables of job

satisfaction, such as ability utilization, authority, moral value, and social services as

described above, appeared to be the factors contributing the most to satisfaction in this

study. These findings are consistent with the Marriner and Craigie's (1977) study

regarding nursing educators' job satisfaction, as well as with the C. H. Lin and Lee's

(2003) study investigating the job satisfaction level of 250 full-time faculty members in

Taiwan's institutes of technology.

Importantly, the satisfied feelings towards work expressed in this study are also

supported by previous theories on job satisfaction, for example, the two-factor theory

developed by Herzberg et al.(1959) and Lawler's (1973) facet satisfaction model.

Herzberg et al. (1959) stated that certain motivators, which involve intrinsic aspects of

the job such as responsibility, independence of action, and recognition for accomplishing

difficult tasks, can lead to job satisfaction. Similarly, the effort-perfonnance probability

proposed from Lawler's (1973) model emphasized that one's internal rewards come from

the individual's feeling about job performance, specifically the feelings of personal

worth, pride, or accomplishment. Therefore, the intrinsic factors in this study as

perceived by Taiwanese nursing faculty contributing the most to satisfaction are

comparable to the factors proposed from these two theories.

Leadership Styles of Taiwanese Nursing Deans and

Directors Based on Organizational Characteristics

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The main purpose of research question three was to describe the perceived

leadership styles of Taiwanese nursing deans and directors, based on the differences

between each school's organizational characteristics. The organizational characteristics

selected in this study included school control, school size, type of nursing programs

offered, and the number of full-time faculty in nursing programs. Due to the relatively

few number of studies investigating the differences in leadership styles of deans and

directors based on organizational characteristics in Taiwan's nursing schools, the results

of research question three are discussed in relation to some Western studies as well as

Taiwanese studies on nonnursing schools. Importantly, the findings of research question

three are only explained using the unit of school for data analysis, and sample sizes are

thus very small.

School control. In this study, 3 out of7 public schools and 15 out of29 private

schools with nursing programs were accrued. For the variable of school control, the

finding indicates that nursing deans and directors in public schools practiced

transformational leadership more frequently than those in private schools. This result may

reveal a phenomenon in which nursing deans and directors of public schools are more

likely to provide idealistic influences and inspirational motivations for their faculty.

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However, this result is inconsistent with the Lowe and Galen Kroeck's (1996)

study, which was a meta-analysis of existing literature that used the MLQ to assess

transformational and transactional leadership. Lowe and Galen Kroeck proposed that

transactional leadership style is expected to be more common in public organizations than

in private. The reason is that public institutions are often thought to function within a

more bureaucratic framework that may serve to suppress the impact of transformational

leadership (Bass, 1985; Lowe & Galen Kroeck, 1996).

A possible explanation for the difference in the result between this study and the

Lowe and Galen Kroeck's study may derive from different societal needs and differences

in culture. Taiwanese nursing faculty in public schools have nl0re protection from being

fired unreasonably and also more power to refuse undesirable assignments from their

deans or directors. Thus, nursing deans and directors in public schools prefer to be a role

model and articulate an appealing vision of the future for their faculty. This kind of

working climate may require nursing deans and directors in public schools to frequently

practice transformational leadership.

School size. Regarding school size, 9 small, 3 medium, and 6 large schools with

nursing programs participated in this study. The results of the differences in nursing

deans' and directors' leadership styles among small, medium, and large schools indicate

that Taiwanese nursing faculty in small schools perceived more frequent usage of

transformational leadership by their nursing deans or directors as compared to those in

medium and large schools.

The probable reason for this is that Taiwanese nursing faculty in small schools

have more opportunities to communicate with their deans or directors, and nursing deans

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or directors can pay more attention to individual needs. This finding is consistent with the

studies of T. F. Yang (1999) and L. B. Chen (2000), which reported that Taiwanese

teachers in small elementary schools perceive transfonnationalleadership to be used

more frequently by their principals.

Type of nursing programs offered. Seven schools awarding nursing diplomas and

11 schools awarding bachelor's degrees participated in this study. For the difference

between leadership styles of deans and directors in schools awarding nursing diplomas

and bachelor's degrees, this study demonstrated that the faculty in schools awarding

bachelor's degrees perceived more frequent usage of transformational leadership by their

deans than those who worked in schools awarding nursing diplomas.

In Taiwan, nursing deans and directors must hold the basic eligibility qualification

of a PhD degree. However, in recent years a large number of vocational senior high

schools with nursing programs have been upgraded to become junior nursing colleges.

Due to the deficiency of doctorally prepared faculty, for these schools the majority of

nursing directors held master's degrees. In contrast, nursing deans in universities or

institutes of technology possessed PhD degrees. The result in this study may reveal a

possible phenomenon of nursing deans who possess higher educational degrees, as is

usually the case in institutes of technology or universities, being rated higher for

transformational leadership by their faculty. This explanation is consistent with Dunham­

Taylor's (2000) study, which proposed that nurse executives who possess higher

educational degrees were perceived to use transformational leadership more frequently as

compared to transactional leadership and laissez-faire style.

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In addition, nursing deans in universities or institutes of technology have more

authority to determine academic affairs than nursing directors, since nursing directors in

junior colleges may face more restrictions from their presidents and deans of academic

affairs. In tum, nursing directors may not fully display conviction and confidence in their

commitments owing to limited authority. This could be another possible reason that

nursing faculty did not perceive as frequent use of transformational leadership by their

nursing directors.

The number of full-time nursing faculty. In this study, the majority (n = 11) of the

18 schools had a small faculty ranging from 24 to 48. For the variable of full-time

nursing faculty size, the finding indicates that schools with a small number of nursing

faculty members reported a higher item mean for transformational leadership displayed

by their deans or directors than schools with medium or large faculty size.

This result could be due to nursing deans and directors having more opportunities

to share their visions with and attend to the individual needs of smaller faculty. In turn,

the faculty could perceive transformational leadership more frequently displayed by their

deans or director. Such a finding is consistent with two studies (L. B. Chen, 2000; T. F.

Yang, 1999) which reported that Taiwanese schools with a small faculty size have more

positive perceptions of the principals' leadership styles.

The results of research question three thus provide a description of how the

leadership styles of nursing deans and directors as perceived by nursing faculty is related

to selected organizational characteristics of schools. In summary, nursing deans and

directors in public schools, small schools, schools awarding bachelor's degrees, or

schools with small faculty size were all inclined to use a transformational style of

116

leadership more frequently. Regardless of each school's organizational characteristics

including school control, school size, type of nursing programs offered, and the number

of full-time faculty in nursing programs, Taiwanese nursing deans and directors practiced

transformational leadership more frequently than the transactional leadership and the

laissez-faire, as perceived by their nursing faculty.

Relationship between Leadership Styles and

Job Satisfaction Levels

The purpose of research question four was to identify which leadership styles of

nursing deans and directors, as perceived by the nursing faculty, relate to nursing faculty

job satisfaction, while controlling for the organizational characteristics of schools and

demographic data of the faculty. After controlling for the variables of the length of time

in dean's and director's position, marital status, monthly salary, age, primary job position,

and school size, the leadership styles of contingent reward and individualized

consideration significantly and positively predicted the level of nursing faculty job

satisfaction, while the passive management-by-exception leadership style was a

significant but negative predictor for job satisfaction. Overall, the result indicates that

approximately 21.2%> of the variation in nursing faculty job satisfaction level could be

attributed to the combined predictors of contingent reward, passive management-by­

exception, and individualized consideration leadership styles.

The finding, which nursing deans and directors who were perceived as having

leadership styles that provided contingent rewards more frequently produced higher

levels of nursing faculty job satisfaction, is consistent with the studies of Shieh et al.

(2001), C. R. Chen (2001), and Fahr, Podsakoff, and Chang (1987). Shieh et al. proposed

117

that nursing deans and directors who display the contingent reward leadership style are

likely to also be better at meeting individual needs, and thereby producing a higher level

of faculty job satisfaction. Similarly, in C. R. Chen's study regarding the relationship

between Taiwanese principals' transformational leadership and teachers' job satisfaction,

a style based on contingent rewards is also a significant predictor for teachers' job

satisfaction level. Therefore, such a style of contingent reward leadership can be seen to

have a positive impact on a Taiwanese organization (Fahr. et aI., 1987).

In Taiwan's culture, a reward from the leader means approval of the subordinate's

abilities and performance. Particularly, contingent reinforcement of rewards reflects the

proper etiquette between the leader and subordinates (Wu & Lin, 1998), in which a

subordinate's satisfaction with work is enhanced when supervisors give the expected

praise and reward for positive performance (Bass, 1985). Furthermore, a majority of

private schools participated in this study, and nursing deans and directors in private

schools may have more authority to provide extrinsic rewards such as recognition, bonus,

and promotion for motivating nursing faculty job satisfaction. Significantly, motivation

leads to job satisfaction through the faculty's perceptions of the effort-performance

probability and moderated by the faculty's ability to perform the job and his or her

expectation of obtaining rewards (Lowenberg & Conrad, 1998).

Individualized consideration is a factor of transformational leadership style;

namely, leaders deal with subordinates as individuals, and consider their individual needs,

abilities, and aspirations (Bass & Avolio, 2000). The finding that the more considerate

nursing deans and directors were toward their subordinates the higher the level of faculty

job satisfaction raised is consistent with Taiwanese studies (C. R. Chen, 2001; H. L. Pan

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et al., 2000; Xiao, 1986). Xiao (1986) indicated that Taiwanese nurses perceive higher

levels of job satisfaction when head nurses display considerate behaviors more frequently.

C. R. Chen (2001) also proposed that the leadership styles that provide individualized

consideration can effectively enhance the level of Taiwanese teachers' job satisfaction.

Traditionally, academic professions are more highly respected than other

occupations, particularly the faculty positions. Therefore, most of the faculty members in

higher education prefer to have academic self-determination and autonomy in their

positions. The more individualized consideration nursing deans and directors can provide

in regard to each faculty member's ability to utilize authority, the more satisfaction is

perceived by faculty members towards their jobs.

For the passive management-by-exception leadership style, the finding in this

study indicates that the more frequently nursing deans and directors displayed this type of

leadership behavior, the lower nursing faculty job satisfaction level became. The passive

form of management-by-exception characterizes leaders who take actions only after

deviation and irregularities have occurred (Bass, 1985). The mere practice of

management-by-exception does not appeal to subordinates because it only encourages

them to avoid punishments (Bass, 1985).

This finding, a negative relationship between the passive management-by­

exception leadership and the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction, is consistent with

the Waldman et al. (1987) study. Waldman et al. proposed that management-by­

exception leadership style correlates negatively to employees' satisfaction with reward

outcomes, current performance, and future development. In Taiwan, subordinates

typically assume that the leader will thoughtfully consider all relevant factors prior to

making decisions, rather than reprimanding subordinates when deviations happen

(Dorfman & Howell, 1997; Huang, 1995).

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Although the findings of research question four were consistent with several of

the previous studies, only 21.20/0 of the variation in job satisfaction levels was attributed

to the leadership styles of contingent reward, passive management-by-exception, and

individualized consideration. It did not show sufficient explanation of the variation in the

level of faculty job satisfaction. The possible reasons for this may be that the MSQ short

form instrument also measured general job satisfaction, such as the dimensions of

working conditions, co-worker, and social status, rather than just the amount of

satisfaction with leadership. In addition, the MSQ short form was developed 30 years ago.

This instrument may not have updated information necessary for analyzing the

relationship between leadership styles and job satisfaction in the current Taiwan society.

Also, the predictors of organizational characteristics and demographics including

the length of time in the dean's or director's position, marital status, monthly salary, age,

primary job position, and the school size merely explained 9.40/0 of the variation in

nursing faculty job satisfaction. This result cautioned the researcher to be aware of other

unidentified variables that may also influence nursing faculty job satisfaction. It was also

noted that 19.80/0 of the 21.2% variation in nursing faculty job satisfaction was attributed

to the contingent reward (18.1 %) and the passive n1anagement-by-exception (1.70/0) of

the transactional leadership. The reason for this may be that the MSQ short form

instrument focused on measuring two main concepts of the effort-performance

probability and reward value.

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Interestingly, the individualized consideration of transformational leadership

merely explained 1.4% of the variation in nursing faculty job satisfaction levels. This

result may be inconsistent with the finding that Taiwanese nursing deans and directors

practiced transformational leadership more frequently than the transactional style.

However, as Table 25 shows, the contingent reward subscale demonstrated the greatest

correlation coefficient (r = .468, p < .01) in regard to nursing faculty job satisfaction

levels compared to other subscales of the Chinese MLQ-5X used in this study.

In the Bass and Avolio's (2000) manual, a positive and significant correlation

(average r = .71) was found between the contingent reward subscale and each of the five

transformational subscales. The possible explanation is that both transformational and

transactional leadership styles represent active and positive forms of leadership (Bass &

Avolio, 2000). Therefore, the result that contingent reward and passive management-by­

exception of the transactional leadership style explained 19.80/0 of the variation in nursing

faculty job satisfaction levels may be consistent with Bass' transformational leadership

theory, which proposed that transformational leadership enhances the contribution of

transactional leadership to effectiveness, but it is not a substitute of transactional

leadership.

Limitations of the Study

This study was conducted using mail surveys. In order to protect subjects'

confidentiality, questionnaires were answered anonymously. In turn, the researcher was

not able to identify some of the missing demographic data from returned questionnaires.

Also, three of the participant schools asked to review the study proposal and preferred

having the school itself distribute the questionnaires to faculty members. These

incidences may have compromised confidentiality and influence the participants'

willingness to answer the questionnaires.

121

Eighteen schools (50'% of all those in Taiwan) participated in this study. The 18

nursing deans and directors and most of the nursing faculty members in this study were

women. Thus, the findings regarding leadership styles cannot be generalized and applied

to male leaders in other fields, just as the job satisfaction level of nursing faculty

members should be used with caution when applied to other departments in Taiwan.

Furthermore, due to the limited number of studies regarding leadership style and job

satisfaction in Taiwan's nursing education setting, the researcher used the studies related

to nursing education in the West, Taiwan's clinical nursing, and other non-nursing

schools to support the findings in this study. Such comparisons may not fully explain

leadership and job satisfaction in connection with Taiwan's nursing education setting.

Although the method of using mailed surveys is helpful for studying discreet and

sensitive topics in a confidential and anonymous manner (Fink, 1995), there is a greater

possibility that the views of the desired respondents may be contaminated by others.

(Dillman, 1978). In addition, an open-ended question that asks the participants to state

any reward or promotion received from their schools did not collect sufficient data,

because the majority of the participants did not answer. Thus, the goal to better

understand job satisfaction as it relates to nursing faculty job perfonnance could not be

achieved. Moreover, faculty members' perceptions of job satisfaction are subjective, and

their perceptions may be affected by variables that were not examined in this study, such

as organizational climate and faculty productivity.

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Also, the cross-sectional design of this study may not fully represent the influence

that leadership styles of Taiwanese nursing deans and directors have on the nursing

faculty job satisfaction level, because the findings reveal little of how leadership operates

over time. Hallinger and Heck (1996) indicated that cross-sectional designs, even ones of

high quality, limit researchers' ability to understand the causal relationships involved in

studying the impact of school administrators (p. 36). Therefore, data interpretation for

this kind of correlational study design should be done with caution.

More importantly, this study does not attempt to compute statistical tests for the

differences in the perceived leadership styles of nursing deans and directors based on

each school's organizational characteristics. Therefore, any apparent differences in

leadership styles between the selected variables of organizational characteristics cannot

be used as inferential data.

Implications for Nursing

Several aspects of the research findings that provide implications for nursing

practice, research, and education are individually discussed in the following sections.

Implications for Nursing Practice

Research findings indicate that the leadership style which used contingent reward

and individualized consideration positively predicted the job satisfaction level of

Taiwanese nursing faculty. This result suggests that perhaps clinical nursing leaders

could produce similar results in clinical settings. Most nurses and nursing leaders are also

females. The clinical nurses' perceptions of leadership and job satisfaction may be

similar to that of the nursing educators'. By appropriately providing praises and rewards

to nurses for their positive perfonnance, clinical leaders may help to raise their job

satisfaction levels.

Implications for Nursing Education

123

The topic of nursing deans' and directors' leadership style and nursing faculty job

satisfaction levels is still a sensitive one in Taiwan's nursing education setting. To engage

in leadership evaluation is threatening for both nursing deans and directors and nursing

faculty in a hierarchical system. This study may help nursing deans and directors to pay

more attention to the issues of leadership styles and faculty job satisfaction. Particularly,

the findings suggest that if nursing deans and directors practice contingent reward and

individualized consideration leadership styles more frequently, the nursing faculty job

satisfaction level will be raised. On the other hand, a passive style of management-by­

exception leadership practices frequently by nursing deans and directors will decrease the

level of nursing faculty job satisfaction.

Furthennore, overall faculty job satisfaction is detennined by receiving both the

achievement of intrinsic and extrinsic job values. It should be noted that Taiwanese

nursing faculty reported moderate levels of job satisfaction in this study. Nursing deans

and directors may want to be more engaged in providing promotion and recognition for

nursing faculty in order to raise their job satisfaction. Perhaps nursing deans and directors

do feel that they often give praises and rewards, when in actuality, the frequency is much

less. In addition, detennining proper work loads for faculty members is also a crucial

leadership skill that will help to raise the job satisfaction level.

In order to fonn a climate of understanding regarding the importance and the need

for stronger leadership practices in Taiwan's nursing education, it is necessary to

124

disseminate the results of this study to all nursing deans and directors and report the

findings to the public. Furthermore, the incorporation of leadership education into

different levels of nursing curriculum (e.g., BS, MSN, PhD programs) will also be very

helpful in advancing nursing profession in Taiwan.

Based on the findings of this study and Bass' (1985) transformational leadership

theory, Taiwan's female nursing leaders need to realize their potential in practicing

transformational leadership behaviors effectively. Therefore, Taiwan's researchers should

develop a series of leadership training programs to help cultivate transformational leaders

in Taiwan's nursing field. However, the transformational and transactional leadership are

not mutually independent styles (Seltzer & Bass, 1990); the best leaders are both

transformational and transactional in different situations. For example, if nursing deans

and directors perform leadership providing contingent rewards and individualized

consideration appropriately, the level of nursing faculty job satisfaction will effectively

be raised.

Implications for Nursing Research

The research of leadership styles and job satisfaction in nursing education is fairly

new and has not been thoroughly investigated in Taiwan. Consistent studies in leadership

styles of nursing deans and directors and nursing faculty job satisfaction are very

important for researchers who are trying to understand how the two concepts relate to

Taiwan's culture and how they can influence the advancement of the nursing profession

in Taiwan.

During the period of data collection, the researcher communicated frequently with

nursing deans and directors to explain the purposes of the study. Unfortunately, two

125

schools still refused to participate in this study due to fears of the results affecting their

reputation. In contrast, the majority of the deans and directors were very supportive and

understood the importance of the study. Therefore, it is imperative to be consistent in

one's efforts in opening the gate for investigating the issues of leadership and job

satisfaction. Mutual communication between researchers and nursing leaders will be

helpful in conducting such studies in the future.

Recommendations

Recommendations for Future Studies

Study design. This was a mail survey study using self-administered

questionnaires. In order to decrease sampling biases, the technique of randomized

sampling using the roster of faculty members from each school was used. More

importantly, the steps of Dillman's (1978) TDM for mail surveys were followed during

data collection. Based on an acceptable response rate obtained from this study, the

researcher suggests that future mail surveys may use the procedures of the TDM to

increase response rates. To effectively communicate with the study participants, e-mail

follow-ups are recommended for researchers to track the progress of data collection.

In order to better understand leadership styles and levels of faculty job satisfaction

in Taiwan, this study n1ainly utilized descriptive and correlational designs. Future studies

may also want to use the mixed model to further explore the relationship between

leadership styles, organizational characteristics, and job satisfaction. The linear mixed

model could help the analysis of data collected from faculty members who are nested

within the schools. Also, a qualitative approach is recommended for future studies that

are interested in understanding nursing faculty's perceptions of leadership styles and job

126

satisfaction in depth, as well as the leadership style assessed by deans and directors or

their supervisors, such as the presidents.

The direct-effect model proposed by the Hallinger and Heck's (1996) study was

also used in this study. Although this study used a simplified model to study a complex

set of relationships, the possibility that the status and the reputation of the schools, as

well as other environmental conditions was not fully taken into account in this study.

Future studies may broaden this straightforward model to the "path analysis diagram"

(Kerlinger & Lee, 2000) for a better understanding of the direct and indirect influences of

leadership styles on faculty job satisfaction (see Figure 3).

Leadership styles

Organizational characteristics

Demographic data

Faculty job satisfaction

Figure 3. Path analysis diagrama of the relationship between leadership styles,

organizational characteristics, demographic data, and faculty job satisfaction.

aDirect effects: a (path coefficient); indirect effects: b* c*d (path coefficient).

127

In this diagram, the addition of antecedent variables, such as organizational

characteristics and demographic data, to the direct-effects model helps to further explain

the effects of antecedent variables on the exercise of nursing deans' and directors'

leadership (Hallinger & Heck, 1996). Path analysis, a graphic method for exploring the

relationship between a set of independent variables and a dependent variable, could be

used in this model (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Path analysis is typically based on a series of

simple regression techniques.

Instrumentation. Most instruments used to nleasure leadership style and job

satisfaction in Taiwan's settings were designed in the West. Although the Chinese

versions of the MLQ-5X and the MSQ short fonn have acceptable reliabilities, an

instrument designed by Taiwanese researchers may better fit with Taiwan's culture and

make the participants feel more comfortable when they answer the questions. Future

studies may focus on developing the instruments of leadership and job satisfaction in

connection with Taiwan's culture for better use in Taiwan. Such works might help to

identify other important variables that will explain the other 80% of variation in nursing

faculty job satisfaction.

Recommendations for Leadership Training Programs

Lu (1998) conducted a quasi -experimental study to evaluate the effectiveness of a

transformational leadership training program for 69 Taiwanese nursing department heads.

After a 3-month training program of transfonnationalleadership education and practice, a

rise in the practice oftransfonnationalleadership by Taiwan's nursing department heads

was observed. Moreover, the increase practice of transfonnationalleadership

significantly raised the level of nursing staff job satisfaction. According to the Lu's

128

(1998) study and the results of this study, leadership training programs designed for

Taiwan's nursing deans and directors are recommended. Although some nursing deans

and directors may have taken leadership classes during their doctoral studies, a

systematic training and learning of transformational and transactional leadership styles

based on Taiwan's culture and needs will be useful for their professional development.

The leadership training program could emphasize on three foci: the vision of

school, the individual's needs, and the culture. The following points could be part of the

training program to help nursing deans and directors learn to become more effective

leaders. First, help nursing leaders develop a shared vision for their schools and faculty. It

is helpful to build a consensus regarding goals and priorities in the school; this helps

faculty members to achieve the performance expectations. Second, strategies to develop

mutual communication between faculty and nursing leaders should be discussed. This

will help nursing leaders to get to know the individual faculty members well enough and

to understand their needs, particular skills, and interests. Individualized consideration is a

motivator to raise the level of faculty satisfaction with their jobs. Lastly, providing the

knowledge of culture differences among organizations and schools is useful for nursing

leaders to engage in eliminating the boundaries between the administrators and faculty,

and to provide proper internal and external rewards for a faculty's positive performance.

It is also recommended that researchers link this kind of training program to a

longitudinal study for evaluating the effectiveness of transformational and transactional

leadership education, as well as understanding how leadership operates over time, and

learning the extent leadership influences faculty job satisfaction. Such a study will help

set up a leadership theory and study framework based on Taiwan's culture.

129

Conclusion

Leadership is described as the relationship between those who aspire to lead and

those who choose to follow, as well as the process of influencing group activities toward

goal setting and goal achievement. The research regarding leadership styles of nursing

deans and directors and how it influences the nursing faculty job satisfaction level is

relatively new in Taiwan's nursing education. Consistent studies to investigate these two

concepts are very helpful for the development and advancement of the nursing profession

in Taiwan.

The findings of this study can provide useful feedbacks for nursing academic

leaders to understand their leadership styles as perceived by the faculty, and how the

perception affects the faculty job satisfaction level. Furthermore, the findings may help

nursing academic leaders to understand that by employing the leadership practices of

contingent reward and individualized consideration more frequently, nursing faculty

members may become more satisfied with their jobs. On the other hand, the more passive

management-by-exception leadership is practiced by nursing deans and directors, the less

likely faculty merrlbers will be satisfied in their jobs. Findings regarding the differences

in leadership styles of nursing deans and directors based on each school's organizational

characteristics can help future studies to investigate the influence of situational variables

on leadership styles.

This study helped pave the path for researchers in Taiwan's nursing field to

understand the importance of setting up a leadership training program so that nursing

leaders are able to improve their leadership skills. A successful leader not only satisfies

the needs of followers effectively by exchanging rewards, but also sets an example for

130

their followers and promotes dramatic changes and influence on individuals, groups, and

organizations. Moreover, the overall effectiveness of an organization rests on both the

leadership and employee job satisfaction. Future studies should engage in examining how

transformational leadership drives faculty to a higher level of job satisfaction and

motivation that are necessary for maintaining faculty's productivity and commitment and

to advance Taiwan's nursing profession.

APPENDIX A

PERMISSION FOR THE CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE

MLQ-5X AND THE MSQ SHORT FORM

132

This form is authorized to use the following research instrument: The Chinese version a/the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5-45, which was published in Hueih-Lirng Shieh, Mary Etta Mills, and Caralyn F. Waltz (2001). Academic leadership style predictors for nursing faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan. Journal of Nursing Education, 40(5), p.203-209, is used for conducting a study entitled "The relationship between leadership styles and faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan."

I agree that the investigator will submit a copy of the results as they become available if authorized by the principal investigator of the research instrument.

Hsiu-Chin Chen, MS, RN Date

With the signature below, the principal investigator of the research instrument grants permission to Ms. Hsiu-Chin Chen listed above to use the Chinese version of the MLQ Form 5-45 for research purpose.

Hueih-Lirng Shieh, Ph. D., RN Date

If permission is granted, please return the signed permission form along with a copy of the research instrument to Ms. Hsiu-Chin Chen.

Address: 803 University Village, Salt Lake City, lTT 84108 U.S.A.

TEL: (H) (801 )583-0368 (Salt Lake City) FAX: (H) (801 )583-0368 (Salt Lake City) e-mail: utahsun51@yahoo.com.tw

This fonn is authorized to use the following research instrument: The Chinese version of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ short (arm), which was developed in Lin, Ching-Hsiu (2002). The effect of perceived presidential leadership styles upon instructor job satisfaction in institutes of technology in Taiwan, Unpublished dissertation, is used for conducting a study entitled "The relationship between leadership styles and faculty job satisfaction in Taiwan."

I agree that the investigator will submit a copy of the results as they become available if authorized by the principal investigator of the research instrument.

Hsiu-Chin Chen, MS, RN Date

133

With the signature below, the principal investigator of the research instrument grants permission to Ms. Hsiu-Chin Chen listed above to use the Chinese version of the MSQ short fonn for research purpose.

Ching-Hsiu Lin, Ed. D. Date

If permission is granted, please return the signed permission fonn along with a copy of the research instrument to Ms. Hsiu-Chin Chen.

Address: 803 University Village, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 U.S.A.

TEL: (H) (801 )583-0368 (Salt Lake City) FAX: (H) (801 )583-0368 (Salt Lake City) e-mail: utahsun51@yahoo.com.tw

APPENDIXB

A LIST OF NURSING SCHOOLS IN TAIWAN

135

University (Public school: 4 schools; Private school: 11 schools; total: 15 schools)

1. l~tll:El~*~ ii!fEI* National Taiwan University, School of Nursing:

http://www.ntu.edu.tw

2. a~tu~*~ iii:El* Taipei Medical University, College of Nursing:

http://www.tmu.edu.tw

3. ~:llJ~[3J3*~ ==T'+'r==. ... n".... National Yang-Ming University, School of Nursing:

http://www.ym.edu.tw

4. ~:lL~~jj*~ iii:El* National Defense University, Department of Nursing:

http://www.ndu.edu.tw

5. ~:EI* Fu Jen Catholic University, School of Nursing:

http://www.fiu.edu.tw

Chang Gung University, School and Graduate Institute of

Nursing: http://www.cgu.edu.tw

7. Chung Shan Medical University, School of Nursing:

http://www.csmu.edu.tw

8. China Medical College, School of Nursing:

http://www.cmc.edu.tw

9. ~:EI* National Cheng Kung University, Department of Nursing:

http://www.ncku.edu.tw

Chang Jung Christian University, Department of Nursing:

http://www.cju.edu.tw

11. rEJtKI9~*~ ~:EI~~ Kaohsiung Medical University, College of Nursing:

136

http://www.kmu.edu.tw

12. [il.l~ I-Shou University, Department of Nursing:

http://www.isu.edu.tw

Tzu Chi University, School of Nursing: http://www.tcu.edu.tw

14. 5L*f4~.t*~ ~Il.l* Hung Kuang Institute of Technology, Department of

Nursing: http://www.hkc.edu.tw

15. .3ff4~.t*~ [il.l* (f4) Fooying University, Department of Nursing:

http://www.fy.edu.tw

Institute of Technology (Public school: 1 school; private school: 9 schools; total: 10

schools)

16. ~:lr-EJ~t[i:E.l~~1G National Taipei College of Nursing: http://www.ntcn.edu.tw

Technology, Department of Nursing: http://www.dyc.edu.tw

Oriental institute of technology, Department of Nursing:

http://www.oit.edu.tw

Yuanpei University of Science and Technology,

Department of Nursing: http://www.ymit.edu.tw

20. :Bt~f5(1i1tj~~ [il.l* Chang Gung Institute of Technology, Department of

Nursing: http://www.cgit.edu.tw

21. rp-EJg[i~.tfiltj~~ ~Il.l* ChungTai Institute of Health Sciences and

Technology, Department of Nursing: http://www.ctc.edu.tw

22. rp~U$~~1G ~1:E.l* Chung Hwa College of Medical Technology,

137

Department of Nursing: http://www.hwai.edu.tw

23. *{~:J5Zfijtj~~ U=~'-L/I" Tajen Institue of Technology, Department of Nursing:

http://www.tajen.edu.tw

24. ~~:J5Z1i\tj~~ ~f!* Tzu Chi College of Technology, Department of Nursing:

http://www.tccn.edu.tw

25. ~*Dt~1i\tj~~ ~f!* Mei Ho Institute of Technology, Department of Nursing:

http://www.meiho.edu.tw

Junior College of Nursing (Public school: 2 schools; private school: 9 schools; total: 11

schools)

26. J~f~~f!Wf4~f.3( Mackey Junior College of Nursing: http://www.mjcn.edu.tw

27. ~$g~~1frf!Wf4~f.3( Kang Ning Junior College of Medical Care and

Management, Department of Nursing: http://www.knjc.edu.tw

28. m*alf!Wf4~f.3( Cardinal Tien College of Nursing: http://www.ctcn.edu.tw/

29. {~1tU~~lfrf!Wf4~fx Jen-Te College of Medicine and Management,

Department of Nursing: http://163.19.244.lIindexa.htm

30. ~JL-EJr:p~if!Wf4~f.3( National Taichung Nursing College:

http://www.ntcnc.edu.tw

31. ~JL-EJl¥jalf!Wf4~f.3( National Tainan Institute of Nursing:

http://www.ntin.edu.tw

32. ~jAU~1frf!Wf4~fx Shu-Zen College of Medicine and Management,

Department of Nursing: http://www.szmc.edu.tw

33. ~!!galtgf!Wf4~f.3( Tzu-Hui Institute of Technology,

138

Department of Nursing: http://www.tzuhui.edu.tw

34. ~frJ§[~~Slfi.{f§;l::ltL~[{~~:4:..=p/II~ Min-Hwei College of Health Care Management,

Department of Nursing: http://www.mhvs.tnc.edu.tw

35. 1f~U~tgllt!~f4~i& Yuh-Ing College of Health Care & Management,

Department of Nursing: http://www.yuhing.lm.edu.tw

36. r'§J~U~~l.lWf4~i& Kao-Mei Institute of Technology,

Department of Nursing: http://www.kmvs.khc.edu.tw

APPENDIXC

DISTRIBUTION OF MAILING QUESTIONNAIRES

140

No. of No. of ineligible No. of No. of Response

School code mailing packets subjects rejection returned rate (0/0) packets

01 20 1 19 95.00

02 20 1 (undelivered) 1 15 78.95

04 20 1 12 60.00

05 20 1 17 85.00

06 40 2 (moved) 1 33 86.84

08 20 1 (study abroad) 2 13 68.42

09 20 2 (study abroad) 2 14 77.78

10 20 2 14 70.00

13 20 13 65.00

14 20 11 55.00

23 20 14 70.00

11 40 1 (moved) 3 15 38.46

16 20 14 70.00

18 20 1 (undelivered) 1 15 78.95

19 20 1 19 95.00

20 20 20 100.00

22 20 17 85.00

24 20 11 55.00

Total 400 8 16 286 72.96

APPENDIXD

A LETTER OF INVITATION FOR PARTICIPATION

142

Dear Faculty,

Greetings! I am a doctoral student at the college of nursing of University of Utah specializing in nursing education administration. I am inviting you to participate in a study regarding the relationship between leadership styles and faculty job satisfaction.

You are asked to respond to the enclosed questionnaires consisting of the demographic data, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. The time needed for answering the questionnaires is approximately 30 minutes. I realize you are a very busy person and your time is valuable. Your assistance will be very helpful in my efforts to understand leadership style and job satisfaction. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and in no way will your individual responses be identified to others.

There is no expected risk to you from participating in this study. You may discontinue or postpone answering the questionnaires at your convenience. There is no direct benefit to you for your participation. However, I hope that the information I get from this study will help nursing education administration in Taiwan. In the future, publication and reports of the results will keep individual and institutional identity confidential. The return postcard is the only place where your name will occur. The researcher will only know the name of the institution where you are employed and that will be confidential.

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You will be free to withdraw from the study at any time. You can contact the researcher, Hsiu-Chin Chen, at (801) 583-0368, 24 hours a day for any questions regarding the research. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research subject, please contact the Institutional Review Board office at (801) 581-3655.

Enclosed you will find the questionnaires, a completion postcard, and a return­mail stamped envelope. If you are willing to participate in this study, please complete the questionnaires and then mail them directly to the researcher in one week after receiving the packet. Please do not write your name on the questionnaires. The questionnaires should be sent back by a return-mail stamped and addressed envelope, which is enclosed in this packet. Thank you for your time and I do hope you will choose to participate in this study.

Sincerely,

Hsiu-Chin Chen University of Utah College of Nursing 803 University Village Salt Lake City, UT 84108 TEL: (H) 801-583-0368 e-mail: utahsun51@yahoo.com.tw

143

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APPENDIXE

THE ENGLISH AND CHINESE VERSIONS OF

THEMLQ-5X

145

This questionnaire is used to describe the leadership style of the above-mentioned individual as you perceive it. Answer all items on this answer sheet. If an item is irrelevant, or if you are unsure or do not know the answer, leave the answer blank. Please answer this questionnaire anonymously.

IMPORTANT (necessary for processing): Which best describes you? __ I am at a higher organizational level than the person I am rating. __ The person I am rating is at my organizational level. __ I am at a lower organizational level than the person I am rating.

-- I do not wish my organizational level to be known.

Forty-five descriptive statements are listed on the following pages. Judge how frequently each statement fits the person you are describing. Use the following rating scale:

Not at all Once in a while Sometimes Fairlyoften Frequently, if not always o 1 2 3 4

1. Provides me with assistance in exchange for my efforts ...................... 0 1 2 3 4 2. Re-examines critical assumptions to question whether

they are appropriate ............................................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 3. Fails to interfere until problems become serious .................................. 0 1 2 3 4 4. Focuses attention on irregularities, mistakes, exceptions,

and deviations fronl standards .............................................................. 0 1 2 3 4 5. Avoids getting involved when important issues arise ........................... 0 1 2 3 4 6. Talks about their most important values and beliefs ............................ 0 1 2 3 4 7. Is absent when needed .......................................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 8. Seeks differing perspectives when solving problems ........................... 0 1 2 3 4 9. Talks optimistically about the future .................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 10. Instills pride in me for being associated with him/her .......................... 0 1 2 3 4 11. Discusses in specific terms who is responsible for

achieving performance targets .............................................................. 0 1 2 3 4 12. Waits for things to go wrong before taking action ............................... 0 1 2 3 4 13. Talks enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished ............... 0 1 2 3 4 14. Specifies the importance of having a strong sense of purpose ............. 0 1 2 3 4 15. Spends time teaching and coaching ...................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 16. Makes clear what one can expect to receive when

performance goals are achieved ............................................................ 0 1 2 3 4 17. Shows that he/she is a firm believer in "If it ain't broke,

don't fix it." ........................................................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 18. Goes beyond self-interest for the good of the group ............................. 0 1 2 3 4 19. Treats me as an individual rather than just as a member

of a group .............................................................................................. 0 1 2 3 4

146

Not at all Once in a while Sometimes Fairlyoften Frequently, if not always o 1 2 3 4

20. Demonstrates that problems must become chronic before taking action .............................................................................. 0 1 2 3 4

21. Acts in ways that builds my respect ...................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 22. Concentrates hislher full attention on dealing with mistakes,

complaints, and failures ........................................................................ 0 1 2 3 4 23. Considers the moral and ethical consequences of decisions ................. 0 1 2 3 4 24. Keeps track of all mistakes ................................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 25. Displays a sense of power and confidence ........................................... 0 1 2 3 4 26. Articulates a compelling vision of the future ........................................ 0 1 2 3 4 27. Directs my attention toward failures to n1eet standards ........................ 0 1 2 3 4 28 . Avoids making decisions ...................................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 29. Considers me as having different needs, abilities, and

aspirations from others .......................................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 30. Gets me to look at problems from many different angles ..................... 0 1 2 3 4 31. Helps me to develop my strengths ........................................................ 0 1 2 3 4 32. Suggests new ways of looking at how to complete assignments .......... 0 1 2 3 4 33. Delays responding to urgent questions ................................................. 0 1 2 3 4 34. Emphasizes the importance of having a collective sense of mission ..... 0 1 2 3 4 35. Expresses satisfaction when I meet expectations .................................. 0 1 2 3 4 36. Expresses confidence that goals will be achieved ................................ 0 1 2 3 4 37. Is effective in meeting my job-related needs ........................................ 0 1 2 3 4 38. Uses methods of leadership that are satisfying ..................................... 0 1 2 3 4 39. Gets me to do more than I expected to do ............................................ 0 1 2 3 4 40. Is effective in representing me to higher authority ............................... 0 1 2 3 4 41. Works with me in a satisfactory way .................................................... 0 1 2 3 4 42. Heightens my desire to succeed ............................................................ 0 1 2 3 4 43. Is effective in meeting organizational requirements ............................. 0 1 2 3 4 44. Increases my willingness to try harder .................................................. 0 1 2 3 4 45. Leads a group that is effective .............................................................. 0 1 2 3 4

147

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148

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APPENDIXF

THE ENGLISH AND CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE

MSQ SHORT FORM

150

This questionnaire contains a total of 20 items regarding your present working situation. Please express your degree of satisfaction by drawing a circle around the option that best represents your perspective. 1 = Very Dissatisfied, 2 Dissatisfied, 3 Neither, 4 = Satisfied, 5 = Very Satisfied

ON MY PRESENT JOB, THIS IS HOW I FEEL ABOUT

l. Being able to keep busy all the time ................................ 1 2 3 4 5

2. The chance to work alone on the job ............................... 1 2 3 4 5

3. The chance to do different things from time to time ............. 1 2 3 4 5

4. The chance to be "somebody" in the community ................. 1 2 3 4 5

5. The way my boss handles his man ................................. 1 2 3 4 5

6. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions ......... 1 2 3 4 5

7. Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience ... 1 2 3 4 5

8. The way my job provides for steady employment ............... 1 2 3 4 5

9. The chance to do things for other people .......................... 1 2 3 4 5

10. The chance to tell people what to do .............................. 1 2 3 4 5

11. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities .... 1 2 3 4 5

12. The way company policies are put into practice ................. 1 2 3 4 5

13. My pay and the amount of work I do .............................. 1 2 3 4 5

14. The chances for advancement on this job ......................... 1 2 3 4 5

15. The freedom to use my own judgment ............................ 1 2 3 4 5

16. The chance to try my own methods of doing the job ............ 1 2 3 4 5

17. The working conditions ............................................. 1 2 3 4 5

18. The way my co-workers get along with each other .............. 1 2 3 4 5

19. The praise I get for doing a good job .............................. 1 2 3 4 5

20. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job ............... 1 2 3 4 5

151

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APPENDIXG

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA SECTION

Please read each question and respond as indicated:

1. Gender: Male Female --- ---

2. How old are you?

3. Marital status:

__ 21-30 __ 31-40 __ 41-50 __ > 51 years old

Married Not married Divorced --

153

4. What is your current degree? ___ Bachelors __ Masters __ Doctorate

5. What is your primary job position? __ Instructor Assistant Professor Associate Professor Professor --- ---

6. What is your monthly salary? ___ NT$30,000-45,000 __ NT$46,000-60,000 __ NT$61 ,000-75,000

> NT$75,001

7. How long have you taught at this school? __ Month(s) __ Year(s)

8. How long has your dean or director been in his/her position at this school? __ Month(s) Year(s)

9. What is your current contract at this school? __ 1 year 2 years __ 3 to 5 years __ Above 5years

10. Briefly state any reward, recognition, and promotion that you have accrued from the current school (open-ended question).

154

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APPENDIXH

COMPLETION POSTCARD

I have returned my questionnaires separately.

Your name (Please Print)

Send the brief results of this study to me. No

Thanks again for your help with this important study!

Principal investigator: Hsiu-Chin Chen

Date:

156

APPENDIX I

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF

THEMLQ-5X

Effective leaders exhibit these behaviors (transformational leadership) (Bass &

Avolio, 2000, p. 3):

158

Idealized influence (Attributed: Item 10, 18,21, and 25; Behavior: Item 6, 14,

23, and 34)

Leaders display conviction; emphasized trust; take stands on difficult

issues; present their most important values; and emphasize the importance

of purpose, commitment, and the ethical consequences of decision. Such

leaders are admired as role models; they generate pride, loyalty,

confidence, and alignment around a shared purpose.

Inspirational motivation (Item 9, 13, 26, and 36)

Leaders articulate an appealing vision of the future, challenge followers

with high standards, talk optimistically and with enthusiasm, and provide

encouragement and meaning for what needs to be done.

Intellectual stimulation (Item 2,8,30, and 32)

Leaders question old assumptions, traditions, and beliefs; stimulate in

others new perspectives and ways of doing things; and encourage the

expression of ideas and reasons.

Individualized consideration (Item 15, 19,29, and 31)

Leaders deal with others as individuals; consider their individual needs,

abilities and aspirations; listen attentively; further their development;

advise; and coach.

The MLQ measures a full range of leadership behaviors, including transactional

leadership.

Contingent Reward (Item 1, 11,16, and 35)

159

Leaders engage in a constructive path-goal transaction of reward for

performance. They clarify expectations, exchange promises and resources,

arrange mutually satisfactory agreements, negotiate for resources,

exchange assistance for effort, and provide commendations for successful

follower performance.

Management-by-Exception (Active: Item 4, 22, 24, and 27; Passive: Item 3,

12, 17, and 20)

Active-leaders monitor followers' performance and take corrective action

if deviations from standards occur. They enforce rules to avoid mistakes.

Passive-leaders fail to intervene until problems become serious. They wait

to take action until mistakes are brought to their attention.

Laissez Faire Leadership (Item 5, 7, 28, and 33)

A non-leadership component--Ieaders avoid accepting their

responsibilities, are absent when needed, fail to follow up requests for

assistance, and resist expressing their views on important issues.

The MLQ measures the outcomes of leadership.

Extra Effort (Item 39, 42, and 44)

Getting others to do more than they expected to do, try harder and desire

to succeed.

160

Satisfaction (Item 38 and 41)

Working with others in a satisfying way.

Effectiveness (Item 37, 40, 43, and 45)

Meeting job-related needs and leading an effective group.

APPENDIXJ

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF THE MSQ

SHORT FORM

162

The following list represents each item's title of the MSQ short form. The three

subscales of the MSQ short form consist of the following items (Weiss et aI., 1967, p. 1-

2):

Intrinsic satisfaction subscale: Item 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, and 20.

Extrinsic satisfaction subscale: Item 5, 6, 12, 13, 14, and 19.

General satisfaction scale: all of the 20 items.

Intrinsic satisfaction subscale

Item 1. Activity: Being able to keep busy all the time.

Item 2. Independence: The chance to work alone on the job.

Item 3. Variety: The chance to do different things from time to time.

Item 4. Social status: The chance to be "somebody" in the community.

Item 7. Moral values: Being able to do things that don't go against my conscience.

Item 8. Security: The way my job provides for steady employment.

Item 9. Social service: The chance to do things for other people.

Item 10. Authority: The chance to tell other people what to do.

Item 11. Ability utilization: The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities.

Item 15. Responsibility: The freedom to use my own judgment.

Item 16. Creativity: The chance to try my own methods of doing the job.

Item 20. Achievement: The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job.

Extrinsic satisfaction subscale

Item 5. Supervision-human relations: The way my boss handles his men.

Item 6. Supervision-technical: The competence of my supervisor in making decisions.

Item 12. Company policies and practices: The way company policies are put into

practice.

Item 13. Compensation: My pay and the amount of work I do.

Item 14. Advancement: The chances for advancement on this job.

Item 19. Recognition: The praise I get for doing a good job.

General satisfaction scale

Item 1 to Iteml6.

Item 17. Working conditions: The working conditions.

Item 18. Co-worker: The way my co-workers get along with each other.

Item 19 to Item 20.

163

APPENDIXK

DIAGNOSIS OF ASSUMPTIONS FOR

HIERARCHICAL MlJLTIPLE

REGRESSION

Assumption

Random sample.

The dependent variable is a nonnal distribution.

The independent variable is nonnal for continual and dichotomous level for nominal variable.

The dependent and independent variables are linearly related to each other.

No multicollinearity.

Diagnosis

A random sample was accrued in this study.

Kolmogorov-Smimov normality test indicated that the dependent variable was a nonnal distribution (p = .200). Also, according to the histogram shown, it indicated that the dependent variable was a near symn1etric distribution with a slight negative skew and leptokurtic curve.

According to Fisher's measure of skewness and kurtosis, the ratio value ranged from + 1.96 to -1.96 indicates that a symmetrical distribution exists (Munro, 2001). In this study, the skewness and kurtosis ratios of the independent variables were between + 1.96 and -1.96 except the passive management-by-exception variable (skewness ratio = 2.09), which is slightly positive skewed.

Based on the matrix of scatter plot shown, the variables of individualized consideration, contingent reward, and management-by­exception (passive) were inclined to be linear with the job satisfaction; Levene's test showed the homogeneity of variance for age, school size, married status, primary job position, monthly salary, and length of time in dean's position.

165

Meet

Tolerance is defined as the proportion of ..J variability in an independent variable not explained by the other independent variables. Thus, variables with small tolerance (::s .01) have to be discarded (Schroeder, 1990). In this study, the tolerances of all independent variables were close to 1 except contingent reward (.35) and individualized consideration (.37).

Table Continued

Assumption

Residual analysis: If the relationship is linear and the dependent variable is normally distributed for each value of the independent variable, then the distribution of the residuals should be approximately normal. This is accessed by the mean, SD, and histogram of the standardized residual (Munro, 2001).

10-15 cases in each independent variable.

Assess

In residuals statistics, the mean of Std. residual was zero and the SD of Std. residual was close to 1. Also, the regression standardized residual graph showed a normal distribution.

The data of "homoscedasticity" also supported this assumption through an examination of the normal probability plot and the plot of residuals against independent variable.

At least 225 samples were needed in this study.

Independence of observations The data were independence of observations.

166

Meet

Note. Munro, B. H. (2001). Statistical methods for health care research (4th ed.). New

York: Lippincott. Schroeder, M. A. (1990). Diagnosing and dealing with

multicollinearity. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 12,175-187.

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